DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT AND MANUFACTURE …€¦ · Keywords: joint prostheses, implants, titanium...

Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Mechanics and Materials in Design,

Editors: J.F. Silva Gomes & S.A. Meguid, P.Delgada/Azores, 26-30 July 2015

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PAPER REF: 5567

DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT AND MANUFACTURE

METHODOLOGY FOR TITANIUM ALLOYS JOINT PROSTHESES

João Leite, Jorge Lino Alves(*), Rui Neto, Teresa Duarte

INEGI, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal (*)Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to study one methodology of project and manufacture of metallic joint

prostheses by the investment casting process. Casting simulations of three different prostheses

geometries were performed using ProCast software. Two distinct gating systems were

simulated for a hip stem prostheses, and a third gating system was simulated for two knee

prostheses components. The most promising system was selected to be produced by casting a

Ti6Al4V alloy and the resulting parts were analysed in accordance to parameters specified by

applicable standards. The parts obtained were evaluated in terms of metallurgical integrity and

mechanical properties.

Keywords: joint prostheses, implants, titanium alloys, investment casting, ProCast simulation.

INTRODUCTION

The increase of life expectancy presents distinct biomedical engineering challenges. This

longer longevity of human body produces higher wear of bones, affecting movements, and

consequently, higher probability of synovial joints deterioration is expected, resulting in

significant loss of quality of life - osteoarthritis (L. Turek 1984, Baura 2011).

Joint replacement is frequently performed on individuals with advanced osteoarthritis. Due to

the highly invasive nature of the joint surgery procedure and its permanent modifications to

the individual's bone structure, the production of orthopaedic prostheses is highly standardised

so that quality parameters are consistently met.

Titanium Ti6Al4V alloy is well suited for this type of replacement (Ratner et al. 2013, Leyens

and Peters 2003, Davis 2003), and different technologies can be used for the production of

orthopaedic prostheses. Forging and investment casting are the most popular methods for

mass production, although other technologies such as additive manufacturing (Horáček et al.

2011, Duarte et al. 2011) or incremental forming (Lino et al. 2013) are nowadays starting to

be used.

The gating system is the part of the mould cavity which serves the purpose of conducting the

flow of molten material from the pouring basin to the main cavities. Correct dimensioning of

gating system is quite important, especially in the production of complex parts (Beeley 2001,

Campbell 2011). A well dimensioned investment casting tree has a minimal chance of defects

occurrence, such as shrinkage porosity within the parts, while the amount of material used for

the gating system is minimised, when compared to the required material for the parts.

Numerical simulation of gating and feeding systems improves and validates pattern assembly

designs.To have more effective simulations, a good understanding of the solidification

process of a specific casting is demanded. This means that learning to control the parameters

Symposium_5

Design and Product Development

that affect the solidification can greatly influence the existence of shrinkage porosity. This

type of defect appears when there is a lack of liquid metal supply from

required to compensate the shrinkage suffered by the cooling metal. Fig. 1 exemplifies a

geometry in which the feeding of the right extremity is insufficient causing a hot spot while

the gating is already solid. To avoid shrinkage p

the parts and then it proceeds towards the pouring cup (ASM 1998).

Fig. 1 -Geometry prone to shrinkage porosity inside the

right extremity (adapted from

Titanium Ti6Al4V alloy is recommended for cast and wrought versions, with some minor

chemical composition changes to suit the particular manufacturing process (ISO does not

have a standard for casted Ti6Al4V). This paper presents and d

details of investment cast Ti6Al4V implants in accordance to ASTM standards (ASTM 2009).

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Three different prostheses geometries were selected: a hip stem

components from a knee prostheses

simulated with the intent of predicting the occurrence of defects inside the parts. One of the

simulated pattern assemblies was selected to be cast and the resulting parts were analysed in

accordance to the established standards.

Fig. 2 - A: 3D CAD from a hip stem; B: radiograph of a similar hip prostheses showing the hip stem with an

articulating sphere and acetabular cup on the hip bone

from a knee prostheses; D: 3D CAD of the tibial

prostheses with the two previous parts (sagittal view)

ProCast simulations

Four pattern assemblies were created (Fig. 3): two for the hip stem and one for ea

component.

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type of defect appears when there is a lack of liquid metal supply from the surrounding zones,



the gating is already solid. To avoid shrinkage porosity, the solidification must first occur on

the parts and then it proceeds towards the pouring cup (ASM 1998).

Geometry prone to shrinkage porosity inside the hot spot of the

right extremity (adapted from ASM, 1998)



have a standard for casted Ti6Al4V). This paper presents and discusses the manufacturing


Three different prostheses geometries were selected: a hip stem (Fig.

components from a knee prostheses (Fig. C/D/E). Casting of four pattern



accordance to the established standards.

A: 3D CAD from a hip stem; B: radiograph of a similar hip prostheses showing the hip stem with an

sphere and acetabular cup on the hip bone (Wang et al. 2013); C: 3D CAD of

from a knee prostheses; D: 3D CAD of the tibial component from a knee prostheses; E: radiograph of the knee

prostheses with the two previous parts (sagittal view) (Amendola et al. 2012

Four pattern assemblies were created (Fig. 3): two for the hip stem and one for ea


the surrounding zones,



orosity, the solidification must first occur on

hot spot of the



iscusses the manufacturing


Fig. A/B) and two

Casting of four pattern assemblies was



A: 3D CAD from a hip stem; B: radiograph of a similar hip prostheses showing the hip stem with an

; C: 3D CAD of a femoral component

component from a knee prostheses; E: radiograph of the knee

Amendola et al. 2012)

Four pattern assemblies were created (Fig. 3): two for the hip stem and one for each knee


Editors: J.F. Silva Gomes & S.A. Meguid, P.Delgada/Azores, 26

Fig. 2 - 3D CAD models of the simulated pattern cluster assemblies; C1: 6 hip stems

hip stems (upside arrangement), C3

Each geometry was modelled using SolidWorks software and then converted to IGS format to

be processed on ProCast. The chosen parameters for the simulation are indicated on Table 1.

The IHTC (interface heat transfer content) quantifies the heat transfer between

of the ceramic shell and the exterior surrounding environment. The chosen cooling process

was air and no chills or insulation devices were used. The shell layers were modelled with

tetrahedral elements (Fig. 4).

Part Material

Metal alloy Ti6Al4V

Facecoat Full yttria

Backup Full Alumina

Fig. 4 - Modelling of ceramic shell layers on C2 geometry; A: no shell layers; B: 2mm facecoat layer; C: 5mm

For each geometry (C1 to C4), fluid velocity (pouring), solidification time (solidification) and

shrinkage porosity (porosity) occurrence were simulated.



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models of the simulated pattern cluster assemblies; C1: 6 hip stems (down arrangement)

hip stems (upside arrangement), C3: 8 tibial knee components, C4: 6 femoral knee components

geometry was modelled using SolidWorks software and then converted to IGS format to


The IHTC (interface heat transfer content) quantifies the heat transfer between



Table 1 - ProCast simulation parameters

Temperature

[⁰C] Thickness

[mm]

IHTC

[W/m2K]

1750 - casting -

900

1100 – Pre-

heating 2

1100 – Pre-

heating 5

Modelling of ceramic shell layers on C2 geometry; A: no shell layers; B: 2mm facecoat layer; C: 5mm

backup


shrinkage porosity (porosity) occurrence were simulated.

(down arrangement), C2: 6

moral knee components

geometry was modelled using SolidWorks software and then converted to IGS format to


The IHTC (interface heat transfer content) quantifies the heat transfer between the inner part



Type of

cooling

30 minutes

inside furnace

200 mbar

Argon + Air

Modelling of ceramic shell layers on C2 geometry; A: no shell layers; B: 2mm facecoat layer; C: 5mm


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� Geometry C1

During the filling, liquid metal reaches the bottom of the pouring cup and the flow becomes

non-continuous, resulting in the formation of liquid metal drops (Fig. 5). Results

demonstrated that some porosity appears in the stem and no hot spots were predicted. The

simulation of the shrinkage porosity occurrence (Fig. 6) shows the possibility of porosity on

the symmetry plane of each hip stem along the neck region.

Fig. 5 - Formation of liquid metal drops during the filling

Pouring Solidification (section) Porosity (section)

Fluid velocity (m/s) Solidification time (s) Shrinkage Porosity (%)

Fig. 6 -Simulation results for geometry C1 obtained through ProCast

� Geometry C2

The filling of the hip stems is less turbulent in comparison to geometry C1. This is due to the

upside arrangement of the parts resulting in an effect similar to the counter gravity casting

process. Unlike geometry C1, there are no liquid metal drops during the filling of the parts.

The bottom of the sprue stands out because it takes longer to solidify than the adjacent

regions. Regarding shrinkage porosity (Fig. 7), the parts are free of defects except a small

zone in the symmetry plane, like on geometry C1.



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Pouring Solidification Porosity (section view)

Fluid velocity (m/s) Solidification time (s) Shrinkage porosity (%)

Fig. 7 - Simulation results for geometry C2 obtained through ProCast

� Geometry C3

The pouring simulation reveals turbulence when the liquid metal reaches the bottom of the

sprue (Fig. 8). There are no hot spots inside the parts and the possibility of shrinkage porosity

inside the parts is quite diminished. The major shrinkage occurs in the sprue.

Pouring (section

view)

Solidification (section

view) Porosity

Fluid velocity (m/s) Solidification time (s) Shrinkage porosity


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� Geometry C4

This simulation reveals similar results to the ones from the previous geometry because the

parts are arranged in an identical manner. The main difference lies in the gating between the

part and the sprue. In geometry C4, the implants are attached to the sprue by two channels.

Regarding the shrinkage, most of the porosity is predicted in the sprue while there is the

possibility of occurrence of porosity in the two most massive zones inside the part, meaning

that they have a large modulus (Fig. 9).

Pouring Pouring (section

view) Porosity

Fluid velocity (m/s) Fluid velocity (m/s) Shrinkage porosity


From the 4 simulated geometries, C3 (knee tibial component), due to less forecast shrinkage

porosity, was selected to be produced.

Manufacture of wax models

The wax pattern was part of an investment casting production of tibial knee components. As

several identical tibial knee parts were needed to create a complete pattern assembly, a wax

injection mould tool was developed.

The selected method was additive manufacturing of a master pattern, and then the

corresponding moulding cavity was obtained using polyurethane resins filled with aluminium

powders.

To produce the master pattern, a 3D CAD file was obtained from a commercial prosthesis

through a 3D scanner (Fig. 10). The mould for wax injection requires two parts that were

made separately, meaning that the CAD for the master pattern was split in two parts. Two

holes for alignment pins were added to the geometry (Fig. 11A), and the parting plane was

chosen assuring that any undercuts were present.



Fig. 10

The chosen casting shrinkage was 2.3%, which includes the typical wax and Ti6Al4V alloy

shrinkages. After the 3D scan, several adjustments were made to the CAD file geometry,

namely the reinforcement of the stem with ribs, and the master pattern was produc

stereolithography in a Viper si2 machine

Fig. 11 - A: CAD 3D geometry; B: SL machine; C: Master pattern in SL

Each part of the mould was created separately by pouring a homogeneous mixture of

polyurethane resin reinforced with 2 parts PD 200 aluminium powder, in a box containing one

part of the master pattern, properly attached to a metal plate parting plane. Afte

resin mixture was cured in air for approximately 90 minutes. Due to the difference in

densities, the trapped air rises to the surface and escapes. The injection hole was drilled on the

left part of the mould (Fig. A) and an air vent was drilled on the bottom

mould.

A pattern assembly of 8 wax parts was produced for investment casting (

assess the mechanical properties of the cast

assembly (Fig. D) with tensile test specimens was also

Fig. 12 - A: Wax injection mould; B: Wax pattern after injection and cooling; C: Pattern assembly C3 geometry;

D: Pa



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10 - A: GOM Atos Triple Scan and CAD geometry



namely the reinforcement of the stem with ribs, and the master pattern was produc

a Viper si2 machine (Figure 11 B and C).

A: CAD 3D geometry; B: SL machine; C: Master pattern in SL



part of the master pattern, properly attached to a metal plate parting plane. Afte



A) and an air vent was drilled on the bottom part of the other half

A pattern assembly of 8 wax parts was produced for investment casting (Fig.

assess the mechanical properties of the casted alloy (Ti6Al4V), a separate wax pattern

ile test specimens was also produced (Silva Gomes 2014

A: Wax injection mould; B: Wax pattern after injection and cooling; C: Pattern assembly C3 geometry;

D: Pattern assembly for tensile test specimens



namely the reinforcement of the stem with ribs, and the master pattern was produced by

A: CAD 3D geometry; B: SL machine; C: Master pattern in SL



part of the master pattern, properly attached to a metal plate parting plane. After pouring, the



part of the other half

Fig. C). In order to

alloy (Ti6Al4V), a separate wax pattern

Silva Gomes 2014).

A: Wax injection mould; B: Wax pattern after injection and cooling; C: Pattern assembly C3 geometry;

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Manufacture of ceramic shell (mould)

The assembling tree was dipped in an yttria based slurry. To increase the facecoat’s strength,

alumina based backup layers were deposited. Each layer was achieved by dipping the

assembly in a spinning container filled with the slurry (Fig. 13A) so that the ceramic particles

are able to adhere afterwards. Several layers were deposited to increase the strength of the

shell. After drying the ceramic shell (Fig. 13B), the wax

firing process and sintering was performed at 1450

Fig. 13 - A: Application of slurries; B: Fully sintered ceramic shell.

Casting the knee prostheses

Ti6Al4V was selected for casting this part. Table 2 presents the chemical composition of the

casted alloy and compares it with the ones specified by different standards. It is important to

refer that although the equipment

analysis is unable to detect oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, all the other elements are within

the specifications.

Table

Standard Alloy

ASTM F1108(a)

Cast 5.5

ASTM F136(b)

Wrought

ELI 5.5

ISO 5832-3(c)

Wrought 5.5

Experimental

work Cast

(a) - (ASTM 2009); (b) - (ASTM 2013b); (c) - (ISO 1996

After preheating the ceramic shell at 1100 ºC for 1 hour, Ti6Al4V was

using a cold crucible induction melting (Fig. 14). Argon was used to clean and control the

atmosphere inside the sealed chambers containing the crucible and the ceramic shell.

After cooling and shake out, one realized that the ceramic she

although the required amount of Ti6Al4V to fill the shell was the same as the limit of the

crucible (1.6kg). Four complete parts were cut from the tree and blasted so that small surface

imperfections were removed.

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Manufacture of ceramic shell (mould)


alumina based backup layers were deposited. Each layer was achieved by dipping the



shell. After drying the ceramic shell (Fig. 13B), the wax was removed at 1100

firing process and sintering was performed at 1450⁰C, for 1 hour.

A: Application of slurries; B: Fully sintered ceramic shell.



refer that although the equipment (model Spectromax F, from Spectro)


Table 2 - Chemical compositions of Ti6Al4V

Al V Fe O C N

5.5 - 6.75 3.5 - 4.5 <0.20 <0.20 <0.10 <0.05

5.5 - 6.50 3.5 - 4.5 <0.25 <0.13 <0.08 <0.05

5.5 - 6.75 3.5 - 4.5 <0.3 <0.2 <0.08 <0.05

6.38 3.88 0.048 - 0.053

ISO 1996)

After preheating the ceramic shell at 1100 ºC for 1 hour, Ti6Al4V was



After cooling and shake out, one realized that the ceramic shell was not completely filled,




alumina based backup layers were deposited. Each layer was achieved by dipping the pattern



was removed at 1100⁰C by the flash-

A: Application of slurries; B: Fully sintered ceramic shell.



used for chemical


N H Others

<0.05 <0.015 -

<0.05 <0.012 -

<0.05 <0.015 -

- - -

After preheating the ceramic shell at 1100 ºC for 1 hour, Ti6Al4V was poured at 1650 ºC



ll was not completely filled,





Fig. 14 - A: Cold crucible induction melting furnace; B: Top view of the furnace

RESULTS

Dimensional analysis

The part’s geometry was visually inspected. Fig. 15 shows that the obtained geometry has

some defects. Some details, such as sharp edges were not achieved in addition to some

surface defects, making this parts unable to comply with ASTM F86 (ASTM 2013a).

Fig.

Regarding the surface finish, ASTM F86 s

shall be free of surface imperfections such as toolmarks, nicks, scratches, cracks, cavities,

burrs and other defects that would impair the serviceability of the device

In order to perform a dimensional analysis, one of the casted parts was scanned. The resulting

3D CAD file was overlaid on the original one

to calculate dimensional variations using ATOS

mean that the casted part, shrunk more than the original CAD, while positive values have the

opposite meaning. The cast geometry is shorter in some zones such as the pin and the edge of

the tray. The biggest deviation is close to 0.89 mm

of the stem), on the tip of the stem.

In the future, casting shrinkage values above 2.3% should be adopted for cast parts in

Ti6Al4V.



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A: Cold crucible induction melting furnace; B: Top view of the furnace showing

be cast; C: Casted parts


defects. Some details, such as sharp edges were not achieved in addition to some


Fig. 15 - Surface quality; some defects of castings

Regarding the surface finish, ASTM F86 specifies that metallic implants when inspected,


burrs and other defects that would impair the serviceability of the device (ASTM 2013a)


3D CAD file was overlaid on the original one (Fig. 16). With this procedure, it was possible

to calculate dimensional variations using ATOS Professional software. The negative values



tion is close to 0.89 mm (1.6% from the base of the tray to the tip

, on the tip of the stem.


showing the melting metal to


defects. Some details, such as sharp edges were not achieved in addition to some


pecifies that metallic implants when inspected,


(ASTM 2013a).


With this procedure, it was possible

Professional software. The negative values



(1.6% from the base of the tray to the tip


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Fig. 16 - Dimensional deviation from the cast part i

Microstructural analysis

Two samples were cut along the

prepared for microstructural analysis

techniques. Kroll’s reagent was used to reveal the microstructure.

visible pores on both samples.

Fig. 17

Sample 2 exhibits grain size in the range of

(Fig. B and Fig. C), a lighter α phase and a darker β phase. The morphology is acicular and

some pores (average diameter size 200 µm)

were detected (Fig. ). From Fig.

The microstructure of Ti6Al4V castings is not standardized, however considering the wrought

version, the microstructure should be in accordance with Table 3 and Fig. 20.

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Dimensional deviation from the cast part in comparison to the original CAD (tray 70mm

long and stem 55mm high)

Two samples were cut along the symmetry plane from different casted parts and they were

prepared for microstructural analysis (Fig. 17) using conventional metallographic preparation

Kroll’s reagent was used to reveal the microstructure. At first sight, there

visible pores on both samples.

17 - Samples prepared for microstructural analysis

Sample 2 exhibits grain size in the range of 1-2 mm (Fig. A). Two different phases are

, a lighter α phase and a darker β phase. The morphology is acicular and

(average diameter size 200 µm) resulting from entrapped gas during solidification

Fig. A it is unnoticeable the existence of a surface α


rostructure should be in accordance with Table 3 and Fig. 20.

n comparison to the original CAD (tray 70mm

from different casted parts and they were

using conventional metallographic preparation

At first sight, there were no

A). Two different phases are visible

, a lighter α phase and a darker β phase. The morphology is acicular and

resulting from entrapped gas during solidification

A it is unnoticeable the existence of a surface α-case layer.


rostructure should be in accordance with Table 3 and Fig. 20.



Fig. 18 - Microstructures of sample 2; A: Optic microscopy with metric ruler (mm) for size comparison; B and

Fig. 19 - Micrographs showing gas pores; A: sample 1;

Table

Standard Phases

ISO 5832-3 (a)

alpha + beta globular

ASTM F136 (b)

Fine dispersion of

beta phases; no coarse

elongated alpha platelets(a) (ISO 1996); (b) (ASTM 2013b)

Fig. 20 - Microstructure A3 from a typical alpha+beta titanium rolled bar sample from ISO 20160; the other

microstructures are similar



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Microstructures of sample 2; A: Optic microscopy with metric ruler (mm) for size comparison; B and

C: polarized micrographs

Micrographs showing gas pores; A: sample 1; B and C: sample 2

Table 3 - Microstructure of wrought Ti6Al4V alloy

Inclusion content Observations

lpha + beta globular Free of optically

visible inclusions

at ×200

Shall correspond to

photomicrographs A1 to A9 from

ISO 20160 (see

annealed state

Fine dispersion of alpha +

beta phases; no coarse

gated alpha platelets

Unspecified No alpha case

Microstructure A3 from a typical alpha+beta titanium rolled bar sample from ISO 20160; the other

microstructures are similar with only a change in grain size (ISO 2006

50µµµµm

Microstructures of sample 2; A: Optic microscopy with metric ruler (mm) for size comparison; B and

B and C: sample 2

Shall correspond to

photomicrographs A1 to A9 from

ISO 20160 (see Fig. ) when in the

Microstructure A3 from a typical alpha+beta titanium rolled bar sample from ISO 20160; the other

ISO 2006).

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Mechanical properties

After casting, the best samples (Fig. 12D) were machined to final dimensions (⌀5×30 mm)

(Silva Gomes 2014). The tensile test results (Table 4) are below the minimum values required

by ASTM F1108. Lower tensile strength and yield strength is due to some entrapped gas

pores.

Table 4 - Comparison of mechanical properties between the ASTM F 1108 (ASTM 2009) and

the casted alloy (Silva Gomes 2014)

ASTM F1108 mechanical requirements

(in the cast, HIP, annealed condition)

Tensile test

results

Tensile strength (MPa) 860 821

Yield strength (0,2%) (MPa) 758 748

Ductility (%) 8 8

Microhardness Vickers tests (50 g load) (Fig. 21) were performed on both samples in separate

areas (6 on the stem and 6 on the tray for each sample), which further evidence the

inexistence of α-case layer. Figure shows average microhardness values in the range 370-270,

from the surface towards the core of the casted parts. Considering that typical α-case hardness

can reach values above 700 HV (Duarte et al. 2008), one can state that parts produced are

absent of α-case. The yttria facecoat ceramic formula used for the shell gave similar

microhardness results to those obtained by Duarte et al. (2008).

Fig. 21 - Medium microhardness of samples

CONCLUSIONS

Simulations of different feeding and gating systems showed that geometry C2 is more suitable

for casting the hip stems because metal flow is less turbulent, resulting in less shrinkage

porosity than in geometry C1. Most of the shrinkage porosity in geometries C3 and C4 occurs

inside the sprue. Parts from geometry C3 are almost free of shrinkage porosity while the parts

from geometry C4 are more prone to shrinkage porosity.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

0,03 0,1 0,3 0,5 1 5

Aver

age

Mic

rohar

dnes

s

(HV

)

Distance from surface (mm)

Sample 1 - Stem

Sample 2 - Stem

Sample 1 - Tray

Sample 2 - Tray



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No shrinkage porosity was found inside the samples obtained in the experimental work, like

predicted in simulation, however, some minor gas pores were found. The microstructure is bi-

phasic acicular and the grain size ranges between 1 and 2 mm. The casted alloy, Ti6Al4V is

not entirely in accordance to ASTM F1108 because some deviations were detected on the

mechanical properties, probably due to gas porosity. The geometry of the casted parts is not

close to the original due to bigger than predicted patternmaker shrinkage. Some finer details

such the sharp edge of the tray were not obtained, which means that fluidity was not enough.

The chosen patternmaker shrinkage (2.3%) is below the ideal value, with the biggest

deviation in size being approximately 0.89 mm (in 55mm tray and 0.45mm in 70mm stem).

Total shrinkage, wax+metal is 1.6% and 0.8% higher than predicted in stem and tray,

respectively. The yield and tensile strengths of the casted alloy are below the minimum values

required by ASTM F1108, although the ductility is the same. Microhardness varies in the

range 370-270 HV and no α-case layer was reported.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge financing of Project SAESCTN-PII&DT/1/2011 co-

financed by Programa Operacional Regional do Norte (ON.2 - O Novo Norte), according to

Quadro de Referência Estratégico Nacional (QREN), through Fundo Europeu de

Desenvolvimento Regional (FEDER).

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DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT AND MANUFACTURE …€¦ · Keywords: joint prostheses, implants, titanium...

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Transcript of DEVELOPMENT OF A PROJECT AND MANUFACTURE …€¦ · Keywords: joint prostheses, implants, titanium...