Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant Tasneem ...
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Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant
Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud
B.Sc. (Hons.) in Chemical Engineering Technology
University of Gezira (2011)
A Dissertation
Submitted to the University of Gezira in Partial Fulfillment of
Requirement for the Award of the Degree of Master of Science
in
Chemical Engineering
Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Technology
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
January 2014
Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant
Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud
Supervision committee:
Name: Position Signature Dr. Babiker Karama Abdalla Main Supervisor …………….
Dr. Imad Abdalmonem Mahagoub Co-supervisor …………….
Date: January, 2014
Design of a High Fructose Corn Syrup pilot Plant
Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud
Examination committee:
Name: Position Signature
Dr. Babiker Karama Abdalla Chair person .…….…….
Pror. Hamid Mohamed Mustafa External Examiner ......……….
Dr. Abdalla Mohamed Ahmed slman Internal examiner .…………
Date of Examination: 28-1-2014
Dedication
This work is dedicated for all the great men and women
This work is dedicated for my mother and my father who gave my live many of its
meanings and means.
To my brothers and sisters, and friends, who share me the voyage and path…
My supervisor Dr; Babiker Karama Abdalla,
To; Mohamed Mufarreh…
Acknowledgement
The Researcher wish to acknowledge with gratitude everyone who helped in the preparation and
publication of this research.
Great thanks are due to Mohamed Mufareeh, for helping me.
Thanks are due to Dr. Imad Eldeen Abdulmoniem.
The researcher also wish to acknowledge those who supported the practical arm of this study:
Prof; Babiker Karama Abdalla,
Thanks are also to my family and my friends who supported me in this study to be accomplished.
Design of High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) pilot Plant
Tasneem Mufareeh Ali Mahmoud
Abstract
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is widely used in industry for the production of foods and beverages.
Our MyThis study objective is to design a plant for the production of HFCS from corn waste to
participate in the provision of HFCS needed in Sudan. This HFCS production plant project is to meet
the need for HFCS in Sudan. The annual consumption of HFCS in Sudan is 9000 tones. This plant will
produce HFCS using acid hydrolysis followed by glucose isomerase enzyme hydrolysis of corn waste,
and yields ethanol as a by-product. This is a full design and feasibility study. The project requires
2861.1 tons/day of corn waste, 1.14 tons /day sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 44.06 tons /day, of ethanol,
15.9*103 tons /day Glucose isomeraise and 1000 tonestons/day from (HCl). The cost of the raw
material used by the project will be 58.72 Million $/year. The planned annual HFCS production of the
project is about 10000 tones.The project will produce 171.7 tons of ethanol per day. Total capital
investment cost is seven Million $.The estimated profite is 1.4 Million $ /year. The Ppayout period
backe of the project (Payout time) is four years. A part of the energy needed by the plant is to be
provided by steam boilers. The remaining will be provided as regular electricity. The plant is's proposed
location in Sudan is in Al-Bbagir in Sudan, as because of the availability of appropriadte conditions
for the cultivation of corn. The location of the plant also provides, security, labour, transportation, and
facilitates guarantees the feasibility and effectiveness of the project. The plant complex consists of
different specialized unitse. There are is a processing area, areas for utillities (like boilers and
compressor), administration offices, hospitals , super market, schools, and social and sports clubs.
According to my estimates, the project could probably pay back the investment capital in four years. This number
may be overly optimistic, ; however, this project has all the requirements for success.
The implementation of this project in Sudan has the potential of eliminating the reliance on imported
HFCS by the food and beverage manufacturers and therefore significantly reduces the cost of
production and enhances competitiveness, maintaining similar product quality.
عالي الفركتوزتصميم وحدة لانتاج السكر
تسنيم مفرح علي محمود
الدراسة ملخص
الهدف .خاصه وصناعة المشروباتعموما الاستخدم في الصناعات الغذائية ةز واسعكتوبالفر ةالسكر الغني ارةعص تأصبح
الاستهلاك في السودان. حجم همن هذا البحث هو تصميم مصنع لانتاج السكر الغني بالفركتوز من بقايا الذرة للمساهمة في توفير
الدراسة هي تصميم ودراسة جدوى وهذه ا.طن تقريب 9000السنوي من عصير السكر الغني بالفركتوز في السودان هي
قوم التحليل باستخدام انزيم الجلكوز ايزومريس الذي ي هم التحليل باستخدام الاحماض ويليالطريقة المستخدمة هي عملية استخداو
ن/يوم من ط 2861.1والفركتوز وينتج الايثانول كمنتج جانبي .يتطلب هذا المشروع حوالي بالتحول بين المتماكبين الجلكوز
طن/يوم من انزيم 15900طن/يوم من الايثانول و 44.06طن/يوم من حمض الكبريتيك وحوالي 1.1بقايا الذرة وحوالي
مليون دولار خلال 58.72طن من حمض الهيدروكلوريك, وتعتبر تكلفة المواد الخام حوالي 1000جلكوز ايزومريس و
ذلك ينتج من السكر الغني بالفركتوز وبجانب سنويا طن 10000انتاج هذا المشروع هو العام.ويعتبر الهدف الاساسي من
مليون دولار سنويا. ويقوم 1.4مليون دولار ويعتبر الربح 7طن من الايثانول في اليوم.وتعد تكلفة رأس المال حوالي 171.7
لمصنع فجزء منها يوفر من خلال استحدام سنوات. أما بالنسبة للطاقة التي يستخدمها ا 4المشروع باعادة تكلفة انشائه في حوالي
في مدينة الباقير، وذلك لتوفر الظروف ان يقوم المصنع في السودان في اقتراحي المراجل البخارية و المتبقي من الكهرباء.
نعداخل المص تتكون المنطقة ل مهرة و قريبة في موقعها لنقل البضائع.اوايضاهي مدينة آمنة وبها عم ,لزراعة الذرة المناسبة
محلات المن عدد من الوحدات المختلفة والمتخصصة التي تتم المعالجة فيها مثل الغلايات ومكاتب الإدارة والمستشفيات و
لما ذكر من ميزات لهذا المشروع وهو ايضا يعيد تكاليف انشائه بالاضافةالنوادي الاجتماعية والرياضية. والمدارس و التجارية
ا.واخيرا تنفيذ مثل هذا المشروع في السودان تحد من استيراد السكر الغني بالفركتوز حخلال سنوات فهذا يجعل منه مشروعا ناج
ودة سة محافظا على نفس مستوى جمن قبل مصنعي الاغذية والمشروبات وبالتالي هذا يقلل من التكلفة الانتاج ويشجع المناف
المنتجات.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE 1
Sweeteners 1
HFCS around the world 1
Justification of the problem 2
Objectives 3
CHAPTER TWO 4
Advantages of HFCS 4
Importance and uses of HFCS 4
Comparison between HFCS and other sweeteners 5
Types of HFCS and Usage 7
Properties of HFCS 7
Concern about relation between HFCS, obesity, diabetes 9
High fructose corn syrup: Production and uses 10
CHAPTER THREE 13
Comparison between the Types of reactions which produce HFCS 13
Production of HFCS 13
Material balance 23
The amount of substance use in the process 24
Material balance around equipment’s 24
Over all material balance 39
Energy balance 41
General equation for energy balance 41
Energy balance around equipments 41
Economical Evaluation 46
Introduction 46
Capital Investment 46
Pay pack period 48
Calculation 48
CHAPTER FOUR
Possibility of the project 53
CHAPTER FIVE 55
Conclusion 55
References 56
List of tables
Table (2.1): examples for uses of HFCS in some industries
Table (2.2): Comparison of Caloric Sweetener Compositions
Table (2.3):Carbohydrate Composition (Dry Basis)
Table (2.4): Physical & Chemical Properties
Table (2.5) :Viscosities (Centipoises')
Table (2.6):Weight/Volume Factors (100°F)
Table (2.7): Microbiological Standards
Table (2.8): Nutritional Data/100g
Table (2.9): Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS
Table (3.1): Molecular weight of component
table(3.2)ــــــــــــtable(3.56)Material balance
Table (3.57): Cost of the equipment
Table (3.58): Total capital investment
Table (3.95): row material cost
Table (3.60) :Operation labor cost
Table(3.61): Total production cost
Table of figures
Fig (2.1)The formulae of fructose and glucose
Figure(2.2): Sweetener consumption in the United States
Fig (2.3) block diagram of HFCS production
Fig (3.1) Block diagram of production HFCS 55
Fig (3.2)Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrup
Fig (3.3) flow chart of HFCS
Chapter one
Introduction
1.1 Sweeteners:
Liquid and solid sweeteners are produced around the world from several starch sources including corn,
wheat, tapioca, potatoes and even cellulose hydrolyzed. The most widely used of Liquid sweeteners is
corn.
Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants but are only present in sufficient concentrations for efficient
extraction in sugar cane and sugar beet.
High-fructose syrups are sweeteners produced from several starches, but corn is the primary starch used
to produce HFS (Starch is a polymer made of glucose molecules linked into long chains). High fructose
corn syrup (HFCS) is the largest single sweetener syrup produced. (Marc J.E.C. van der Maarel et.al,
2001)
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a sweetener made from corn and can be found in numerous foods and
beverages. HFCS is composed of either 42 percent or 55 percent fructose, with the remaining sugars
being primarily glucose and higher sugars. In terms of composition, HFCS is nearly identical to cane
sugar (sucrose), which is composed of 50 percent fructose and 50 percent glucose. Glucose is one of the
simplest forms of sugar that serves as a building block for most carbohydrates. Fructose is a simple sugar
commonly found in fruits and honey. (Kay Parker et.al, 2010).
High-fructose corn syrup started to take over the market and replace cane sugar in the 1980s. Compared
to sucrose, HFCS provides foods with better flavor enhancement, stability, freshness, texture, color,
durability, and consistency, also It is cheaper and more versatile ingredient that can be used not only to
sweeten foods, but also to extend shelf life, prevent freezer burn and, in the case of baked goods, get them
brown and keep them soft. It is now in all sorts of products you wouldn't necessarily expect, including
frozen foods and breads.
HFCS consists of 24% water, and the rest sugars. The most widely used varieties of high-fructose corn
syrup are: HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose.
1.2 HFCS around the world:
1.2.1United States
US sweetener consumption, 1966–2012, in dry pounds. It is apparent from this graph that overall
sweetener consumption, and in particular glucose-fructose mixtures, has increased since the introduction
of HFCS. Thus, the amount of fructose consumed in the United States has increased since the early
1980s. This would be true whether the added sweetener was HFCS, table sugar, or any other glucose-
fructose mixture
A system of sugar tariffs and sugar quotas imposed in 1977 in the United States significantly
increased the cost of imported sugar, and U.S. producers sought cheaper sources. HFCS derived
from corn is more economical because the domestic U.S. prices of sugar are twice the global price
and the price of corn is kept low through government subsidies paid to growers.
HFCS became an attractive substitute and is preferred over cane sugar by the vast majority of
American food and beverage manufacturers Soft drink makers such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi use
sugar in other nations but switched to HFCS in the U.S. in 1984. Large corporations, such
as Archer Daniels Midland, lobby for the continuation of government corn subsidies.
1.2.2 Mexico
Other countries, including Mexico, typically use sugar in soft drinks. Some Americans seek
out Mexican Coca-Cola in ethnic groceries because they prefer the taste compared to Coke in the
U.S. which is made with HFCS. Kosher for Passover Coca-Cola sold in the U.S.
1.2.3 European Union
In the European Union (EU), HFCS, known as isoglucose in sugar regime, is subject to
a production quota. In 2005, this quota was set at 303,000 tons; in comparison, the EU produced
an average of 18.6 million tons of sugar annually between 1999 and 2001.[38] Wide-scale
replacement of sugar with HFCS has not occurred in the EU. For labeling purpose, syrup with
more than 50% of glucose, like HFCS 42, called Glucose-Fructose Syrup (GFS), and more than
50% of fructose, like HFCS 55, called Fructose-Glucose Syrup (FGS), although production within
Europe is minimal.
1.2.4 Japan
In Japan HFCS consumption accounts for one quarter of total sweetener consumption. In Japanese
Agricultural standard it is called (lit, isomerized sugar). If a syrup contains more than 50% of
glucose, it is called (lit. glucose fructose syrup); if syrup contains 50% to 90% of fructose, it is
called (lit. fructose glucose syrup); and if syrup contains more than 90% of fructose, it is called
(lit, high fructose syrup).
1.3 Justification of the problem
In some products sweetened with sucrose, the covalent bond between the fructose and glucose molecules
breaks down in low acid environments, such as those found in soft drinks, as well as at high temperatures,
such as during storage in hot climates, the sucrose content of a cola beverage decreased from 36% of total
sugars to only 10% of sugars 3 months after manufacture, and the free fructose content increased from
32% to 44% of total sugars. This creates variability in the taste profile of the product. In contrast, HFCS
maintains its structural stability over a range of temperatures and acidic conditions.
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1General objective:
Design of a Novel Plant for High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) Production from corn.
1.4.2 Specific objectives:
To optimize this design I need to do:
Material balance: to calculate the amount of material which I need in the plant.
Energy balance: to calculate the amount of energy which pilot plant need it to operate and produce the
HFCS.
Economic evaluation: to knew the possibility of the project.
Chapter two
Literature review
2.1 Introduction:
People used to drink soft drinks extravagantly, every day 1.6 billion bottles sold around the world, So
that it has become the largest brand on the level.
2.2 Advantages of HFCS:
HFCS is commonly used to make sodas, fruit drinks, chips and candy bars. However, many other foods
also contain HFCS, such as bread, fruit-flavored yogurt, and cereal, condiments like ketchup, canned
vegetables, salad dressings and granola bars. (Kay Parker et.al, 2010)
Cheaper for farmers to grow corn than sugar cane. Foreign sugar makes the price of HFCS
substantially lower than the price of sugar. So a lot of food producers choose HFCS to
reduce their production costs and maximize profit.
HFCS is made when corn syrup is treated with enzymes to convert some of its glucose into
fructose, resulting in syrup that is 42 percent or 55 percent fructose. Sucrose contains one
molecule of glucose and one molecule of sucrose. Although its producers argue that HFCS
and table sugar have the same composition and the same calorific value, glucose and
fructose are bound differently in each one. In cane sugar, or sucrose, the two molecules are
linked by a chemical bond. When you eat table sugar, your body separates the two
molecules during digestion before they are absorbed into the body. In HFCS the molecules
are not liked, they are "free molecules.
2.3 Importance and uses of HFCS
As the result of improvement of our life we need more products Compatible with this improvement.
HFCS alternate sugar as the result of his Superiority and make product better.
2.3.1 Uses in Beverages and Frozen Foods
HFCS raises the freezing point in frozen beverage mixes which, According to the Sweet Surprise website,
makes them easier and quicker to thaw and mix with water. Manufacturers also use it as a flavor stabilizer
to ensure a longer shelf life in soft drinks, such as colas and fruit drinks. The Sweet Surprise website also
states that HFCS provides greater stability in carbonated sodas than cane sugar. In frozen fruits, it
enhances the flavor of the fruit, regulates tartness and helps maintain the texture and integrity of the fruit.
It also helps reduce freezer burn.
2.3.2 Uses in baked Goods
In addition to its sweetening properties, HFCS also acts as a browning agent, which creates the golden
brown crust on baked goods. Additionally, according to the Corn Refiners Association, HFCS provides
sugar to complete the yeast fermentation process, which allows dough to rise. It also helps keep baked
goods moist by preventing sugar crystallization during the baking process. HFCS enhances the flavor of
fruit fillings and manufacturers also use it as a preservative. Common baked goods with HFCS include
unsweetened items such as breads, biscuits and dinner rolls, and sweetened items such as cookies and
cakes.
2.3.3 Uses in Creams, Sauces and Meats
HFCS provides sugar for the fermentation process in yogurt. It is also used as a thickener to create a
creamy texture in low-fat and non-fat dairy products such as cottage cheese, yogurt and sour cream. In
savory sauces, such as spaghetti sauce, HFCS enhances the spices and cuts the acidity of tomatoes. HFCS
acts as a thickener in sauces, such as barbecue, teriyaki and tomato-based products, which allows them to
cling to the surface of foods. HFCS also appears in meat products, such as sausages and processed lunch
meats, as a stabilizer, binding agent and flavor enhancer.
2.4 Some examples for uses of HFCS in some industries:
Table (2.1) examples for uses of HFCS in some industries
Beverages HFCS provides greater stability in acidic carbonated sodas than sucrose;
flavors remain consistent and stable over the entire shelf-life of the product.
Baked goods HFCS gives a pleasing brown crust to breads and cakes; contributes
fermentable sugars to yeast raised products; reduces sugar crystallization
during baking for soft-moist textures; enhances flavors of fruit fillings.
Yogurt HFCS provides fermentable sugars; enhances fruit and spice flavors; controls
moisture to prevent separation; regulates tartness
Spaghetti sauces, ketchup
and condiments
HFCS enhances flavor and balance – replaces the “pinch of table sugar
grandma added” to enhance spice flavors; balances the variable tartness of
tomatoes.
Granola, breakfast and
energy bars
HFCS enhances moisture control, retards spoilage and extends product
freshness; provides soft texture; enhances spice and fruit flavors.
2.5 Comparison between HFCS and other sweeteners:
Sugar and HFCS have the same number of calories as most carbohydrates; both contribute 4 calories per
gram. They are also equal in sweetness.
2.5.1 Cane and beet sugar
Cane sugar and beet sugar are both relatively pure sucrose. While glucose and fructose, which are the two
components of HFCS, are monosaccharide, sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose
linked together with a relatively weak glycoside bond. The fact that sucrose, glucose and fructose are
unique, distinct molecules complicates the comparison between cane sugar, beet sugar and HFCS. A
molecule of sucrose (with a chemical formula of C12H22O11) can be broken down into a molecule of
glucose (C6H12O6) plus a molecule of fructose (also C6H12O6 — an isomer of glucose) in a weakly acidic
environment by a process called inversion. Sucrose is broken down during digestion into a mixture of
50% fructose and 50% glucose through hydrolysis by the enzyme sucrose.
Fig (2.1) the formulae of fructose and glucose
2.5.2 Honey
Honey is a mixture of different types of sugars, water, and small amounts of other compounds. Honey
typically has a fructose/glucose ratio similar to HFCS 55, as well as containing some sucrose and other
sugars. Like HFCS, honey contains water and has approximately 3 cal per gram. Because of its similar
sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to "stretch" honey. As a result, checks for
adulteration of honey no longer test for higher-than-normal levels of sucrose, which HFCS does not
contain, but instead test for small quantities of proteins that can be used to differentiate between HFCS
and honey.
Table (2.2) Comparison of Caloric Sweetener Compositions
Component Percentage HFCS-55 Sugar Honey
Fructose 55 50 49
Glucose 42 50 43
Other Sugars 3 0 5
Figure (2.2): Sweetener consumption in the United States (Daniel Finnie, et.al, 2008)
2.6 Types of HFCS and Usage
- HFCS 42:
The percentage of glucose is 58% and fructose is 42%.
Which use in some beverages, beer, confectionary products canned goods, HFCS55
- HFCS 55:
The percentage of glucose is 45% and fructose is 55%.
Which use in soft drinks, ice cream, yogurt, processed foods, feed for honey bees for crop pollination
- HFCS 90:
The percentage of glucose is 10% and fructose is 90%.This used to make HFCS 55. (Blaise W. Leblanc,
2008)
2.7 Properties of HFCS:
HFCS is a viscous, colorless and odorless liquid. Nutritionally, is a carbohydrate containing percentages
of glucose and fructose. The fructose is combined with regular corn syrup to achieve the desired level of
sweetness and viscosity; Because HFCS is usually created to be several degrees sweeter than sugar.
HFCS does not tend to form crystals, as sucrose syrups do.
Table (2.3) Carbohydrate Composition (Dry Basis)
Fructose > 55%
Dextrose + Fructose > 95%
Higher Saccharides < 5%
Table (2.4) Physical & Chemical Properties
Dry Substance % 76.5 – 77.5
pH 3.3 - 4.3
Ash % Trace
SO2 ppm <10
Moisture % 22.5 – 23.5
Appearance Clear to light straw liquid
Odor No detectable foreign odors
Table (2.5) Viscosities (Centipoises')
80 °F 700
100 °F 250
120 °F 100
Table (2.6) Weight/Volume Factors (100°F g)
Specific Gravity 1.372
Pounds/Gallon 11.45
Table (2.7) Microbiological Standards Total Plate Count <200 cfu/10g DSE
Yeast <10cfu/10g DSE
Mold <10 cfu/10g DSE
Listeria Absent
Salmonella Absent/25g
DSE= Dry Solids Equivalent
Table (2.8) Nutritional Data/100g Calories 308
Carbohydrates (g) 77
Sugars (g) 75
Other Carbohydrates (g) 2
There are no fat, protein, fiber, vitamins, or minerals (including sodium) of dietary significance
2.8 Fructose and Adverse Health Outcomes
Many of the concerns about HFCS are, in fact, concerns about the role of fructose in appetite and
metabolism. Fructose is more quickly emptied from the stomach compared with other sugars and is
absorbed in the intestines more slowly and less completely than glucose. Unlike glucose, fructose intake
does not stimulate insulin secretion, which is likely due to the lack of fructose transporters (Glut-5) in the
β cells of the pancreas. Insulin is believed to directly and indirectly (though effects on leptin secretion)
inhibit food intake. The brain and central nervous system also lack Glut-5 transporters, further inhibiting
the ability of fructose to provide satiety signals. In addition, fructose can be more easily incorporated into
phospholipids and triacylglycerols than glucose, as fructose metabolism bypasses the key rate-limiting
step in the liver that slows glucose metabolism. Thus, consumption of excess amounts of fructose, but not
the same amount of glucose, has significantly increased rates of lipogenesis. In addition, fructose
consumption does not increase leptin or decrease ghrelin levels, in contrast to the hormonal response after
glucose ingestion.
2.9 Concern about relation between high fructose corn syrup,
obesity, diabetes
At present, insufficient evidence exists that HFCS consumption has contributed to obesity more than
sucrose, increased consumption of total calories (from any source), or decreased physical activity has.
Obesity is a serious and complex public health issue facing our nation and the rest of the world, it caused
by an imbalance between calories consumed from all foods and beverages if there is no balance, it is not
uniquely caused by any single food or beverage.
HFCS-sweetened beverages are not driving obesity, but play a small and declining role in the diet.
Both beverages sweetened with HFCS and those sweetened with sucrose contribute to the
overconsumption of calories compared with a diet beverage or no beverage. In addition, men and women
may respond to the sweeteners differently, as one study found that men experienced significantly less
hunger after consuming HFCS than sucrose, while women experienced less hunger after consuming
sucrose-sweetened beverages. However, another study found increased hunger in women the day after
consuming 30% of calories from sucrose as compared with HFCS.
Diabetes is a complex disease with many underlying factors. It is highly unlikely that one component of
the diet is uniquely related to diabetes. There are well-established links between obesity and diabetes.
HFCS and sugar are nutritionally equivalent, there is broad scientific consensus that HFCS and cane
sugar are nutritionally and metabolically equivalent, and the American Medical Association has
concluded that HFCS is not a unique cause of obesity.
2.10 High fructose corn syrup: Production and uses
High fructose corn syrup (HFCS) is a liquid alternative sweetener to sucrose that is made from corn, the
“king of crops” using chemicals (caustic soda, hydrochloric acid) and enzymes (-amylase and
glucoamylase) to hydrolyze corn starch to corn syrup containing mostly glucose and a third enzyme
(glucose isomerase) to isomerize glucose in corn syrup to fructose to yield HFCS products classified
according to their fructose content: HFCS-90, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55. HFCS-90 is the major product of
these chemical reactions and is blended with glucose syrup to obtain HFCS-42 and HFCS-55. HFCS has
become a major sweetener and additive used extensively in a wide variety of processed foods and
beverages ranging from soft and fruit drinks to yogurts and breads. HFCS has many advantages
compared to sucrose that make it attractive to food manufacturers. These include its sweetness,solubility,
acidity and its relative cheapness in the United States (US).
Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS. Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults. Data from USDA nutrient database (USDA.gov).
Table (2.9) Nutritional values calculated per 100 g of HFCS
Nutritional Items Value
Energy 1,176 kJ (281 kcal)
Carbohydrates 76 g
Dietary fiber 0 g
Fat 0 g
Protein 0 g
Water 24 g
Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2) 0.019 mg (1%)
Niacin (Vitamin B3) 0 mg (0%)
Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) 0.011 mg (0%)
Vitamin B6 0.024 mg (2%)
Folic acid (Vitamin B9) 0 _g (0%)
Vitamin C 0 mg (0%)
Calcium 6 mg (1%)
Iron 0.42 mg (3%)
Magnesium 2 mg (1%)
Phosphorus 4 mg (1%)
Potassium 0 mg (0%)
Sodium 2 mg (0%)
Zinc 0.22 mg (2%)
2.11 PRODUCTION AND USES OF HFCS
The corn grain undergoes several unit processes starting with steeping to soften the hard corn kernel
followed by wet milling and physical separation into corn starch (from the endosperm); corn
hull (bran) and protein and oil (from the germ). Corn starch composed of glucose molecules of infinite
length, consists of amylose and amylopectin and requires heat, caustic soda and/or hydrochloric acid plus
the activity of three different enzymes to break it down into the simple sugars glucose and fructose
present in HFCS. An industrial enzyme, -amylase produced from Bacillus spp., hydrolyzes corn starch to
short chain dextrin and oligosaccharides. A second enzyme, glucoamylase (also called amyloglucosidase),
produced from fungi such as Apergillus, breaks dextrins and oligosaccharides to the simple sugar glucose.
The product of these two enzymes is corn syrup also called glucose syrup. The third and relatively
expensive enzyme used in the process is glucose isomerase (also called D-glucose ketoisomerase or D-
xylose ketolisomerase), that converts glucose to fructose. While -amylase and glucoamylase are added
directly to the processing slurry, pricey glucose isomerase is immobilized by package into columns where
the glucose syrup is passed over in a liquid chromatography step that isomerizes glucose to a mixture of
90% fructose and 10% glucose (HFCS-90). Whereas inexpensive -amylase and glucoamylase are used
only once, glucose isomerase is reused until it loses most of its enzymatic activity. The - amylase and
glucoamylase used in HFCS processing have been genetically modified to improve their heat stability for
the production of HFCS. In the US, four companies control 85% of the $2.6 billion HFCS business—
Archer Daniels Midland, Cargill, Staley Manufacturing Co, and CPC International.
With clarification and removal of impurities, HFCS-90 is blended with glucose syrup to produce HFCS-
55 (55% fructose) and HFCS-42 (42% fructose). Both HFCS-55 and HFCS-42 have several functional
advantages in common, but each has unique properties that make them attractive to specific food
manufacturers. Because of its higher fructose content, HFCS-55 is sweeter than sucrose and is thus used
extensively as sweetener in soft, juice, and carbonated drinks. HFCS-42 has a mild sweetness and does
not mask the natural flavors of food. Thus it is used extensively in canned fruits, sauces, soups,
condiments, baked goods, and many other processed foods. It is also used heavily by the dairy industry in
yogurt, eggnog, flavored milks, ice cream, and other frozen desserts. The use of HFCS has increased
since its introduction as a sweetener. Although, its use peaked in 1999, it rivals sucrose as the major
sweetener in processed foods. The US is the major user of HFCS in the world, but HFCS is manufactured
and used in many countries around the world (Vuilleumier, 1993). HFCS has functional advantages
relative to sucrose. These include HFCS’s relative cheapness (at 32 cents/lb versus 52 cents/lb for
sucrose); greater sweetness with HFCS being sweeter than sucrose, better solubility than sucrose and
ability to remain in solution and not crystallize as can sucrose under certain conditions. Moreover, HFCS
is liquid and thus is easier to transport and use in soft drink formulations (Hanover and White, 1993). It is
also acidic and thus has preservative ability that reduces the use of other preservatives. HFCS has little to
no nutritional value other than calories from sugar. Analysis of food consumption patterns using USDA
(2008) food consumption tables for the US from 1967 to 2000 (Bray et al., 2004) showed that HFCS
consumption increased major source of dietary fructose.
Fig (2.3) block diagram of HFCS production
Chapter three
Material and methods
3.1 Process design and flow diagram
In order to produce HFCS, corn starch must first be broken down into glucose molecules. By adding
glucose isomerase (also called D-glucose ketoisomerase or D-xylose ketolisomerase) to converts glucose
to high fructose corn syrup (mixture of about 42% fructose and 50–52% glucose with some other sugars
mixed in).
3.2 Production High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS):
Starch is the most common digestible polysaccharide found in foods, and is therefore a major source of
energy in our diets. In its natural form starch exists as water-insoluble granules (3 - 60 mm), but in many
processed foods the starch is no longer in this form because of the processing treatments involved (e.g.,
heating). It consists of a mixture of two glucose homopolysaccharides. Starch has become an important
raw material for the sugar industry which, for centuries, relied exclusively on sugar beet and sugar cane
for the production of natural sweeteners. HFCS is food syrup, made from the hydrolysis of starch, it
obtained by controlled partial hydrolysis of starch, are purified aqueous solutions of nutritive saccharides.
HFCS consists of 24% water, and the rest sugars. The most widely used varieties of high-fructose corn
syrup are: HFCS 55 (mostly used in soft drinks), approximately 55% fructose and 42% glucose; and
HFCS 42 (used in beverages, processed foods, cereals and baked goods), approximately 42% fructose and
53% glucose. HFCS-90, approximately 90% fructose and 10% glucose, is used in small quantities for
specialty applications, but primarily is used to blend with HFCS 42 to make HFCS 55
HFCS produced by two ways as;
1. Enzymic hydrolysis.
2. Acidic hydrolysis followed by enzymic hydrolysis (dual conversion syrups). (IPEK ÇELEBİ, 2006).
3.2.1 Acidic Hydrolysis Followed by Enzymic Hydrolysis
Dual conversion syrups are manufactured by hydrolysis of the starch to a specific DE by acid and
completing the hydrolysis by the use of one or more enzymes.
Firstly, the hydrolysis of starch was achieved by boiling raw starch in H2SO
4 to give sweet syrup.
Hydrolysis of starch has commonly been carried out using hydrochloric acid at temperatures of 130-
170°C with subsequent partial neutralization. In this process, starch slurry is acidified with hydrochloric
acid and pumped through a series of steam-heated pipes where the conversion of starch into sugars
occurs. Temperature, acidity, and retention time are the major factors that govern the extent of the
hydrolysis.
Using acids in hydrolysis of starch has some disadvantages as inducing formation of coloring and
flavoring substances as well as other contaminants such as furfural, levulinic acid and formic acid (which
of all give in high refining cost), being lack of process control, being an unsafely process and also giving
low yields.
Glucose syrup from starch hydrolysis contains ash, color bodies and proteinaceous materials which
produce an unacceptable color, taste or odor quality in the finished product and reduce isomerization
enzyme performance. Whether the syrup will be evaporated and sold as a finished product or continue on
in the refining process to isomerization, demineralization is required to remove objectionable soluble
components. Color stability of some corn syrups is obtained through the addition of sulfur dioxide, but
due to human sensitivity to sulfites, this practice has partly been replaced with ion exchange. The ash
content of glucose syrups is typically 0.25-0.45% by weight of total syrup dry Solids and predominantly
contains the following ions:
• Sodium Na+
• Calcium Ca++
• Magnesium Mg++
• Chloride Cl-
• Sulfate SO4
These salts must be removed prior to final evaporation. The ash content of 42 HFCS is typically 0.15-
0.25% by weight of total syrup dry solids and consists primarily of:
• Sodium Na+
• Magnesium Mg++
• Sulfate SO4
• Sulfite SO3
As the dextrose or fructose syrup solution passes through the resin bed, the sugars, ash, color bodies and
proteins diffuse into the resin beads and can be exchanged or adsorbed onto the resin. In the strong acid
cation bed, sodium, calcium, magnesium and other cations will replace the hydrogen ions on the resin due
to their greater affnity for the resin than hydrogen ion. The hydrogen ions displaced from the resin by
other cations cause a drop in the solution pH to a level of about 1.5-2.0 in the “primary” cation column
and 3.0-3.5 in the “secondary” cation column. Thus, neutral salts are changed to their corresponding
mineral acids. Proteinaceous compounds, at low pH, may be sorbed onto the cation resin either by ion
exchange or adsorption on the resin matrix.
The syrup then passes through a bed of weak base anion resin where the mineral acids, organic acids and
color bodies diffuse into the resin beads and are adsorbed onto the tertiary amine functional groups.
The chemical equations depicting the service ion exchanges are shown below:
Strong Acid Cation Service Exchange Reaction
RSO3–H+ + Na + Cl– ➔ RSO3–Na+ + H +Cl– (Produces mineral acids)
Weak Base Anion Service Exchange Reaction
RCH2 N (CH3)2 + H +Cl– ➔ RCH2NH+Cl–(CH3)2
(Acid absorber). (IPEK ÇELEBİ,2006).
3.2.2 Block diagram of production HFCS 55:
Fig (3.1) Block diagram of production HFCS 55
3.2.3 Process of produce HFCS:
3.2.3.1 Preparation
The starch content of most foods cannot be determined directly because the starch is contained within a
structurally and chemically complex food matrix. In particular, starch is often present in a semi-crystalline
form (granular or retrograded starch) that is inaccessible to the chemical reagents used to determine its
concentration. It is therefore necessary to isolate starch from the other components present in the food
matrix prior to carrying out a starch analysis.
Dry kernels are cleaned and then steeping for (30 to 40 hours to begin breaking the starch and Protein
bonds) in a weak solution of sulfurous acid to soften the kernel before the protein, fiber and oil are
separated from the starch by a series of grinding and screening steps. The raw starch is further refined by
washing.
Corn
Preparation Separation Gelatinization
Acid hydrolysis Clarification Evaporation Glucose Syrup
HFCS 90 HFCS 55
Glucose isomerase
Milling
3.2.3.2 Separation
The starch granules are water-insoluble and have a relatively high density (1500 kg/m3) so that they will
tend to move to the bottom of a container during centrifugation, where they can be separated from the
other water-soluble and less dense materials.
Before conversion of starch to glucose can begin, the starch must be separated from the plant material.
This includes removing fiber and protein (which can be valuable by-products), Protein produces off-
flavors and colors due to the Millard reaction, and fiber is insoluble and has to be removed to allow the
starch to become hydrated.
3.2.3.3 Milling
The most common process is the “tempering-degerming.” in this process is to dry clean the corn,
separating fines and broken from the whole corn. Occasionally wet cleaning follows to remove surface
dirt, dust and other matter. The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture. While moist, the majority
of the outer bran or pericarp, germ, and tip cap are removed, leaving the endosperm.
3.2.3.4 Gelatinization
Gelatinization is the process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds if starch molecules in the
presence of water and heat. the intermolecular bonds of the starch molecules are broken down, allowing
the hydrogen bonding sites to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule, so the
chains begin to separate into an amorphous form. This prepares the starch for hydrolysis. (Sheri Miraglia,
1998).
3.2.3.5 Acid hydrolysis
Glucose syrup produce by combining corn starch with dilute hydrochloric acid, and then heating the
mixture at temperatures of 130-170°C under pressure, acidic condition (pH 4.5-5).the amount of HCL
need is 35% from the amount of starch entered. (Barnali Bej, R.K. Basu and S.N. Ash, 2008
3.2.3.6 Clarification
After hydrolysis, the dilute syrup can be passed through columns to remove impurities, improving its
color and stability.
3.2.3.7 Evaporation
The dilute glucose syrup is finally evaporated under vacuum to raise the solids concentration.
3.2.3.8 Glucose isomerase
Glucose isomerase is enzyme which converts glucose to high fructose corn syrup 90 and the enzyme
comes in solid form, because of the high cost of glucose isomerase (about $5.05 per gram in low
quantities),the enzyme must be reused HFCS-90 blending with glucose syrup to produce HFCS-55
(55%fructose). (Daniel Finnie, et.al, 2008)
It's preferred use of stirred tank reactors, continuous stirred reactors (CSTR) or a jet cooker.
3.2.4 Enzyme Hydrolysis
Since enzymes have efficiency, specific action, ability to work under mild conditions, increasing reaction
rate, operation without contamination by microorganisms and having high purification and
standardization, they are ideal catalysts for the food industry. Enzyme reactions, requiring simple
equipment, are easily controlled and can be easily stopped when the desired degree of conversion is
reached.
3.2.4.1 Step 1 - Starch Extraction
The major components of the maize kernel (protein, germ oil, fibre and starch) are separated during starch
extraction. The starch is further processed and the other components sold as by-products. Starch
extraction begins with steeping the maize grains in a weak solution of sulfurous acid to soften the kernel
and help break the chemical bonds between the proteins and the starch. The soluble solids are leached
from the grain, concentrated through evaporation and sold to feed compounders and fertiliser companies
as a high protein concentrate. Next, oil is expelled from the germ to produce a crude maize oil which is
sold for further refining before being used in the food industry. The starch and gluten are then separated
from the fiber and from each other. The fiber is used in the animal feeds industry and the gluten is sold as
corn flour. The starch is washed and concentrated to 40 % solids. About half of it is sold as either
unmodified or chemically modified starch, and the remainder is converted to sugar syrups.
3.2.4.2 Step 2 - Liquefaction
Liquefaction is the hydrolysis of the starch to oligosaccharides: glucose polymers of up to ten glucose
residues. This is done by holding the starch slurry at 105oC for seven minutes at pH 6.0 - 6.5 in the
presence of a heat stable alpha amylase enzyme. Small quantites (ca. 50 ppm) of a calcium salt are also
added to the jet cooker to help stabilize the enzyme. During the seven minutes the starch hydrates and is
broken down both by the shearing forces in the jet cooker (Corn Starch and the enzyme α-amylase are fed
into a stirred tank reactor) and by the action of the enzyme:
(C6H10O5) n +n H2O → nC6H12O6
Starch
oligosaccharides (D-glucose)
After this initial liquefaction the mixture is cooled to 97°C and transferred to a multi chamber reactor,
where the solution is held for 90 minutes to reach a dextrose equivalent of 10 – 12 units. As the name
implies, liquefaction lowers the viscosity of the solution. By this means the more specialized reactions
occurring in the next step can be more easily controlled. (Barnali Bej, R.K. Basu and S.N. Ash, 2008)
3.2.4.3 Step 3: Saccharification
After liquefaction the pH is lowered to between 4 and 5 and the liquid is cooled to around 60°C. This
inactivates the liquefaction enzyme and creates conditions suitable for the saccharification enzymes. A
specialized enzyme or enzymes are then added. The enzymes added depend on the type of syrup that is to
be produced, i.e. how much of the free sugar should be glucose, how much should be maltose etc. For
example, if a high glucose syrup is required then an amyloglucosidase is added, but if a high maltose
syrup is preferred then a fungal alpha amylase could be added. If a high sugar syrup including both these
sugars is required then both enzymes will be added. The reaction occurring follows the equation below:
Oligosaccharides + H2O → glucose/maltose mixture
3.2.4.4 Step 4 - Refining
The raw sugar syrup requires refining to remove impurities such as residual proteins and fats. This is done
by passing the solution through a rotating vacuum filter coated with diatomaceous earth then
decolourising it with activated carbon. The product is then concentrated to the desired solids level
(typically 75 - 85 % solids) and packaged for sale.
3.2.2.5 Convert into HFCS
The next step in the process is converting glucose into a mixture of fructose and glucose. This is done by
suspending the enzyme glucose isomerase in a gel column and running the glucose through the enzyme.
Glucose isomerase is suspended so that multiple batches of glucose can be run through the gel column.
This is in contrast to the relatively inexpensive enzymes α-amylase and glucoamylase which are mixed
with the reactants and then thrown out. Once the glucose is run through the gel column a mixture
containing approximately 42% fructose and 52% glucose, known as HFCS-42, is produced. This happens
because converting glucose into fructose is a reversible reaction; meaning that at a certain point fructose
will begin to convert into glucose. At equilibrium, which occurs when 42% fructose is produced, fructose
will convert into glucose and glucose will convert into fructose simultaneously. The problem is that
HFCS-42 is not comparable to the taste of the sucrose that is has replaced.
A mixture containing 55% fructose, known as HFCS-55, is considered to have the same taste as sucrose.
To produce HFCS-55, some of the HFCS-42 is converted into HFCS-90 by liquid chromatography.
Liquid chromatography separates the glucose and fructose molecules by distinguishing between their
different structures. The separated glucose is discarded and the HFCS-90 is mixed with the remaining
HFCS-42 to produce HFCS-55. Carbon Adsorption is then used to remove any impurities that may be
left in the HFCS-55. These impurities can be anything ranging from left over enzymes to other sugars
accidently produced in the process.
3.3 Summary – Basic Steps
Here is a summary of the basic engineering steps used to produce HFCS:
- Mix corn starch and α-amylase to produce maltose and glucose
- Separate α-amylase out of mixture using a filter
- Add glucoamylase to the maltose and glucose mixture to produce pure glucose
- Separate glucoamylase from glucose using a filter
- Run glucose mixture through the enzyme glucose isomerase to produce
HFCS-42
- Mix HFCS-42 and HFCS-90 to produce HFCS-55
- Use Carbon Adsorption to remove impurities
3.4 Chemical reactions:-
CH2OH
OH
OH
O
O
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
H
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
HCL
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH OH
OH
O
O
H
H
H
O
H
H CH2OH
H CH2OH
Glucose Fructose
O
Glucoseisomarise
(İPEK ÇELEBİ, 2006)
O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-O- H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-O +HCL
O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-
Fig (3.2) Production of High-Fructose Corn Syrup
3.5 Factors That Affect Enzymic Hydrolysis
The enzymatic hydrolysis of starch is mainly affected by botanic sources of starch including
amylose/amylopectin ratio, crystallinity and size of granules. Not only botanic source has an importance
on the hydrolysis but also operating conditions as starch concentration, temperature, pH, enzyme type,
enzyme concentration.
The effect of time on hydrolysis and enzyme stability was reported by Apar and Özbek, (2005). It was
found that; when rice starch was hydrolyzed by α-amylase derived from B.subtilis with processing time
(from 0 to 90 min), a decrease in the activity of α-amylase was observed with the time of exposure. The
degree of hydrolysis reached a value of 84.51% and 81.82% the efficiency of α-amylase was lost after 90
Glucoseisomarise O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-
Glucose
+
O-(CHOH)2-CH2-CHO-CH3
Fructose
min. Not only sole effect of these parameters but also interactions between them should also be taken into
account on hydrolysis of starch.
3.6 Industrial Starch Hydrolysis
Conversion of starch into sugar syrups and dextrins forms the major part of the starch processing industry.
Sugar syrups obtained by starch are sweet edible products that are widely used in confectionery and other
food products, also solid glucose can be prepared by crystallization from completely hydrolyzed liquors.
In United States these syrups are known as corn syrups since they are produced by acidic/enzymatic
hydrolysis of corn starch. Other starches, such as those from wheat, potato and rice can, of course, be
used to manufacture such products. In our country since wheat starch production is widespread, and it is
produced as a by-product of gluten manufacture, production of them from wheat starch gains importance.
The industrial hydrolysis of starch into glucose syrups is generally performed in two following steps as
liquefaction and saccharification. After saccharification, fructose syrups are obtained from glucose syrups
by isomerization if desired.
Liquefaction is a process of dispersion of insoluble starch granules in an aqueous solution followed by
partial hydrolysis using thermostable amylases. α-amylase behaves as a thinning agent which results in
reduction in viscosity and partial hydrolysis of starch.
Fig (3.3) flow chart of HFCS
E - 2
E-2
E-2
E-4
E - 1
Tank Washing
basin
Screening
Centrifugal
Tank Dryer
Mill
Pre-heater
Reactor Pre-heater
Colum
n
Tank
Storage tank
Glucose
isomerase
H2O
Ethanol
HCL
H2SO4 H2O
H2O Corn
3.7 Material balance
Material balances are important first step when designing a new process or analyzing an existing one.
They are almost always prerequisite to all other calculations in the solution of process engineering
problems.
Mathematically the mass balance for a system without a chemical reaction is as follows:
Input = Output + Accumulation
Particle material balance
Input+ Generation = Output + Accumulation + Consumption (Per warfving)
Typically, "sweet" corn is roughly 9-14% glucose and other sugars. The highest concentration of sugars
in corn is in the "super sweet" hybrid that tops out around 44% concentrations of sugars.
HFCS contain about 5-10% sugar by weight.
3.7.1 Molecular weight of starch
Starch is a polymer of glucose. The molecular formula of glucose in starch is C6H12O6 that mean the
molecular weight of glucose is (C6H12O6) is (72.06+12.1+96) = 180.16 g/mole.
To calculate the molecular mass of starch you need to know how many molecules of glucose (n) are
linked together and multiply that by the molecular mass of each residue. (C6H12O6)*n = 180.16 * n (n is
the number of residues in the polymer)
However, some sources claim that the average molecular mass of starches is around 250000 g/mole. But
it really depends on what the starch is from.( R.G. Gilbert et.al)
Obviously, the amount of HFCS required to be produced by the HFCS production plant governs the
amount of the corn in put into the HFCS production process.
The objective of this planned HFCS production plant project is to meet 10000 Tones of HFCS from the
need for HFCS in Sudan per year.
1kg of corn contain 0.1 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ kg of Glucose
X kg of corn contain 106*.103 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Kg of glucose
X = 103*107 kg corn
The amount of corn need is 103000 Tons of corn
Table (3.1) molecular weight of component
Component molecular weight
Corn (starch) 250000
H2O 18
H2SO4 98
HCL 36.5
Ethanol 46
Glucose isomerase 171000
Glucose 180.16
HFCS 180.16
3.7.2 The amount of substance use in the process:
2.7.2.1 Gelatinization
Amount of water need for Gelatinization process:-
1.2Kg of starch need218ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ liter
1.03*107 Kg of starch needــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــX liter of water
The amount of water needed is 1.87*1011 liters
3.7.2.2 Acid hydrolysis
Amount of HCL need is 35% from the amount of starch entered = 360500000Kg
The Temperature need must be between (130-170°C) under pressure and acidic condition (pH 4.5-5).
(Barnali Bej, R. K. Basu and S. N. Ash)
3.7.2.3 Amount of glucose isomerise need:
1kg of enzyme convert 18000ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ kg of glucose
X of enzyme convert 107*103 ــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ kg of glucose
The amount of enzyme (glucose isomerise) convert 103*107 kg of glucose into fructose = 5722222.2 kg.
(S H Bhosale, M B Rao, and V V Deshpande)
3.7.2.4 Amount of H2SO4
Amount of H2SO4 need is 0.04% from the amount of starch entered= 412000 liters
3.7.2.5 Amount of ethanol need
Amount of ethanol need is 1.54% (K. Lorenz, and J.A. Johnson) from the amount of starch entered=
15.86*106 liters
3.7.2.6 Amount of HFCS produce
Amount of HFCS produce is 97% from the amount of glucose add to the reactor and the other 1.5% is
maltose, 0.5% iso maltose and 1% other oligosaccharides.
3.7.3 Material balance around equipment’s:
3.7.3.1 Material balance around washing basin:
Feed contains corn, fibers, proteins and other wastes.
The base is to obtain 10.000 ton of HFCS.
Table (3.2) S1
Table (3.3) S2
component
Weight(Kg)
water
100*109
Table (3.4) S3
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.12167*109
component Weight(Kg)
Feed 1.133*109
S1
S2
S3
S4
Table (3.5) S4
component
Weight(Kg)
water
100*109
Wastes 0.01133*109
Total 100.01133*109
Table (3.6) over all Material balance around the washing basin:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs 101.133*109
Outputs 101.133*109
3.7.3.2 Material balance around steeping steeping tank:
E-1
S3
S5
S6
S7
Table (3.7) S3
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.12167*109
Table (3.8) S5
component
Weight(Kg)
Water 0.0103*109
H2SO4 0.000412*109
Table (3.9) S6
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.097336*109
Table (3.10) S7
component
Weight(Kg)
Fibers
0.024334*109
Water
0.0103*109
H2SO4
0.000412*109
Total
0.035046*109
Table (3.11) over all Material balance around the steeping tank:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs 1132382*109
Outputs 1.132382*109
3.7.3.3 Material balance around Screening:
Table (3.12) S6
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.097336*109
Table (3.13) S8
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.07538928*109
Table (3.14) S9
component
Weight(Kg)
Fibers
0.02194672*109
S6 S8
S9
Table (3.15) over all Material balance around the Screening:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
1.097336*109
Outputs
1.097336*109
3.7.3.4 Material balance around Centrifugal:
Table (3.16) S8
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.07538928*109
Table (3.17) S10
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.043127602*109
Table (3.18) S11
component
Weight(Kg)
Fibers
0.322616784*109
S8 S10
S11
Table (3.19) over all Material balance around the Centrifugal:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
1.07538928*109
Outputs
1.07538928*109
3.7.3.5 Material balance around tank:
E-1
Table (3.20) S10
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.043127602*109
Table (3.21) S12
component
Weight(Kg)
Ethanol
0.015862*109
S10
S12
S13
S14
Table (3.22) S13
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.23) S14
component
Weight(Kg)
Ethanol
0.015862*109
Proteins 0.02086255204*109
Total
0.03672455204*109
Table (3.24) over all Material balance around the tank:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
1.058989602*109
Outputs
1.058989602*109
3.7.3.6 Material balance around dryer:
S17
E-2
Table (3.25) S13
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.26) S15
component
Weight(Kg)
Dry air
70.45*109
Table (3.27) S16
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.28) S17
component
Weight(Kg)
Humidity air
70.45*109
Table (3.29) over all Material balance around the dryer:
S13 S16
S15
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
71.472265505*109
Outputs
71.472265505*109
3.7.3.7 Material balance around mill:
Table (3.30) S16
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.31) S18
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.32) over all Material balance around the mill:
Weight(Kg)
S18
S16
Inputs
1.02226505*109
Outputs
1.02226505*109
3.7.3.8 Material balance around pre-heater:
E-2
Table (3.33) S18
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn
1.02226505*109
Table (3.34) S19
component
Weight(Kg)
water
187*109
Table (3.35) S20
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn slurry
188.0222651*109
S18
S19
S20
Table (3.36) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
188.0222651*109
Outputs
188.0222651*109
3.7.3.9 Material balance around hydrolyses tank:
E-1
Table (3.37) S20
component
Weight(Kg)
Corn slurry
188.0222651*109
Table (3.38) S21
component
Weight(Kg)
HCL
0.3605*109
S20
S21
S22
S23
Table (3.39) S22
component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
187.1878478*109
Table (3.40) S23
component
Weight(Kg)
HCL
0.270375*109
Oligosaccharides.
0.920038545*109
Total
1.190413545*109
Table (3.41) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
188.3827651*109
Outputs
188.3827651*109
3.7.3.10 Material balance around Column:
E-1
Table (3.42) S22
component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
187.1878478*109
Table (3.43) S24
component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
187.0977228*109
Table (3.44) S25
S22
S24
S25
component
Weight(Kg)
HCL
0.090125*109
Table (3.45) over all Material balance around the Column:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
187.1878478*109
Outputs
187.1878478*109
3.7.3.11 Material balance around pre-heater:
E-2
Table (3.46) S24
component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
187.0977228*109
S24
S26
S27
Table (3.47) S26
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
0.102226505*109
Table (3.48) S27
component
Weight(Kg)
Water
186.9954963*109
Table (3.49) over all Material balance around the pre-heater:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
187.0977228*109
Outputs
187.0977228*109
3.7.3.12 Material balance around reactor
S27
E-4
Table (3.50) S26
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
0.102226505*109
Table (3.51) S27
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose isomarise
0.0057222222*109
Table (3.52) S28
Component
Weight(Kg)
HFCS
0.09915970985*109
Table (3.53) S29
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose isomarise
0.0057222222*109
S26
S28
S29
maltose
0.001533397575*109
isomaltose
0.000511132525*109
Other oligosaccharides.
0.00102226505*109
Total 0.00878901735*109
Table (3.54) over all Material balance around the reactor:
Weight(Kg)
Inputs
0.1079487272*109
Outputs
0.1079487272*109
3.7.3.13 over all material balance:
Table (3.55) over all input streams:
Stream Weight(Kg)
Corn(starch) 11.33*108
H2O 18.7*1010
H2O
H2SO4
HCL
Ethanol
Glucose
isomerase
HFCS
Others
Corn
H2SO4 00.04*107
HCL 36.05*107
Ethanol 01.59*107
Glucose isomerase 00.57*107
Total 18.85*1010
Table (3.56) overall output streams:
Stream Weight(Kg)
HFCS 09.92*1011
Oligomers 10.34*1010
H2O 18.70*1010
H2SO4 00.04*107
HCL 36.05*107
Ethanol 01.59*107
Glucose isomerase 00.57*107
Total 18.85*1010
3.8 Energy balance
3.8.1 Introduction: Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the system's internal
energy or thermodynamic potential
The enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical, biological, and
physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of energy transfer. Enthalpy change
accounts for energy transferred to the environment at constant pressure through expansion or heating.
The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. The same situation exists in classical
mechanics: only a change or difference in energy carries physical meaning. Enthalpy itself is a
thermodynamic potential, so in order to measure the enthalpy of a system, we must refer to a defined
reference point; therefore what we measure is the change in enthalpy, ΔH. The change ΔH is positive in
endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes. ΔH of a system is equal to
the sum of non-mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it.
Increasing cost of energy has caused the industries to examine means of reducing energy consumption in
processing. Energy balances are used in the examination of the various stages of a process, over the whole
process and even extending over the total production system from the raw material to the finished
product.
3.8.2 General equation for energy balance:
Energy out = Energy in +generation – consumption – accumulation
Heat enters and leave the system = the enthalpy of inlet and out let stream components.
Steady state
Q = H out – H in
Q = Fin * Cpi
Cp = a + bT + cT2
ΔH = [(aT) + (bT2) /2+ (cT3)/3 + (dT4)/4]
Also Q = M*Cp* ΔT
3.8.3 Energy balance around equipment’s:
3.8.3.1 Energy balance around washing basin
S2
S3
Q washing basin = Q4 + Q3 – Q2 –Q1
Q4 = M*Cp* ΔT
ΔT = 0
And Q3, Q2 , Q1 =0 (there is no change in temperature in washing basin)
Q washing basin =0
3.8.3.2 Energy balance around steeping tank:
E-1
Q tank = Q6 + Q7– Q3 –Q5
No heating
Q tank = 0
3.8.3.3 Energy balance around centrifugal:
S1
S4
S3
S5
S6
S7
Q centrifugal = Q10 + Q11 – Q8
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
M= 43015.6 Kmols
ΔT = (333-298)= 35
Specific heat of starch:
Formula for calculating the specific heat of foods. Cp = 4.180 x.w + 1.711 x.p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c +
0.908 x a is the equation used for finding the specific heat of foods where "w" is the percentage of the food
that is water, "p" is the percentage of the food that is protein, "f" is the percentage of the food that is fat, "c"
is the percentage of the food that is carbohydrate, and "a" is the percentage of the food that is ash. This
equation takes into account the mass fraction (x) of all the solids that make up the food. The specific heat
calculation is expressed in kJ/(kg-K). http://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Determine-Specific-
Heat.html)
For Corn:
Cp = 4.180 x w + 1.711 x p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c + 0.908 x a
Cp =349.68
Q10 = M*Cp* ΔT
Q centrifugal = (43015.6)*(349.68)*(35)
Q centrifugal = 15.04173*106 KJ
S8 S10
S11
3.8.3.4 Energy balance around dryer:
E-2
The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture
For a (hot air) dryer, the heater duty for the inlet air heat exchanger is given by:
Q heater = Wg CP,g (Tg,in-Tg,a)
Q heater = Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv
Q heater = (Tg,in - Tg,a)/(Tg,in –Tg,out) {Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv}
The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture
Q heater = (298-423)/ (298-333)*{5 *0.5*(40890.6*349.68*90)}
Q heater = 114.9*109 KJ
3.8.3.5 Energy balance around pre-heater:
E-2
Q pre-heater = Q20 + Q18– Q19
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
S18
S19
S20
S13
S17
S16
S15
Q = 7.53*106*349.68*(473-298)
Q pre-heater = 460.79*109 KJ
3.8.3.6 Energy balance around hydrolyses tank:
E-1
Q tank = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Q = 7.53*106*349.68*(473-298)
Q = 1.73*109*349.68*(443-373)
Q tank = 4234.6*109KJ
3.8.3.7 Energy balance around pre-heater:
E-2
S24
S26
S27
S20
S21
S22
S23
Q pre-heater = Q27 + Q26– Q24
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Q = 6.12*106*349.68*(373-298)
Q pre-heater = 160.5*109 KJ
3.8.3.8 Material balance around reactor:
E-4
2 O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-
∆𝐻r =∆𝐻r˚+∆𝐻product -∆𝐻reactant
Where:-
∆𝐻r, t= Heat of reaction at temperature r.
∆𝐻r˚= Heat of reaction at 25 C °(298K)
∆𝐻React = enthalpy change to bring products to reaction temperature, t.
∆𝐻r°= ∑∆𝐻°f, product - ∑∆𝐻°f, reactants
= - (1*2337.2)-(2*4373323.5) = -8748984.2 KJ
∆𝐻Reactent = (n Cp ∆𝑡)reactant
2*349.68*(338-298) =27974.4
∆𝐻Product = (n Cp∆𝑡) product
1*0.74*(338-298) = 29.6 KJ
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
S26
S27
S28
S29
Glucoseisomarise O-H-CHO-(CHOH)2-(CH2)3-
Glucose
+
O-(CHOH)2-CH2-CHO-CH3
Fructose
Q = 55.03980*104 *0.74*(338-298)
∆𝐻r =- 902929 KJ
QR =Q29-Q28-Q27 + ∆𝐻r
Q reactor = 16.291780*106 KJ - 902929 KJ
Q reactor = 15.388851*106 KJ
Over all energy required is = 4.971*1012 KJ
Component Heat formation KJ/mol
HFCS -2337.32
Total -2337.32
Total energy required is 4.3704*106 KJ/mol
ΔH of reaction=∑ΔH of (products) −∑ΔH of (Reactants)
Energy balance:
Steady state
Q = H out – H in
Q = Fin * Cpi
Cp = a + bT + cT2
ΔH = [(aT) + (bT2) /2+ (cT3)/3 + (dT4)/4]
Also Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Energy balance around washing basin
Q washing basin = Q4 + Q3 – Q2 –Q1
S1
S2
S3
S4
Q4 = M*Cp* ΔT
ΔT = 0
And Q3 , Q2 , Q1 =0 (there is no change in temperature in washing basin)
Q washing basin =0
Energy balance around steeping tank:
E-1
Q tank = Q6 + Q7– Q3 –Q5
No heating
Q tank = 0
Energy balance around centrifugal:
Q centrifugal = Q10 + Q11 – Q8
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
M= 43015.6 Kmols
ΔT = (333-298)= 35
Specific heat of starch:
Formula for calculating the specific heat of foods. Cp = 4.180 x.w + 1.711 x.p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c +
0.908 x a is the equation used for finding the specific heat of foods where "w" is the percentage of the food
S3
S5
S6
S7
S8 S10
S11
that is water, "p" is the percentage of the food that is protein, "f" is the percentage of the food that is fat, "c"
is the percentage of the food that is carbohydrate, and "a" is the percentage of the food that is ash. This
equation takes into account the mass fraction (x) of all the solids that make up the food. The specific heat
calculation is expressed in kJ/(kg-K). http://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Determine-Specific-
Heat.html) For Corn:
Cp = 4.180 x w + 1.711 x p + 1.928 x f + 1.547 x c + 0.908 x a
Cp =349.68
Q10 = M*Cp* ΔT
Q centrifugal = (43015.6)*(349.68)*(35)
Q centrifugal = 15041730 KJ
Energy balance around dryer:
E-2
The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture
For a (hot air) dryer, the heater duty for the inlet air heat exchanger is given by:
Q heater = Wg CP,g (Tg,in-Tg,a)
Q heater = Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv
Q heater = (Tg,in - Tg,a)/(Tg,in –Tg,out) {Ws (Xin- Xout) ΔHv}
The clean corn is tempered to 20 percent moisture
Q heater = (298-423)/ (298-333)*{5 *0.5*(40890.6*349.68*90)}
Q heater = 114.9*109 KJ
S13
S17
S16
S15
Material balance around pre-heater:
E-2
Q pre-heater = Q20 + Q18– Q19
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Q = 7.53*106*349.68*(473-298)
Q pre-heater = 460.79*109 KJ
Energy balance around hydrolyses tank:
E-1
Q tank = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Q = 7.53*106*349.68*(473-298)
Q = 1.73*109*349.68*(443-373)
Q tank = 4234.6*109KJ
Energy balance around pre-heater:
S18
S19
S20
S20
S21
S22
S23
E-2
Q pre-heater = Q27 + Q26– Q24
Q = M*Cp* ΔT
Q = 6.12*106*349.68*(373-298)
Q pre-heater = 160.5*109 KJ
Material balance around reactor
E-4 Q reacter = Q23+ Q22– Q20 –Q21
∆𝐻r =∆𝐻r˚+∆𝐻product -∆𝐻reactant
Where:-
∆𝐻r, t= Heat of reaction at temperature r.
∆𝐻r˚= Heat of reaction at 25 C °(298K)
∆𝐻React = enthalpy change to bring products to reaction temperature, t.
S24
S26
S27
S26
S27
S28
S29
∆𝐻r°= ∑∆𝐻°f, product - ∑∆𝐻°f, reactants
∆𝐻reacter =(nCp ∆𝑡)reactant
∆𝐻product = (nCp∆𝑡)product
QR =Q29-Q28-Q27 + ∆𝐻r
S25
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose syrup
0.102226505*109
S27
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose isomarise
0.0057222222*109
S28
Component
Weight(Kg)
HFCS
0.09915970985*109
S29
Component
Weight(Kg)
Glucose isomarise
0.0057222222*109
maltose
0.001533397575*109
isomaltose
0.000511132525*109
Other oligosaccharides.
0.00102226505*109
Total 0.00878901735*109
3.8 Economical Evaluation
3.8.1 Introduction:
Cost estimating is one of the most important steps in project management. A cost estimate establishes the
base line of the project cost at different stages of development of the project. A cost estimate at a given
stage of project development represents a prediction provided by the cost engineer or estimator on the
basis of available data. According to the American Association of Cost Engineers, cost engineering is
defined as that area of engineering practice where engineering judgment and experience are utilized in the
application of scientific principles and techniques to the problem of cost estimation, cost control and
profitability.
3.8.2 Capital Investment:
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called fixed capital
investment, and the necessary for the operation is called working capital. The total of capital investment is
the sum of the fixed and working capital.
The fixed capital investment is divided into:
Manufacturing fixed capital investment (direct cost).
Non manufacturing fixed capital investment (indirect cost).
3.8.2.1 Fixed capital cost:
Direct cost:
The direct cost determines the capital necessary for the installed process with all components that are
needed for the complete process operation and include:
Purchase equipment.
Purchase equipment installs.
Instrumentation and control.
Piping.
Services facilities.
Land.
Indirect cost:
It is the capital required for construction overhead and for all plant components and are not directly
related to the process operation, and includes:
Engineering and supervision.
Legal expenses.
Construction.
Contractor fee.
Contingency.
The fixed capital investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost
3.8.2.2 Working capital investment:
It is consisting of the total amount of money invested in:
Raw material.
Finished products and semi finished products in the process of being manufactured.
Account receivable.
Cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries, wages and raw material
purchases.
Total Capital = Fixed Capital Investment + Warking capital investment Account payable.
Most of chemical plants use an initial working capital about 10 – 12 % of the total capital
investment.
3.8.3 Production cost:
The total production cost is the total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the products. Recovering
the capital investment, and distribution the corporate functions such management and development. And
it is divided into two categories:
3.8.4 Manufacturing costs:
They are costs referred to as operating or production costs and are divided to:
Variable cost:
Raw material.
Operating labor.
Land.
Direct supervisory.
Patent and royalties.
Utilities.
Laboratory charges.
Maintenance and repair.
Operating supplies.
3.8.5 Fixed charges:
This is include the
Depreciation
Local taxes
Plant overhead:
Genral plant up keep and overhead
Payroll over head
Packing
Medical
Safety and protection
Restaurants
Laboratories
Storage facilities
3.8.6 General expenses:
This is included the:
Administrative cost
Distribution and marketing
Research and development
Total production cost =Manufacturing cost+General cost
Total profit = total income-total production cost
3.8.7 Pay pack period:
It is the length of time necessary for the total return to equal the capital investiment.
Pay pack period = fixed capital investiment / Annual profit
3.8.8 Calculation:
Table (3.57) cost of the equipment:-
Equipment Cost per $ in 2010
Reacter 270*103
Dryer 240*103
Screan 18.7*103
Column 18.63*103
3 Tanks 146.7*103
Centrifugal 12.9*103
Washing base 2.568*103
2 Pre-heaters 59.88*103
Mill 8*103
Total 777.5*103
Total capital cost = work + fixed capital cost
PPC = PCE (1 + F1 + F2 ………. + Fa)
PPC = 777.5*103*0.25 = 194.14*103$
(=420.1*103+ 777.5*103) *3.40
PPC = 3.87*106$
Fixed capital = PPC *1.45 = 5.6*106$
Working capital cost:
The fixed capital cost = 80% of total capital investment cost
Working capital investment cost 20% of total capital investment cost
The working capital cost = fixed investment cost * 0.2/0.8
1.4*106$
Total capital cost = 7*106$
Table (3.58) Total capital investment:-
Fixed capital investment cost 5.6*106$
Work capital investment cost 1. 4*106$
Total capital investment cost 7*106$
Direct production cost:
Row material cost (corn waste, Ethanol,water, HCl and H2SO4)
Starch cost:
The cost of ton of corn waste = 10$= 1030000*10$ =10.03*106$
H2SO4 cost:
The cost of 1 ton of H2SO4 = 100$
412*100 = 41.2
The amount of ethanol need
15.862*103 ton
The cost of 1 ton of ethanol = 900$
15.862*103*900=14.3*106
Water cost:
The cost of 1 ton of water = 0.05 $
2369 *103 ton* 0. 05 = 118.45*103$
HCl cost:
The cost of 1 ton of HCl = 80$
360500*80= 28.8*106
Glucose isomerise cost:
The amount of glucose isomarise is 5.72*106/year
But we buy 10% of the amount and we can make re-generative of the enzyme and re used it.
The cost of enzyme is 10$/Kg
572*103 *10= 5.72*106
Table (3.59) row material cost
Material Cost $/year
Corn starch 10.03*106
H2SO4 41.2*103
HCl 28.8*106
Water 118.45*103
Ethanol 14.3*106
glucose isomarise 5.72*106
Total 58.72*106
Total row material cost = 58.72*106$
Table (3.60) operation labor cost
Labor No. of labor/3shift Cost$/month
Manager 1 3500
Senior Engineering 3 7500
Chemical Engineering 6 10500
Electrical Engineering 3 5250
Mechanical Engineering 4 7000
Electronic &Instrumentation
Engineering
5 8750
Technicians 20 18000
Operation and labor cost
$/month
42.5*103
Operation labor cost per year:
510*103 $/year
Utilities = Energy = 4.3704*106 KJ/hr
Utilities cost =88.9*103$/year
Maintenance cost
= fixed investment *0.02 = 112*103$/year
Operation suplies cost
= maintenance cost *0.15 =16.8*103$/year
Direct supervision and clearical cost:
= Operation labor cost*0.15 =76.5*103 $/year
Labloratory charge cost
Labloratory charge cost = Operating labor cost *0.15
= 76.5*103 $/year
Fixed charge cost:
Depreciation cost:
Depreciation cost = fixed capital cost *0.05 = 280*103$/year
Insurance cost:
Insurance cost = fixed capital cost * 0.01 = 56*103$/year
Plant overhead cost:
Plant overhead cost = Operating labor cost *0.05 = 25.5*103$/year
General cost:
Administration cost
Administration cost = Operating labor cost *0.02 = 10.2*103$/year
Financing cost:
Financing cost = total capital investment *0.01 = 70*103$/year
Table (3.61) Total production cost
Item $ cost
Manufacturing cost Direct production cost
Row material
Operation labor
Maintenance
Utilities
Operation supplies
Direct supervision and clerical labor
Laboratory charge
58.72*106
510*103
112*103
88.9*103
16.8*103
76.5*103
76.5*103
Total 43.88*106
Fixed charge cost Depreciation
Insurance
280.5*103
56*103
Total 336.5*103
Plant overhead cost 25.5*103
General expense cost Administration
Financing
10.2*103
70*103
Total 80.2*103
Total production cost 59.2*106
3.8.9 Income of production
-HFCS:
One ton of HFCS is 500$
10000*500 =5*106$/year
- Ethanol:
The amount of ethanol produced is 61.8*103ton/year
One ton of ethanol is 900$
61.8*103ton *900= 55.6*106$/year
55.6*106
- Total income of production:
5*106$+55.6*106=60.6*106
3.812 Profit
Profit = income – total production cost
60.6*106- 59.2*106= 1.4*106 $/year
3.8.14 Payback period (Payout time):
= Fixed/ profit =
(5.6*106$)/( 1.4*106) = 4 years.
Chapter four
Result and discussion
4.1 Possibility of the project:
Fructose syrup is one of the essential components in the manufacturing of many different food products.
It is used in the production of beverages, sweets and candies, ice creams, etc.
Currently, all Sudan’s need for fructose syrup is met by importation from countries like the United States.
There are no official or even reliable estimates for the amount of fructose syrup consumed in Sudan. The
numbers vary in different sources from as little as 4000 to as high as 9000 tons.
Importation of fructose syrup from the US is met with many obstacles. The lack of normal and direct
diplomatic and commercial ties between Sudan and the US, as well as the economic sanctions against
Sudan taken unilaterally by the US force importers to exert extra effort, cash, and time to finalize their
deals. This definitely contributes to the net cost of the purchase and raises the prices significantly.
Furthermore, the sharp and marked decline in the value of the Sudanese currency as a result of the
economic collapse, and the disruption of the trade balance due to the loss of the oil revenue after the
secession of South Sudan, and the total reliance on imported goods and the lack of local production have
all led to the multiplication of prices and serious constraints to the importation business in general. Since
these increases in the cost and therefore the prices are not accompanied by increases in the income of
most people, this has affected the demand of many of the imported goods as their prices have, in some
cases, tripled as is the case in beverages during this year alone. Unless the affordability of these goods is
improved as by the localization of the production in a more fundamental way, this could end in the loss of
competitiveness to local rivals despite their markedly lower quality.
This economic model which relies completely on importation from abroad has proved its unsustainability
as manifested by the current crises and puts a detrimental burden on the economy. Therefore whenever
possible, production of raw materials – mostly agricultural – and completion of the manufacturing process
in as many stages as possible should be performed within the country.
Sudan has all the requirements for the production of high fructose corn syrup. The vast lands that can
support the cultivation of the maize plants in many parts of the country allows the easy installation of the
project. Sudan has vast resources of fresh surface and ground water and fertile soils which encourage
agriculture and make it the obvious economic driver of the country.
Therefore, the corn can be produced with low costs in a sustainable way, providing a constant supply for
the production of high fructose corn syrup.
Besides corn, the production of the fructose syrup requires hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, ethanol, as
well as the recombinant glucose isomerase enzyme. Aside from the latter, these are all readily available
mostly through local production. The recombinant enzyme is the only input material that can be obtained
strictly through importation from abroad.
In total, the establishment of this plant for the production of high fructose corn syrup costs 59.2*106
dollars. This plant produces 10.000 tons annually which is more than the largest estimates of Sudan’s
need of corn syrup.
The low cost of production, the lack of local competitors and the artificially high cost of importation due
to the currency devaluation, the production of ethanol as a by-product, and the diverse uses of the syrup
promise to make the project very profitable. In fact, according to my estimates, the project could probably
pay back the investment capital in four years. This number may be overly optimistic, however, this
project has all the requirements for success; and its low cost and its novelty coupled with the high demand
for the product make it a safe investment. The net profit of this project exceeds 1.4 million dollars
annually.
Even if this project meets its expectations, the prospect for expansion and exportation to other countries in
the region make it a potential contributor to development and a source of hard currency.
CHAPTER FIVE
Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
As a result of lifestyle change, speed and people need to juices and soft drinks, which need to corn sugar.
In some products sweetened with sucrose, the covalent bond between the fructose and glucose molecules
breaks down in low acid environments, such as those found in soft drinks, as well as at high temperatures,
such as during storage in hot climates, the sucrose content of a cola beverage decreased from 36% of total
sugars to only 10% of sugars 3 months after manufacture, and the free fructose content increased from
32% to 44% of total sugars. This creates variability in the taste profile of the product. In contrast, HFCS
maintains its structural stability over a range of temperatures and acidic conditions.
This project assessed the case for corn and HFCS production from the prospective benefits for each actor:
the production of HFCS with less expensive feedstock for private enterprises, access to alternative
sources for the table sugar, HFCS as an alternative income source for smallholder farmers, ethanol is by-
products and is very valuable. It offers business possibility to agricultural enterprises and rural
employment.
5.2 Recommendations
1- I recommend to take this study in the list of important in Sudan.
2- I propose government share with the private sectors in Sudan which manufacture of food
products.
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1- http://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Determine-Specific-Heat.html