Determinants of Father-Child Time Allocation

Dmitri M. MedvedovskiBethel University

Kirk C. Allison

University of Minnesota

• This research explores associations between father-child time allocation, paternal background, and non-market & market activities.

• The more fathers positively and intentionally engage their children’s lives the healthier their socialization process will be.

• Not only ‘quality’ but time quantity is relevant for modeling and communicating values and skills to maximize a child's development and capabilites. (Quantity is a dosed dimension of quality.)

• Father-child allocation deficits contribute to negative behavioral outcomes in children, notwithstanding that many mothers do exceptional work parenting their children (Goncy and van Dulman, 2010).

• US estimates of father absence as a primary factor in– 63% of youth suicides,

– 90% of homeless or runaway children,

– 85% of children exhibiting behavioral disorders

– 71% of national high school dropouts

(Bureau of the Census, Center for Disease Control, & National Principals Association Report on the State of High Schools, 2007).

Background

• Parental allocations for children can be considered an investment of human capital: monetary and temporal.

• Parents maximizing utility subject to a budget constraint must trade-off between their own consumption and investment in their children including the cost of time allocated

• Amount of investment will be positively related to the rate of return, time allocation and other factors. When children grow up the rewards of children will depend on that investment (Goldberger, 1989).

Modeling Context

• Household production models conceive the family in part as a productive organization producing nonmarket commodities with purchased goods and the time of household members (Willis, 1987).

• Becker and Tomes hypothesis (1986): Exogenous increases in potential benefits for children (independent of parents’ expenditures) cause parents to substitute towards their own consumption away from investment in children.

Modeling Context

• Families seen as maximizing utility (with functional arguments of quantity and quality of children along with other goods) are subject to a production function for child quality, a budget constraint and a time constraint. (Hanushek, 1992)

• Dual income arrangements require many families to make intrafamilial parental-time trade offs between work and interaction with children.

• Many studies have investigated time allocation decisions of mothers; little investigation has taken place regarding time allocation of fathers.

Modeling Context

• Explores how a mother’s working hours relate to a father’s time allocation for children and measures the relationship between parents’ working hours outside of home as substitutable components to sustain family welfare

• Explores whether total family income as a child is at home impacts father-child time allocation

• Explores the relationship between wage rate, income and a father’s time allocation

This research . . .

• Investigates the impact of the father’s education on father-child time allocation

• Tests the relationship between a father’s time allocation and age of the father and of the child

This research . . .

• National Center for Fathering survey (1995)– Random U.S.-wide: phone, in-person, & mail survey

– New York oversampling of minority population (book & meal post-survey incentives)

– 2000 questionnaires, 1650 returned (82.5%)

– Inclusion criteria was children at home: => 1135 of 1650 (69% of completed)

– Education level was somewhat higher than population mean; 43.4% reported own father absent

Data and Methods

Characteristic N Mean SD Median Range

Age 1135 37.81 7.03 37.00 20 to 77

Annual Family IncomeIncome Increase as Father Ages

10951095

$61,258$1,005

$53,575 $50,000 $0 to$800,000

Father’s Weekly Interaction Hours 1135 7.56 7.81 5 0.25 to 75

Weekly Work Hours, Father 1129 46.85 9.89 45 0 to 90

Weekly Work Hours, Mother 1113 14.60 16.95 7 0 to 90

Years Married (Current Spouse) 1099 12.55 6.91 11 0 to 42

Sample Characteristics of the Respondents(1,135 fathers meeting criteria of 1,651 completed questionnaires)

Category %Education High School Degree Post High School Degree (e.g. Assoc., Trade) College Degree (includes graduate degrees)

16.6513.9268.46

Marital status Married / Single 92.42 / 4.58

Father absence Death Divorce or Separation Abandonment Work Other

7.1111.792.24

70.937.93

Children One child Two children Three children Four children Five or more children

18.7740.0927.229.604.32

Child w/ father One child Two children Three children Four children Five or more children

28.9039.6522.567.051.85

Paternal siblings Only child One sibling Two siblings Three siblings Four siblings Five or more siblings

4.6721.6727.3121.5910.5714.18

• Model 1 Father/Child time allocation model

• Model 2 Maternal working hours outside home (check for a substitution or complement effect with paternal working hours)

• Model 3 Sociodemographic characteristics and working hours of mother & father relative to total family income

( each run on full data and by income strata: <40K, 40+-80K, 80+-200K, 200+-800K )

OLS Regression Models

Y1t = father-child time allocation Y2t = father’s work hours Y3t = mother’s work hours Z1t = family income Z2t = college education Z3t = high school education Z4t = age of father Z5t = number of father’s siblings X1t = number of children in family X2t = one child living at home X3t = two children living at home X4t = three or more children living at home

OLS Regression Models

OLS Regression Models

Results

Note:

†p .10, *p .05, **p .01, and ***p .001

(with the raw beta preceding the standardized beta)

Model F1 - Father-Child Time Allocation (Income Bands)

Father’s Age -0.132** -.111 Mothers Working Hours 0.117*** .202 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 3.820** .169 Income Efficiency = $/(M+F hrs) 1.224*** .154 Income < 40K Base Income 40K-<80K -1.584** -.079 Income 80K-<200K -2.497** -.087 Income 200K-800K -7.633**, -.093

Note progressive neg. relationship of income and father’s time with children; but positive for income efficiency

Model F2 - Father-Child Time Allocation (Total Income)

Father’s Age -0.136** -.115 Mothers Working Hours 0.116*** .200 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 3.892** .169 Father College vs. High School -1.263* .-060 Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) 1.195*** .150 Total Income (continuous) -0.017 † -.088 Note Father’s College Degree emerges as strong negative predictor vs. High School while income remains negative

Model F3 - Father-Child Time Allocation (<$40K) Father’s Age NS Mothers Working Hours 0.132*** .194 Total Number of Children -0.970† -.101 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.833* .215 Number of Father’s Siblings 0.433* .094 Father College vs. High School NS Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) NS Total Income (continuous in band) NS

Note: Children < 12 strengthens with total number negatively associated, and father’s siblings positive (socialization or inclusive network?)

Model F4 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($40-<$80K)

Father’s Age -.126* .110 Mothers Working Hours 0.120*** .227 Total Number of Children NS Children < 12 vs. 18+ 2.837* .161 Number of Father’s Siblings NS Father College vs. High School NS Household Inc. Efficiency ($/hrs) NS Total Income (continuous in band) -0.017 † -.088

Note: Children < 12 & mothers working hours continue consistent positive relationship, but total income in band a negative relationship. (Father’s age reemerges neg.)

Model F5 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($80K-<$200) Father’s Age -.272* .213 Mothers Working Hours 0.088* .166 1 Child at Home 4.511* .228 2 Children at Home -3.672* -.202 3 Children at Home -3.609* -.193 Total Number of Children 2.155* .277 Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Total Income (continuous in band) NS

Note: Income, age and children’s age rise together: here children < 12 are now nonsignificant. 1 child home is strongly + but 2 or 3 negative. Yet total # of children is positive: emptying nest compensation?

Model F6 - Father-Child Time Allocation ($200K-<$800K) Father’s Age NS Mothers Working Hours 0.489* .861 1 Child at Home NS 2 Children at Home 16.925* .607 3 Children at Home NS Total Number of Children NS Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Total Income (continuous in band) NS

Note: Mothers outside work contiues to be positively associated. 2 children now extraordinarily positive (caution: few data points in this range).

Father-Child Time Allocation AssociationsTendencies Summary

Negatively Associated• Father’s age • Income (banded)• Total income• Higher education • # of Children (<40K)

Positively Associated

• Mother’s mkt work hrs• Fam. Income efficiency• Children • 1 Child at home• # of Children (200-800K)• # of Father’s siblings

Model M1 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (Income Bands) Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.283*** -.161 1 Child at home -3.891** -.103 Total # of Children -1.758*** -.115 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.156** -.130 Father College Degree -2.981* -.081 Income < 40K Base

Income 40K-<80K 6.727*** .194 Income 80K-<200K 9.174*** .185 Income 200K-800K 44.068*** .306

House Inc. Efficiency = $/(M+F Hrs) -6.446*** -.464Note signs reverse of Father-Child model: 1 Child home, Children < 12, Income Efficiency (now -); Income (now +)

Model M2 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (Total Income) Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.436*** -.928 1 Child at home -3.530** -.094 Total # of Children -1.682*** -.110 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 5.211** -.131 Father College Degree -3.462*** -.095 Father’s Father absent (death, aband) 3.139* .050 House Inc. Efficiency -12.888*** -.928 Total Family Income 0.266*** .804

Note: With continuous income variable neg. coefficient on household efficiency doubles (M/F wage gradient). Father’s father absence as strong predictor.

Model M3 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs (<$40K) Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.404*** -.226 1 Child at home NS Total # of Children -1.625*** -.114 Children < 12 vs. 18+ 8.750** -.220 # Father’s Siblings 0.552* .081 Father College Degree NS House Inc. Efficiency -22.101*** -.517 Total Family Income 0.474*** .225

Note: Lowest income strata ~ Father’s Sibling # now significant, Father College NS, Children<12 (+) and Income Efficiency (-) stronger

Model M4 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($40K-<$80K)

Fathers Working Hours / Week -1.04*** -.476 2 Children at home -1.285 † -.036 Total # of Children NS Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Children 12-18 2.146 † .042 # Father’s Siblings NS Father’s College Degree -1.962* -.051 House Inc. Efficiency -54.78*** -1.039 Total Family Income 0.983*** .618

Note: Father’s College again significant with higher income strata (-); Income Efficiency higher (-)

Model M5- Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($80K-<$200)

Fathers Working Hours / Week -0.669*** -.405 Total # of Children NS Children < 12 vs. 18+ NS Children 12-18 NS Father’s Father absent (death, aband) 5.721* .098 Father’s College Degree -8.088** -.167 House Inc. Efficiency -14.71*** -.957 Total Family Income 0.234*** .441

Note: Father’s College highest magnitude in this strata; also strong coefficient on absence of Father’s Father with income efficiency continuing to show strong wage gradient.

Model M6 - Mothers Outside Work Hrs ($200K-<$800K)

No Significant Coefficients(sparse data in this strata)

Mothers Outside Work Hours(save highest income strata null model)

Negatively Associated• Father’s working hours• Father’s college degree• Children < 12 (full,<40K)• # Children (full, <40K)• 1 Child at home (full)• Income Efficiency

Positively Associated• Income strata (progr.)• Total family income• Father’s father absent

due to death, abandonment or other

Model for Total Family Income

• Includes Father’s Age

• Includes both Father & Mother’s Working Hours

• Indicators for Children at home (1,2,3) and <12, 12-18

• Total # of Children

• # Father’s Siblings

• Indicators for post-High School and College vs. HS

• Indicators for absence of Father’s father

Model I1 – Total Family Income (All Data)

Father’s Age 0.630** .107 Fathers Working Hours NS Mothers Working Hours NS # Father’s Siblings -1.183 † -.050 Children < 12 15.560* .131 Children 12-18 19.905** .129 Father’s College Degree 15.664*** .142

Note: Small children, esp. teens, drive income seeking, +college degree effect & secular trend ~ age. Father’s siblings (-) previously ~ + child & maternal work time

Model I2 – Total Family Income (<40K)

Father’s Age NS# Father’s Siblings NS 1 Child at home -1.737 † .104 2 Children at home 2.818** .179 Father Post High School (Associates) 2.008* .099 Father College 3.623*** .231 Fathers father absent (death, aband.) -4.607 .161

Note: Father post-HS education (associates/trade) & College + effect, but strong negative intergenerational absent father effect (death, abandonment) in strata. Signs flip between 1 & 2 children.

Model I3 – Total Family Income ($40K-<$80K)

Father’s Age 0.183* .138 Fathers Working Hours 0.098 † .075 Mothers Working Hours 0.089** .141 1 Child at home NS 2 Children at home NS Father Post High School (Associates) NS Father College 3.175* .131 Fathers father absent (death, aband.) NS

Note: Age, working hours (both) and higher education

Model I4 – Total Family Income ($80K-<$200K)

Father’s Age NS Fathers Working Hours NS Mothers Working Hours -0.260* -.138Total # of Children 5.846** .211 Children < 12 19.890 † .297 Children 12-18 16.579 † .210 Fathers father absent (death, aband.) NS

Note: Negative coefficient on mothers’ outside work hours on income implies net negative substitution effect on fathers’. Large positive coefficients on # and presence of children across ages in this college-conscious strata

Model I5 – Total Family Income ($200-$800) Intercept NS Fathers Working Hours -8.794 † -1.208 Fathers Father absent (Death, aband) -491.322 † -1.295

Note: Sparse data and weak significance (negative coefficient on father’s working hours: indicative of non-wage income?). Absent father datum at low end of (upper) income band.

Total Family Income Tendencies Summary

Negatively Associated• # of Fathers Siblings

(Full)• 1 Child at Home (<40K)• Father’s Father absent

by death, abandonment (<40K, 200K-800K)

Ambiguous• Mother Work Hrs(40K-<80K +, 80K-<200K -)•Father Work Hrs

(40K-<80K +, 200K-800K -)Positively Associated• Fathers Age

(Full, 40K-<80K)• 2 Children at Home (<40K)• Children < 12,12-18, total

(Full, 80K-200K)• Fathers Post-HS Ed (<40K)• Fathers College

(Full, <40K, 40K-<80K)

• Our results suggests that quantity of a father’s interactive time allocation for his children correlates with market activities, income utility, and working hours with a ‘paradoxical’ effect associated with paternal education and an incomplete substitution effect with a working spouse.

• An economic approach to father-child time allocation is a useful tool for analyzing father-child relationships and can provide a basis for developing both an analysis of the research and recommendations to enhance positive family relationships.