Designed by: NGUYÔN XU¢N TRƒŒNG · Contrast structure words ... NguyÔn Xu'n Tr›‹ng Page 9...

NguyÔn Xu©n Tr¬ng TOEFL iBT

Sentence structure

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NGUYÔN XU¢N TR¦êNG


Content.TYPES OF SENTENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 3

Clause .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4Kinds of sentences ................................................................................................................................................................................ 5

Simple Sentence:................................................................................................................................................................................ 6Compound sentence: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 6Complex sentence: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 6Compound - Complex sentence: ........................................................................................................................................................ 6Co-ordinator. ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 7Equivalent between co-ordinator & clause connector. ...................................................................................................................... 8

Sentence problems ............................................................................................................................................................................... 9Sentence fragment.............................................................................................................................................................................. 9Run-on sentences & comma splices. ............................................................................................................................................... 10Choppy sentences............................................................................................................................................................................. 10Stringy sentences. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Equivalent sentence patterns. ........................................................................................................................................................... 11Cause & effect.................................................................................................................................................................................. 11Contrast structure words – conssession (unspected result).............................................................................................................. 11Contrast structure words – direct opposition. .................................................................................................................................. 12

NOUN CLAUSES .............................................................................................................................................................. 13Noun clauses ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 14That clauses. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 14Wh-word clauses ................................................................................................................................................................................ 15Whether clauses ................................................................................................................................................................................. 15

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES .................................................................................................................................................... 16RELATIVE CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................................................... 18

Relative Clauses ................................................................................................................................................................................. 19Reduced Adjective Clauses. .............................................................................................................................................................. 20


TYPES OF SENTENCES


Clause


Kinds of sentences


Simple Sentence:I enjoy playing tennis with my friends every weekend.

Compound sentence:

1. With a co-ordinator I enjoy tennis, BUT I hate golf.

2. With a conjunctive adverb I enjoy tennis; HOWEVER I hate golf.

3. With a semicolon I enjoy tennis; I hate golf.

Complex sentence:

Adverb clause Although women in the US could own property, they cound not vote until 1920.

Adjective clause Men who are not married are called bachelors.

Noun clause Scientists believe that excess chlorofluorocacbons (CFC) in the atmorphere are responsible for creating it.

Compound - Complex sentence:1. I want to travel after I graduated from collegel; however, I had to go to work immediately.

2. I coundn’t decide where I should work or what I should do, so I did nothing.


Co-ordinator.

Co-ordinator example

For Women live longer than men, FOR they take better care for their health.(The 2nd clause gives the reason for the 1st clause)

And Women follow more healthful diets, AND they go to doctor more offen.(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas)

Nor Women don’t smoke as much as men do NOR do they drink as much alcohol.(NOR means “and not”. It joins 2 negative independent clauses. Notice that question word order is used after NOR).

But Men may exercise harder, BUT they may not exercise as regularly as women do.

(The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas)

Or Both men & women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, OR they risk getting heart disease.(The two clauses express alternative possibilities)

Yet Women used be known as “weaker sex”, YET in some ways, they are stronger than men.(The 2nd clause is a surprising or unexpected contrast to the 1st clause)

So Men are less cautious than women, SO more men die in accidents.(the 2nd clause in the result of the 1st clause)

S + V + O, FANBOYS + S + V + O


Equivalent between co-ordinator & clause connector.

Co-ordinator

Clause Connector

Conjunctive adverb subordinator

Example

And - Nor AlsoBesidesFuthermoreIn additionMoreoverToo

Yet

But

HoweverNevertherlessNonethelessStillIn contrastInsteadOn the other handOn the contrary

For BecauseSinceAs

So ThereforeHence, ThusAccordinglyAs a resultAs a consequenceConsequently

Or Otherwise IfUnless


Sentence problems

Infering sentence structures from problems, not need to describe.

Sentence fragment.1. The best movie that I saw last year. The best movie that I saw last year is TITANIC.


Run-on sentences & comma splices.1. An encyclopedia is an valuable source of information, it contains summaries of every area of knowledge. Comma Splice.

An encyclopedia is an valuable source of information because it contains summaries of every area of knowledge.

2. I possess a lot of English books, some of which help me build vocabularies. Comma Splice.

I possess a lot of English books; some of which help me build vocabularies.

Choppy sentences.Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.

S + V + O, so S + V + O: Gasoline became expensive, so automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars, which use less

gasoline.

S + V + O; therefore/hence/consequently/accordingly S + V + O: Gasoline became expensive; therefore, automobile manufacturers

began to produce smaller cars, which use less gasoline.

Because/ Since/ As S + V + O, S + V + O: Because Gasoline became expensive, automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars,

which use less gasoline.

Stringy sentences.Many students attend classes all morning, and then they work all afternoon, and they also have to study at night, so they usually exhausted by the

weekend.

Many students attend classes all morning, and work all afternoon. Since they they also have to study at night, they usually exhausted by the

weekend.

because many students attend classes all morning, work all afternoon, and study at night, they usually exhausted by the weekend.


Equivalent sentence patterns.Cause & effect.

Gasoline became expensive. Automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars. Smaller cars use less gasoline.

S + V + O, so S + V + O: Gasoline became expensive, so automobile manufacturers began to produce smaller cars, which

use less gasoline.

S + V + O; therefore/hence/consequently/accordingly S + V + O: Gasoline became expensive; therefore, automobile

manufacturers began to produce smaller cars, which use less gasoline.

Because/ Since/ As S + V + O, S + V + O: Because Gasoline became expensive, automobile manufacturers began to

produce smaller cars, which use less gasoline.

Contrast structure words – conssession (unspected result).

CLAUSE CONNECTORSENTENCE CONNECTORSUBORDINATOR CO-ORDINATOR

OTHERS

HoweverNevertheless

Nonetheless

Still

AlthoughEven though

Though

YET Despite (+ Noun)

In spite of (+ Noun)

S + V + O, yet S + V + O: I studied all night, yet I failed the exam.

S + V + O, so S + V + O

S + V + O; therefore/hence/consequently/accordingly S + V + O

Because/ Since/ As S + V + O, S + V + O


Although/Thougn/Even though S + V + O, S + V + O.

S + V + O; however/Nevertheless/Nonetheless/Still, S + V + O.

Contrast structure words – direct opposition.

CLAUSE CONNECTORSENTENCE CONNECTORSUBORDINATOR CO-ORDINATOR

OTHERS

However

Nevertheless

Nonetheless

Still

In contrastInstead

On the other hand

On the contrary

While

WhereasBUT Despite (+ Noun)

In spite of (+ Noun)

S + V + O, but S + V + O: The air is pollutted in industrial areas, but it is clean in many rural areas

While/Whereas S + V + O, S + V + O.

S + V + O; however/in contrast/instead/on the contrary S + V + O.


NOUN CLAUSES


Noun clauses

I think that the study of the brain is fasinating.

I don’t know where the student cafeteria is.

I don’t know whether (or not) I should take the computer science.

That clauses.

THAT clause

WH - word clause

IF/WHETHER clause

NounClause

Is a dependent clause

Has a S + V, can be used like a NOUN

As a SUBJECT

As a OBJECT

His discovery was important

People believe his discovery

That -clauses

Formed from statements.

Introduced by subordinator THAT.

THAT can be omitted.

Introductory Clause THAT - ClauseI think that the study of brain is fascinating.The professor explained that the brain is the master control for both mind & body

THAT + S + V + O Eg:… that the language center of the brain differs in each person

Introductory Clause Verbs Group 3Indirect object required

The doctors assured the worried parents that their child would recoverEg:

Assure ConvinceInform NotifyRemind Tell


Wh-word clauses

Whether clauses

wh - wordclauses

Formed from WH- question, WH-words are the subordinators: who, where, which, how, etc.

Introduced by subordinator THAT.

Do, does, did disappear.

WH-word + S + V + O Eg:…who the president of South Africa is.

WH-word + V + O Eg:…what happened at the student body meeting.

WH-Word ClauseIntroductory ClauseSubordinator - Subject Verb (+ Complemement)

I don’t knowCan you tell us

whowhich vocalists

start the band.have sung with the goup?

Subordinator Subject Verb (+ Complemement)I can’t rememberWe asked

how oftenwho

the groupthe lead singer

performs during the year.was.

Whether -if clauses

Whether (If) + S + V + O Eg:…who the president of South Africa is.

WH-Word ClauseIntroductory ClauseSubordinator Subject Verb (+ Complemement)

We want to know IF Dr.Chen practices acupuncture (or not).

Doctors wonder WHETHER(or not)

acupuncture is an effetive treament forarthristic (or not).

Formed from YES/NO questionS

Introduced by subordinator IF & WHETHER. Whether is more formal than If.

Or not maybe added. No one knows if the experiment will success (or not).

Do, does, did disappear.


ADVERBIAL CLAUSES


adverbialclauses

SUBORDINATOR EXAMPLETime When/ Whenever/ While/ As soon as/ After/ Since/ As/

Before/ UntilPeople were eating a lot of protein while they wereliving on farms.

Place Where/Anywhere/Wherever/Everywhere I usually stop for lunch anywhere that is handy.Everywhere I shop, I use mmy creditt cards.

Distance/Frequency As + adverb + as Many Americans want to move as far as they can frompolluted cities. (Distance)Pat jogs on the beach as often as she can. (Frequency)

Manner As/ As if = As though No nation in the world can afford to act as if pollutionwere not a problem.

Reason Because/ Since/ As As the price of gasoline has always been quite highin Europe, if a European owns an automobile, it islikely to be a high-mileage model that uses diesel fuel.

Result So + adj/adv + thatSuch a(n) + Noun phrase + thatSo much/ many/ little/ few + Noun phrase + that

New textbooks are so expensive that many studentsbuy used ones.The library is such a big place that I couldn’t find thebook I needed.during the semester, I made so manyspeeches that I lost some of my fear.

Purpose So thatIn order that

Farmers use chemical pesticides so that they can growbigger harvests.

Cossession (unexpected result) Although/ Even though/ ThoughYet/ However/ On the other hand/ …

Even though the weather was cold, I went swimming.(unspected result)

Contrast (direct opposition) While/ Whereas As a child, I never tried out for school plays, whereasmy best friend usually got a starring role.

Types of A-C

Subordinator + S + V + O Eg: Because scientists are interestedin the planets …

ADVERBIAL CLAUSE = dependent clause that answers such questions as

WHERE? WHEN? WHY? HOW? FOR WHAT PURPOSE?

Definition


RELATIVE CLAUSES(adjective clause)


Relative Clauses

Relativeclauses

RELATIVE CLAUSE = dependent clause that functions as an adjective = adjective clause it must be connected to a main or independent clause.

Definition Eg: The 1st American thanksgiving feast, which took place in 1962, lasted three days.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

WhoRefer to humans SUBJECT in clause The professor WHO teaches my biolgy class won Nobel Prize two years ago.

Professor John [, WHO teaches my biolgy class,] won Nobel Prize two years ago.

Whom Refer to humans OBJECT in clause She loaned her car to someone WHOM she didn’t know.

Whose

Refer to humans,

non-human &

things; show

possession

SUBJECT or

OBJECT in clauseI studied algebra from a professor WHOSE name I have forgotten.

Apple Computer [, WHOSE Macintosh computer changed coputing,] was started by 2

men working in a garage.

WhichRefer to non-

humans & things

SUBJECT or

OBJECT in clauseShe teaches mechanics [, WHICH is my favorite subject].

Her husband teach algebra [, WHICH I enjoy the least].

ThatRefer to non-

humans & things

SUBJECT or

OBJECT in clauseThe class THAT meets in the next room is very noisy.

The subject [THAT] I enjoy the least is algebra.

RELATIVE ADVERBSWhen Refer to a time I work full-time on days WHEN I don’t have classes.Where Refer to a place She has never returned to the city WHERE she was born.

Begins with A relative PRONOUN or a relative ADVERBS


Reduced Adjective Clauses.

Reducedadjectiveclauses

Adjective Clause can be reduced to PHRASE. An adjective phrase modifies a Noun. It does notcontain a Subject & a Verb.

Definition Eg: Adjective Clause: The man who is drumming is African.Adjective Phrase: The man drumming is African.

Only adjective clauses that have a SUBJECT PRONOUN, who, which or that can be reduced.

2 ways to reducean adjective clause

The SUBJECT PRONOUN & the be form of the verb are omitted

CLAUSE PHRASEWho The man who is playing ghitar is my friend. The man playing ghitar is my friend.Which The signals which are given are simple. The signals given are simple.That The tones that are in the language are important. The tones in the language are important.

When there is no form of be in the adjective clause, u can omit the SUBJECTPRONOUN & change the verb to the –ing form

Clause The Cherokee Indians have an alphabet that consists of 85 characters.Phrase The Cherokee Indians have an alphabet consisting of 85 characters.

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