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DESIGN IN NATURE

Cornell University LibraryV.

The

original of this

book

is in

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions intext.

the United States on the use of the

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024737680

Tracing from nature of a mesial line section of the shell of the Nautilus (N. pompilius), by the Author.

Shows beautiful curves and one

of the finest spirals

known.

DESIGN IN NATUREIllustrated

by Spiral and other Arrangementsas

in the Inorganic

and Organic

Kingdoms

exemplified in Matter, Force, Life, Growth, Rhythms, &c.,

especially in Crystals, Plants,

and Animals.

With Examples

selected

from the Reproductive, Alimentary, Respiratory, Circulatory,Nervous, Muscular, Osseous, Locomotory, and otherSystems of Animals

BYJ.

BELL PETTIGREWM.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.;:

laureatp: of the institute of France chandos professor of anatomy and medicine in the university, fellow of the royal, botanical, medico-chirurgical, royal medical, literary and st. andrews philosophical, HARVEIAN, AND OTHER SOCIETIES FORMERLY DEAN OF THE MEDICAL FACULTY, UNIVERSITY, ST. ANDREWS PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND HARVEIAN SOCIETIES MEMBER OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL OF MEDICAL EDUCATION AND REGISTRATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM EXAMINER IN ANATOMY AT THE UNIVERSITY, GLASGOW, AND IN PHYSIOLOGY AT THE ROYAL COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS, EDINBURGH, ETC.;

;

;

;

Illustrated by

nearly

Two Thousand

Figures, largely Original

and from Nature

IN

THREE VOLUMESVOLUME ONE

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND39

CO.

PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDONNEWYO.RK,

BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA

1908AHrights reserved

TABLE OF CONTENTSVOLUME ONEPREFACExxixxiii

INTRODUCTIONINORGANIC AND ORGANIC MATTER DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THE SAME GENERAL LAWS: GLOBULAR, CONCENTRIC, CURVED, SPIRAL, RADIATING, BRANCHED, AND SEGMENTED ARRANGEMENTS OF MATTER. MOVEMENTS AND RHYTHMS IN THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC KINGDOMS A FIRST CAUSE NECESSARY 1.

Atoms and Molecules under Guidance

2- Straight-Line, 3.

Radiating, Dendritic, Segmented, Concentric, and Spiral Arrangements

Animals

............ ... ................. .51

Radiating, Concentric, and Spiral Formations with Traces of Segmentation

2

common

to Crystals, Plants,

and

PREVALENCE OF SPIRAL ARRANGEMENTS ON A GRAND SCALEPHYSICAL UNIVERSE 4-7. Origin of Spiral Structures 8.

IN

THE..

Spiral Arrangementsin

in Crystals, Plants,

and Animals

.

19-26

Examples

of

Radiating and Concentric Arrangements in Plants and Animals as illustrating Symmetry of

Form 9.

.38or

Dendritic

Branching

Movement

Electric

Fluid

Dendritic

Formations in Crystals,

Plants,

Animals, &c.

47

HEXAGONAL STRUCTURES 10.

Recapitulation

.

.......&c.

....

88

MATTER

DIVISIBLE INTO SOLIDS, LIQUIDS,

AND GASES DISTRIBUTION OF93

MATTER ORDER OF CREATION,11.12. 13. 14.

Atoms and Molecules FundamentalTheEffect of

in the Inorganic

Environment Limited

....

and Organic Kingdoms. .

The Organic and Inorganic KingdomsConservation of Energy

reciprocate

....

94.

.9495

15.

Protoplasm

:

Its

Nature and Function

....

95

THE REPRODUCTIVE ELEMENTS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS ESSENTIALLY AND FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFER FROM THE BEGINNING 16.

Neither Chemistry nor Physics can produce Life

98

^-

CONTENTSINORGANIC AND ORGANIC RHYTHMS>

yy

17. Spiral Structures 18.

and MovementsLines

Universal inin

Nature

_

^^-

Growth

in

Straight

and

Spirals-Longitudinal and Transverse

Cleavage.^

^^^.

Wings, &c

19 Atoms and Molecules the same

in

Dead and Living Matter:

..'

^^.

101

^^^

Plants, and Animals 20. Resemblances between Crystals,

Aiiomalous Resemblancesso-called:

.

21.

Unity

of

Plan in Nature as regards

Form and

Colour

Mumcry.

^^^

LINES OF

EL^^^^^^^^^^ FORCE IN CONNECTION ^I^H MAGNETISM, CURVED, STRAIGHT-LINE, PHENOMENA, &c., AS BEARING UPON ANIMALS FORMATIONS IN PLANTS AND

Ai

S8 ^^

22 29

The Lodestone

Magtets

Ih one degree

Correlated

.;

the

Bar-Magnetof

;

Compound Magnet;;

Horse-Shoe Magnet

Electro-Magnet;

Freedom

;

the Compass

Magnetism, Electricity, Light, Heat,

and Motxon^^^^^

ATMOSPHERIC AND OTHER ELECTRICITY ANIMAL MAGNETISMS 30.

Lines of Communication and Force, Nervous and Otherwise

.

.

.

....

124

ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND CELLS, AS FACTORS AND FUNCTIONEVIDENCES OF DESIGNTheIN

IN

ORGANIC STRUCTURE

THE REPRODUCTIVE ELEMENTS OF PLANTS ANDANIMALS

Globular, Concentric, Radiating, Branched, Segmented, Curved, and Spiral Arrangements make their Appearance at the very Threshold of Life

146

PROGRESSIVE ADVANCE IN

LOWER PLANT AND ANIMAL FORMSof Stewart,Tait,

THE 31. 32.

VISIBLE

ANDof

INVISIBLE

WORLD Views

Thomson, Helmholtz,180 184

Stokes, Young, Crookes,

&c

New

Theory

Matter

Inter-action between the Mental

and the Material Aspects

of

Things

191

MATTER AND FORCE IN THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC KINGDOMS: THEIR RELATION TO LIFE, AND TO PLANTS AND ANIMALSAuthor's Views regardingCreation, Evolution, Natural Selectio^i, Type, Locomotion, Environment, Geology, &;c..

193

The Elements and

their

Combining Weights

....

194.

33. Professor Haeokel's 34. 35.

Behef in the Omnipotence of Matter

Mechanical Views of Kant and Laplace as interpreted by HaeckelProfessor Huxley's

.....

196 201

Views on Evolution, especially in Connection with the Reptile, the Bird, and.'

*^" H^^"

203

CONTENTSTHE TRAVELLING ORGANS OF ANIMALS TO BE REGARDEDSTRUCTURES 36. 37.

ix

AS ORIGINALPAGE

The Travelling Organs

in Relation to

Environment

.

.... ..

221

Kant's and Herbert Spencer's Views of Matter and Force

223

CREATION A PROGRESSIVE 38-39. Scriptural 40.

WORK.

Account

of

Creation Geology as Bearing on Creationto

226-229. .

The Simple and Complex Plants and Animals necessary

Each Other

.

231

ORDER 41.

IN

WHICH PLANTS AND ANIMALS APPEARED ON THE EARTH.

Plants and Animals Improvable up to a Point

233

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION CONTRASTED AND CONSIDERED 42. 43.

Everything Controlled and under SupervisionPlants and Animals subject to Disease.

...AS A

.

235. .

236

THE UNIVERSE

WORKING SYSTEM.

44-48. Consideration of the Terms Irritabihty, Stimulation, Environment, and Instinct

Instinct

and Intelligence

....

239-243245246.

49. Effect of 50.

Cosmic Changes on Plants and Animalsin Plants

.

...Rhythmsoccurring in External Nature

Ehythmic Movements

and Animals

are Repetitions of

249

Rhythms and Reflexes 51. 52.

in

Plants and Animals: their Nature and Uses

252..

Muscular Movements Inherent, Spontaneous, and Independent

Not

caused by Nerve Action

253

Nerve Reflexes in Animalstions, &c.

Definitions

of Reflex Acts

Subjects

Connected with Reflex Manifesta258

53.

Rhythmic Muscles

Rhythmsin

not Confined to Involuntary Muscles

269272 274

54.

Respiratory Rhythmic Movements in Animals New Explanation of these Movements

55. 56.

The Respiratory Organs

Animals and inespecially in

Man

Structurally Consideredof the

.

.

The Respiratory Movements,of the Chest,

Man New Viewall

Mechanism

of Respiration

The Muscles277 299

Abdomen, and Diaphragm

Involved.

57.

The Mycetozoa

.

58. Protoplasmic, Amoebic, Muscular, and other Movements

.

.

.

312

59.

Muscular Action (Voluntary and Involuntary), as bearing on Locomotion, Respiration, Circulation, Ahmentation. Urination, Defecation,

and Parturition

...

.

.

.

327

RUDIMENTARY FORMS 60-65. 66.

IN

RELATION TO MOVEMENT, REPRODUCTION, AND LIFEVorticella, &c.

Movements,

&c., of the

Amceba, Paramecium, Gromia, Mycetozoa, Zooid, Monad,

332-340

Animals specially constructed as Air-breathers, and Water-breathers, and for Land, Water, and AirTransit.

...

342.

67.

A

Creator, Designer,I.

and Upholder necessary

to the Universe as

we know

it

.

347b

VOL.

X

CONTENTSDEVELOPMENT ANDDIVISION OF

LABOUR

IN

RELATION TO DESIGNand Animals and..

PAGE

68-69.

Design a Prominent Factor in Nature

Design

as seen in the Gradation of Plants

in the 70-71.

Arrangements

for

Walking, Swimming, and Flying

...of

359-364

Design as Manifested in the Growth and Reproduction.

Latter 72-77.

.

....of

Plants

....of the

and Animals,

especially the

367-371

Parts Entering into the Composition of the

Human OvumRipening

Ovum

:

Formation

of

Polar Globules Fertilisation of the Ovum Reproduction in the Bird Division of the Impregnated

Ovum The

Development

of

Membranes and Layers from which the Future Being Proceeds

377-388

78-80. Subjects Connected with the Development of the

Human Embryo and Foetus Careerthe Brain and Vesselsof the.

of the

Unim390-394

pregnated and ImpregnatedFoetal Circulation

OvumDevelopment

Body

Placental and.

Successive

Changes Witnessed in the Growing Parts

81-82. Transition Links in Relation to

Types Changes

in,

and Pecuharities

of,

the

Human

Foetus

401-405

83.

The Development

of Blood, Blood-vessels, Nerves, Muscles, Bone, Lungs, Glands, Sense Organs, &c., in. . . .

Man and Mammals 84-85.

409

Design as Witnessed in the Migrationof Seeds.

of Birds

and Other Animals

Design as seen in the Production.

and Distribution

415-417

VOLUME TWO

THE CIRCULATION 86-87.

IN PLANTS, IN

THE LOWER ANIMALS,.

ANDEpitomeof the

IN

MANof the Circulation

History of the Circulation

Definition

428-429

88-90.

Two

Different Systems

THE CIRCULATION IN PLANTS in Plants Two Principal Sap Currents in Plants Proof

Plants Ascend and Descend 91-93.

.....

that the Saps of.

.

430-431

Endosmose and Exosmose

as Adjuncts of the Circulation

TheThe

Vessels of Plants..

:

theii.

Function.

Points of Resemblance between the Vessels of Plants and AnimalsCells of Plants:

433-435

94-97. Respiration in Plants and Animals

their

Nature and Function

The

Intra -Cellular

Circulation in Plantslation in Plants 98-99..

The.

Lactiferous Circulation in Plants.

Forces which Produce the Circu.

.

436-444

Original Experiments to

Show that

the Vessels of Plants in

Summer form Syphons.

Experiments446-448449_451

bearing on the Intra -Cellular Movements in Plants 100-102. Absorbents of Plants

Analogy between the Leavesof Plants in the

and Roots

of Plants

The

Effects produced

on the Circulation by the Swaying

Wind

:

Mr. Herbert Spencer's Views

103-106. Epitome of the Forces engaged in the Circulation in Plants

Inorganic Forces

Motionin the

a Condition of Matter

Organic.

Forces a Modification of

Circulation in Metals

453459

THE CIRCULATION

IN

ANIMALSandin the

(Invertebrata)

107.

Symmetry

of

Form

Organs

of the Circulation

Body.

generally. .

.

459

108. Respiration and Assimilation connected with the Circulation109. Cihary Currents..

4gQ^gQ

.

.

CONTENTSRhythmic Movements Analogy between Involuntary and Voluntary Movements

xiPAGE4:61

110-113. Circulation in the Leech contrasted with that in Plants

and Inorganic Kingdoms 114.

The

How the

Circulation connects the Organic

Digestion and the Circulation

Ciha, their

Form and Function.

.

463-465.

Undefined Forces of the Circulation

Slowing

and Quickening

of the Circulation

.

466

115-121. Circulation in the Star -Fish, Spider, and Insect

in Insects

Circulation in the Lobster

Functions performed by the Valves of the Vessels

Position of the Respiratory Apparatus in the Lobster, Fish, &c.

Circulation in the Brachiopoda, Gastropoda,

and

Cuttle-fish

.

.....

469-472

THE CIRCULATION

IN

ANIMALSocellata,. .

{Vertebrata)

122-126. Circulation in the Fish, Batrachia, Frog, Lacerta

Python, Crocodile, &c.

Septum Ventriculorum

.

.

.

.

....

Presence of

473-477

THE FCETAL CIRCULATION

127-129. Points of Analogy between the Circulation in Reptiles and that in thein the

Body

of the Foetus

Circulation in the Placenta

...

Human

FcEtus

Circulation.

477-480493 493

130. 131.

Distribution of the Great Vessels in Reptiles, Birds, and

Mammals

.

.

Valves in the Heart of the Bird

.

.

132-133. The Respiration and Circulation in Birds

The

Air-Sacs of Birds, &c.

.

.

.

494

THE CIRCULATION 134.

IN

THE MAMMALof the

The

Auricles, Ventricles, Valves, Septa, &c., of the

Heart

Mammal Mammal

.

...:

496

135-138. The Right Heart of theVesselsof the

Mammal

Open andTricuspid

Close in Parts

The

The BloodMammal.

urged on by a Wave-Movement

the Heart and

...of the

Valves of the Right Heart of the

Safety- Valve Action

497-500

139-144.

The Left Heart and Valves

The Circulation

in the

Head, Liver, and Erectile

Tissues

The Lymphatic andand Veins:

Capillary Vessels of Animals

Structure of the Capillaries and Small

Arteries

Vessels Close

and Elongate, and Open and Shorten.

of Vessels

Elastic and Vital Properties

Structure of the Large Arteries and Veins

...

501-504

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART OF THE MAMMAL

145.

The Arrangement

of the

Muscular Fibres in the Auricles and Ventricles, especially in the Ventricles

506

ARRANGEMENT OF THE MUSCULAR 146. 147. 148. 149.

FIBRES IN

THE HOLLOW VISCERA GENERALLY

Arrangement

of the

Muscular Fibres in the Bladder and ProstateMuscular Coatsof the

...of

.

519

The Distribution

of the Fibres in the

Stomach

Man and

Other

MammaUa

522525

Oesophageal or Cardiac Sphincter not hitherto described

The Pyloric Sphincterits Ultimate Structureof the

.

...of the

.525527

Movements 150.

Human Stomach and

its

SphinctersHollow Viscera (Heart, Stomach,

Analogy between the Muscular Arrangements and Movements

Bladder, Uterus) and those of the Trunk and Extremities of Vertebrates

531

xii

CONTENTSPAGE

Structure and Properties of Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles

634. .

151-153. Involuntary

MusclesVoluntary MusclesMixed Muscles

534-535

MUSCLES ENDOWED WITH CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL MOVEMENTS SARCOUS ELEMENTS OF MUSCLE THEIR PECULIAR ACTION

154-155. Muscular Motion as Bearing on the Functions performedExtremities,

by the Heart,

Blood-vessels, Thorax,

&c.How the Muscular Fibres Open and Close the Blood-vessels and the Several Compartments of the Heart also how the Stomach, Bladder, Thorax, and Abdomen Open and Close asWholes

or in Parts

.

.

.

.

..... ..

.

.

536-540544

156. 157.

Analogy between the Movements

of the Thorax,

Abdomen, and Heart

.

.

The Movements

of the

Mammahan

Heart, Interrupted and yet Continuous.

158.

Size of the Cavities of the

Heart [Mammal).

...

How

the Heart Rests

545547547

159.

Impulse

of the

Heart {Mammal)

THE VALVES OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM, ESPECIALLY 160-164.

IN

MANand549-556Chordae.

The Venous Valves,

their Structure, &c.

The

Venous Valves

in Action

lunar Valves, their Structure, &c.

The

Arterial or Semilunar Valves in

Other Valves

of the Fish, Reptile, Bird, &c.

165. Intricate

Structure of the Bicuspid and

Tricuspid Valves in

Tendinese to these Valves and to the Musculi Papillares

... ...Mammalia

Action

The

Arterial or Semi-

-The Semilunar. .

Relations

of the

559

166-168. The Bicuspid and Tricuspid Valves of theof the Action of the Bicuspid

Owing

...... .

Mammal

in Action

The Mechanical andSoundsof the.

Vital Theories:

and Tricuspid Valves considered

The

Heart

to.

what561-566

THE GANGLIA AND NERVES OF THE HEART, AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH THE CEREBRO-SPINAL AND SYMPATHETIC SYSTEMS IN MAMMALIA 169-175.

The

Cervical Cardiac BranchesInferior

The Middle andThe

The Thoracic Cardiac BranchesThe Superior Cervical Ganglia Cervical ClangUa The Upper Cardiac Nerve The Middle Cardiac Nerve.

Inferior Cardiac

Nerve

570-571Calf

176-177. Nerve Plexuses formed on the Roots

of

the.

Pulmonary Artery and Aorta in the..

Nerve572-573

Plexus formed on the Coronary Sinus of the Calf 178-180. Distribution of the

Nerves on the Surface and in the Substance of the Auricles

of the

Heart

Distribution of the Nerves on the Surface and in the Substance of the Ventricles of the Heart of the Horse and Calf Distribution of the Nerves on the Right and Left Ventricles 573-575 181-182. Distribution of the Nerves in the Human Heart Nerves and Ganglia the Human Heart 576-577Calf.

of the

of

183. Microscopic

Appearances

Vessels

184.

Why

does the Heart act Rhythmically

185-186. Proofs that the Heart

............... ......... presented

by the Ganglia found on

the

Coronary Sinus and CardiacKnr^F.,,n

?

may Act

independently of the Nerves

Proofs that the

Movements

of the

Heart are Regulated and Co-ordinated by the Nerves

5^0-581

187.

The Theory

of Irritabihty as bearing

on the Action

of the

Heart considered

.

Kon

CONTENTSTHE MOVEMENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF SENSITIVE, INSECTIVOROUS, CLIMBING, AND OTHER PLANTS

xiii

188-189. The Sensitive Plants and Pitcher Plants

The Droseraceae

or Insectivorous Plants Proper

....Bi/llisvol

...

PAGE.

587-593593

190-195. Aldrovanda vesiculosa

pula or Venus'sSensitive

Drusophyllum liisitanicum Roridula Fly-trap The Sun-Dew [Druscra umhfolia)Chmbing Plants

gigantea.

Dionfpct

musci-

597-601Tendrils,

Moving Plants Spiral Climbing Plants Revolving and Twisting Stems,

Leaves,

&c

605

196-200. Stem and Tendrilpea, Cucumber,

and Vegetable Marrow

....

Spirals

Formed by the

....

Tendrils of the Passion-flower, Sweet-

614-626

Design 201.

in

Climbing, Sensitive, and Insectivorous Plantsin Plants

Growth

and Animals

... . .

629

631 633

The

Universality of Spirals in Nature as indicated by Stereo-Chemistry, &c.

Spiral SpiralSpiral

ArrangementsArrangements Arrangements

in

the Physical Universe

634636

in the in the

Vegetable Kingdom

Animal Kingdom

.

645

SPIRAL FORMATIONS IN PLANTS

202-209. Spirahty in Plants the Product of Life and OriginalCells in Plants

Endowment Spiral

Seeds

Spiral and Other. .

Spiral

Stems

Spiral Climbing 210.

Spiral Fronds and FlowersSpiral HairsSpiral Distribution of Leaves and Branches and Boles Trees Spiral Fossil Stems 662-667 669 Plants Revolving and Tvristing of Stems, Tendrils, &c.of Plantsof. . . . . .

Eespiration of Plants and Animals

670671

211.

Growth

in Plants

and Animals a leading Factor

in Spiral Formations

and Functions

.

THE GROWTH OF RELATION TOFRUITS, SEEDS, 212.

SPIRAL SHELLS, HORNS, BONES, TEETH, FEATHERS, &c., IN SPIRAL PLANTS, BRANCHES, LEAVES, TENDRILS, FLOWERS,&c.

The Prevalenceand Flying

of Spiral

Formations

:

their Physiological Significance in Relation to Walldng,

Swimming,

The

double figure-of-8 Curves and Spirals..

Leonardo da Vinci

.

...

made by

the Wings in Fhght not

....

known

to

676

THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES VARIOUS VIEWS

213. Consideration of the

Theory

of the Origin of Species

by Means

of

Natural Selection Objections to

the Theory

689

214-215. The Origin of Species Undetermined and Indeterminable Professor Haeckel an Advanced Exponentof

the Darwinian Theory

691-699.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION As

Advocated by Professor Haeckel.

.

.

.714718

216. Short History of Spontaneous

GenerationRecent Views

.

.

Heredity and Descent Transmission of Peculiarities Natural and Acquired Formation, Use, and Disuse of Organs

724-

217.

A

First Cause Necessary to Life Life Transmissible Types

and Spontaneous Generation

...

of Plants

and Animals

versus Evolution

729

^iv

CONTENTSTHEFIRST APPEARANCE OF A

NERVOUS SYSTEM THE NERVOUS SYSTEM GENERALLYPAGE,

218.

The Nature and

Peculiarities of theis

Nervous System

738

Proofs that the Brain

the Organ, Apparatus, or Laboratory of the

Mind

^^^^^'-'

The Nervous System

as Bearing on Sensation, VoHtion, Muscular, and other Action

219-227. The Brain

Olfactory Ganglia Cerebral Ganglia or Hemispheres Corpora Striata Optic Thalami 777780 Tubercula Quadrigemina Cerebellum Tuber Annulare and Medulla Oblongata. .

Reflex Action

...

...

.

.

785

228-231. Unconscious Cerebration

Phrenology in Relation to Cortical Brain Areas Nerve Brain, Skin, and other Structures The Relations Existing between Brain and MuscleCONSCIOUSNESS AND

Endings in the.

790-801

MEMORY814. .

The Sensory Organs developed from Within and not from Without 232.

Environment

The

Production of the Eye

.

.

815 820833

233. Consideration of the

Argument

for

Design

.

The Sense-Organs

as Bearing on Adaptation and Design

234-241. The Sense of Touch

The

Sense of Taste

Sense of Smellor Labyrinth

The

Conditions

under which Smell

Conditions under which Taste Experienced Produced The Sense of HearingInternalis is

....

TheEar836-847

Sense of Sight

The Structure

of the

Eye, &c.

.

.

THE PHONOGRAPH AND TELEPHONE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO THE HUMAN VOICE AND EAR, AND AS ILLUSTRATING THE INTIMATE CONNECTIONS SUBSISTING BETWEEN THE INORGANIC AND ORGANIC KINGDOMS 242.

The Structure and Working

of the

Phonograph

243-244. Mechanism of the

Human

Voice

Mechanism

....of the

.

.

860

Human Ear

865-870

245-247. Structure and Working of the Telephone The Reiss (musical) Telephone Professor A.Bell's

Graham871-873874

Telephone

.

.

_

Reflex Action, Instinct, and Reason

248. The Alternate Propelhng and Retaining Muscular Structures of the

Body

(Heart, Stomach, Bladderanr..

Uterus, &c.) in Relation to so-called Reflex Action

Movement

in

Relation to Intelligence Development of Intelligence, &c.

890

Movements in the Protozoa The Ccelenterata The Annehda The Larva3 of Insects 249-257. Voluntary The MoUusca The Spiders The Ants The Sense Organs of Ants The Termites 890-909

258-259.

Bees and

Wasps Intelligence

of the Bees, &c.

...

.

911-917

CONSTRUCTION OF THE DOUBLE HONEY-COMB OF THE DOMESTICBEEEvidence of Designin said{Apis mellificd)

Construction

Intelligence of Fishes, Batrachians, Reptiles, and Birds

..... .

923 93g

260-263. The Intelligence of

the aforesaid Animals relatively Considered

935-940

CONTENTSINTELLIGENCE OF MAMMALS

XV

PAGE

264-268. Intelligence of Sea

Mammals

(Porpoise, Whale, Sirenidfe, Walrus, Seal,

and Sea-Lion).

.

.

957-963964

Intelligence of the

Land Mammals

in the

Wild and Domesticated State

269-287. Eabbit, Hare, Wild Pig, Buffalo, Bison, Beaver, Lion, Tiger, Bear, Otter, Wolf, Jackal, Fox, Weasel,Ferret, Polecat, Wolverine, Rat, Ox, Sheep, Goat, Horse, Cat, Dog, Elephant,

Monkey, &c.). .

966-1002101.3

288.

Man

as a Separate Creation

THE MUSCULAR AND OSSEOUS ARRANGEMENTS OF MAN EXPRESSION, RESPIRATION, LOCOMOTION, THE ERECT

AS

BEARING ON&c.Arrange-

POSITION,

289-294. The Muscular and Osseous Systems Interdependent and Complemental

mentsof the

of

Man

as a

Whole

Theof the

The Muscular.

Muscles of the Head, Face, and Neck {Human)

The Muscles and Bones1026-1035

Trunk, Thorax, and

Abdomen (Human)Bonesof the

Anterior View of the Bones and Cartilages of the Chest. .

(Human)

Lateral ViewLocomotion in

Chest (Human)

295.

Bones

of the Chest

and Shoulder Girdles which take part

in the

Swinging Pendulum-Movements of the.

Arms

in

Man

.

1035

296. Section of the Bones of the

Human

Pel-vis

showing the Pelvic Arch, the Lower Portionor Thighof

of the Vertebral

Column, and the Upper PartsJoints engaged in the 297-298.

of the

Femurs

Bones with their Ball and Socket or Universal

Pendulum-Movements

Walking, Running, &o.

....in. . .

1035Shoulder,

The Muscular Arrangements on the

Anterior, Posterior,

and Lateral Aspects

ManThe.

Hip, and other Muscles connected with Locomotion, the Erect Position, &c.

1036-1037

299. Lateral

View

of the Superficial Muscles of the Efforts, &c.

Human.

Chest and.

Abdomen connected with.

Respiration,.

Abdominal Expulsive

.

1042

300-302. Lateral View of the Deeper Muscles (more especially of the Abdomen) connected with Respiration,

Abdominal Expulsiveof the

Efiorts, &c.

(Human)

Lateral(Human).

View

of the Muscles

and Ribs

of the Left Side

the

Body connected with Respiration, Lumbar Region (Human)

Muscular Arrangements and Positionfrom the Abdomen 303.

... ...of the

&c.

Transverse Section of the Abdominal Cavity. .

in

1042

Diaphragm

or Partition which Separates the

Thorax1042

The Diaphragm

as seen

from Above and from Beneath (Human)

.

.

1042

304-305. Superficial Muscles of the Left Chest and Front of the

Chest and Superficial Muscles

of the

Front of the

Arm (Human) Arm (Human).

Deep.

Muscles of the.

1044-1045

306-311. Muscles of the

Human Arm,

Forearm, and

Hand

Muscles occurring :

on the Dorsum of the Scapula,

and the Back of the Arm (Human) Anterior View of the Superficial Muscles of the Forearm (Human) Anterior View of the Deep Muscles of the Forearm (Human) Posterior Surface of the Forearm Its Deep Muscles (Human) Posterior Surface of the Forearm 1045-1047 Its Superficial Muscles (Human):

.

THE BONES OF THE WRIST AND RIGHT HAND DORSAL SURFACE

(Human)

312-314. Muscles of the

HandDorsal

Surface

(//Mma)Muscles, Tendons,

&c.,

of the Left. .

Hand1049-10501051

Pahnar Surface (//Mmaw)Lumbrical and Interosseous Muscles of the 315.

Hand (Human).

The Muscular Arrangements

of the Inferior Extremities in

Man

.

...

xvi

CONTENTSPAGE

316-320. Muscles of the Iliac and Anterior Femoral Regions (Human)

Muscles

of the

Inner Aspect of the

Thigh (Human)ficial

Musclesof the

of the

Front

of

the Leg; Anterior Tibio-fibular Region

(Human)

Super1052-1057

and Certainof the Leg,

Deep Muscles

of the

Lower Leg.

as seen

from Behind (Human)

Muscles of the.

Back

Deep Layer (Human)

BONES OF THE RIGHT FOOT SEEN FROM THE INSIDE 321.

(Human)1058of the Foot,

Longitudinal Section of the Soft and

Hard Parts

of the

Foot (Human)

322-326. Muscles of the Sole of the Foot, Superficial Layer (Human)

Muscles of the Sole

Second

Layer (Human)

Muscles of the Sole of the Foot, Third or Plantar Interossei Muscles the Foot (Human) The Footof

Deepest Layer (Human)

The Dorsal and.

of

Man

adapted to the Erect Position

1058-1060

DESIGN AS MANIFESTED IN THE 327.

HUMAN FOOT, HAND, AND ORGANS OFFootof the

LOCOMOTIONThe

Human

Foot and Hand.

in Relation to the

Horse and the Wing of the Bird, Bat, and,

Pterodactyl

1063 1067

Design as Displayed

in

the Muscular System generally

VOLUME THREE ANIMAL LOCOMOTION 328.

Extended General Statement and Review

of the

whole Subject

.

.

10731091 109110911091

329-331. Fundamental332.

Axioms Of Uniform MotionMotion UniformlyPendulums owing

Varied

.

The Legs move

largely as

to the Force of Gravitation

333-334. Resistance of Fluids

335.

Centre of Gravity

The

Mechanical Effects on Animals Lever Relation to StabilityIts

immersed

in

them

PASSIVE 336. 337.

ORGANS OF LOCOMOTIONj092

Bones

Joints Ligaments

.

Effect of Atmospheric Pressure on

Limbs

1094

ACTIVE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 338.

Muscles, their Properties, Arrangement,

ModeHorse

of Action, &c..

.

339. 340.

The Distribution

of the Muscles of the of

.

...

IO941097

The Traveling Surfaces

Animals Modified and Adapted to the Medium on or in which they Move

1100

MOVEMENTS 341.

IN

RUDIMENTARY LIVING MATTERjj^jj^

Instantaneous Photography a Valuable Aid in Determining Animal Movements

PROGRESSION ON

THE LAND

342-345. The Creeping of the Serpentin

The

Locomotion

of Birds (the Ostrich,

ManLocomotion

of the

Horse

...

Adjutant, &c.).

Locomotion1115-1131

CONTENTSTHE OSSEOUS AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS OF THE HORSE 346-352.

xvii

PARE

The Walk,

Trot, Gallop, Canter, Amble, Rack,

and Ricochet..

of the.

Horse

.

.

1137-1143 1144-1146

353-355. Locomotion of the Giraffe, Elephant, and

Dog

.

PROGRESSION ON AND IN

THE WATEROctopus, Squid, Winged Medusa, and. .

356-361. The

Swimming

of

the Jelly-fish,. .

Scallop,.

Salpa.

cristata,

Sea-Butterfly 362-366.

.

,

1149-1155other

The Swimming

Birds

....

of the Lobster, Fresh-water Tortoise, Turtle,

....

and Triton, and. .

of the,

Swan and

1156-1160

367-368. Analysis of the

Fish, &c. 369.

.

....of the.

Swimming

of the Fish

Consideration of the Osseous and Muscular Systems of theof the

Analysis of the

Movements

Swimming.

Whale, Porpoise, Hahtherium, Rhytina, Dugong,1174.

Manatee, &c. 370.

..... . .

.

1162-1171

Analysis of the

Swimming Movementsof the

of the

Walrus, Seal, and Sea-Lion

.

.

371-372. TheFlight

Swimming.

Penguin.

Flight.

under Water

Difference betweenWings.

..... .

1179

Sub- Aqueous and Aerial

1185-1190

373.

The Fhght

of the Flying-fish The Kite-like Action of its

.1192

DESIGN

IN THE SWIMMING APPLIANCES OF ANIMALS Fins, and Wings resemble each other Structurally and Functionally The Swimming Organs form the Transition Links between the Walking and Running Organs, and the Volant or Flying Organs 1193

AS

WITNESSED

Flippers,

374.

General Statement regarding the Nature and Extent of the Surfaces employed in Walking, Swimming,

and Flying

.

1196

PROGRESSION IN OR 375.

THROUGH THEto Horizontal Flight

AIR1201

The Wing can Produce and

Utilise Artificial Air Currents

376-378. Weight necessary to Flight

Weight contributes

Power 379.

as Factors in

Fhght

...and Weight

Weight,

Momentum, and.

1203-1204.

Air-CeUs in Insects, Birds, and Bats not Necessary to Flight

1205

380-382.

How

Balancing

is

Effected in Fhghtfor

The Sound produced by the WingRapidityVariable and in Excess.

of

Wing Move1206-1208

ments partly accounted

The

Wing Area

.

SERIES

OF EXPERIMENTS BY THE AUTHOR SHOWING EXCESS OF WING AREA IN THE FLY, DRAGON-FLY, BUTTERFLY, HOUSE SPARROW, kc.as the Sizeof the

383.

The Wing Area decredSesconstructed on a

Volant Animal increases

.

.12111213

All

Wings

Common

Principle, namely, that of the Helix or

Screw

THE WINGS OF INSECTS

384-385. Anterior Wings (Elytra or Wing-Cases), their Shape and Uses

The Posterior Wings, their Nervures,12201221.

Form, Function, &c. 386. 387. 388.

.

.

Threefold Action of the

Wing

in Insects

Fhght Essentially a

Spiral, Gliding

Movementdiffer

1222 1223

Points wherein the Screws formedI.

by the Wings

from the Screw Propellers in Use in Steamshipsc

VOL.

xviii

CONTENTSIN

THE WING A TWISTED LEVER OR HELIX ITS MODE OF ACTION

THE

INSECT,Centreof

&c.PAGE

389-391. Arrangement

for

Moving the Wings

of

Insects

Speedits.

Attained by Insects

The

Gravity in Insects

Articulation of the

Wing

to the

Body

of the Insect

1225

When

the

Body of the Volant Animal is Fixed and Describe the Figure-of-8 Trajectories in the Air

Wings

are

made

to Vibrate they

1227to Vibrate they.

When

the

Body

of the Volantfirst

describe392.

Animal Looped and then

Advancing and its Wings are made Waved Tracks in Spaceis

1228

Mode

of Investigation

pursued by the Authorof the

1228

393.

The Muscles and Joints

Wing

.

.

.1228

394-395. Mechanical Theory of the Action of the Insect's

Wing.

as Stated

by Chabrier

Objections toWings..

the.

Mechanical Theory of 396.

Wing Movements

.

1229

Method

of

Demonstrating the Accuracy of the Figure-of-8 Movements made by

all

1230

397-398. Flight of thesimilar Conditions

Common

House-fly as seen in the Living Insect

...of the

^FUght

of the Crane-fly. .

under1230-1231

THE WINGS OF

BIRDSWingof the

399-401. Structure and General Appearance presented by thethe Birdof the

Bird

Movements of the Wing of..

Flexion and Extension of the

Wing

Valvular Action of the Primary and Secondary Feathers

Wing

Muscles,

Bones, Joints, Elastic Structures, &c., of theof

Winglivia).

1238-1247.

402. 403.

Dimensions and Weights

Important Parts

Pigeon (Columba

12491251

Consideration of the Forces which propel the Wings of Birds and Bats

.

.

404-406.

Lax Condition

of the Shoulder-Joint in Birds

and Bats

The Wing Flexed and partly Elevated byof such

the Action of Elastic LigamentsCrested-Crane, Swan, &c.

The Nature

and Position

Ligaments in the Pheasant, Snipe,in

The

Elastic Ligaments

more highly Differentiated

Wings which are1251-1252

made 407.

to Vibrate rapidlyof the

Power

Wing, to what Owing

.

1253

408-409. The Skeleton or Osseous System of the Bird (Golden Eagle) The Bones of theTheir Articular Surfaces, Movements, &c..

...Wing

of the

Bird1253-1255

THE MOVEMENTS PECULIAR TO THE SHOULDER, ELBOW, WRIST, AND OTHER JOINTS IN THE WING OF THE BIRD

410-416. Shoulder-Joint, Elbow-Joint, Wrist-Joint

The

Eeciprocate

Elevation and Depression

of the

Wing, how causedin the

Elbow, Wrist, and Other Joints Alternate and The Elbow, Wrist, and other Joints

always at nearly Right Angles

Lateral

Movements

Elbow, Wrist, and other Joints

125G-1258

TRACES OF DESIGN 417.

IN

PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY FEATHERS,Flexion and Extension of the

THE WING OF THE BIRD THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE&c.j259

Wing

of the

Bird in Flight

.

.

The Wing

Strikes

Upwards and Forwards during

the

Up

during the 418. 419.

Down

Stroke

...

Stroke, and

Downwards and Forwards2262.

Reasons

why

the Effective Stroke should be delivered

Downwards and Forwards

j267

The Wing

Acts as an Elevator, Propeller, and Sustainer, both during Extension and Flexion

1267

CONTENTS 420.

The Flight

of Birds divisible into

Four Kinds

Differences

to be

Noted between Flapping or Rowing1267

Fhght, and Saihng or Swimming Flight

421.

The Eegular and

Irregular in Flight

....Down and Up

....

xixPAGE

1270 1272

The Wing Acts 422-423.

as a True Kite both during the

Strokesbe Noted.

Analogy between the Wing and a Boy's Kiteits

Points

by the Wing with the Horizon during

Vibrations

...

of Difference to

The Angles formed. .

1272-1273Tip

424-429. The Margins of theof the Bird'sits

Wing thrown

into Opposite Curves during Extension

and FlexionChangeof

The

and Bat's Wing describes an BlUpse

The

Wing capable

of

Form

in all

Parts

Wing

The Wing when made to Vibrate produces a Cross PulsationCompound The Wing Oscillates unequally with Reference to a Given Line..

Rotation of the.

430.

The Flight

of the

Sea-GuU as witnessed on the West Coast

of

Scotland

.

.

....

1275-12771277

431-432. Analysis of the Movements of Extension and Flexion in the

Inclination which the

Flexion vary

......Under Surfaces&c.,

of the Gannet's

Wing of the Gannet Wing make with the Horizon in Extension and

The Angles of1278-1279

MEASUREMENTS, WEIGHTS, 433.

OF THE GANNET AND HERON.. .

Flight of the Gannet as witnessed at the Bass Rock, Firth of Forth, Scotland

1280

434-435.

A

Regulating Power necessary in Flight

The Wings atWing

all

Times thoroughly under Control

1281-12821283.

Analysis of the 436. 437.

Down and Upis

Strokes of the

of the Bird in Flapping or

Rowing Flight.

The Body

made

to Ascend

when

the Wings Descend and vice versd

1285 12861287

The Natural Wing when Elevated and Depressed must move Forwards The Body and Wings moveBirdsfly

438. 439.

in Opposite Curveslarge,

.

.

.

...;

by causing

their

powerful Wings to act upon the Air as Kites

the Air furnishingare

a suitable Fulcrum for supporting and carrying them Upwards and Forwardspelled

The Wings

Pro-

by Voluntary

well-directed Muscular

Movements, aided by certain Elastic Structures which

contribute to the continued Vibrations of the Wings

In Fhght, Weight and. .

important Part 440. Lifting 441.

.

.

.

...

Momentum

play

an12881288

Capacity of Birds.

Mode

of Ascending, Descending, Turning, &c.

1289

THE WINGS OF BATS 442. 443. 444.

Where

the Bat's

Wing

agrees with and differs from that of the Insect and Birdof the

.

1291.

The Bones

of the

Wing

Bat

The

Spiral Configuration of their Articular Surfaces

Extension and Flexion of the Wing of the Bat

....

1291

.

1291

THE WINGS OF PTERODACTYLS

{Extinct flying reptiles)

445.

The Wings

of Pterodactyls are Original Structures in the Sense that

when Created 446.

...

they formed part of the Animals1293

The WingsBats

of Pterodactyls

conform to the Requirements

of Fhght, as witnessed in Insects, Birds,

and1294

447.

The Wings

of Pterodactyls afford

Examples

of

Extreme Modification

for a

Special Purpose

.

,

1294

XX 448.

CONTENTSPAGE

Points wherein the Wings of Pterodactyls and Bats Agree and Disagree

be Noted 449.

....

Important

Differences to

.

.

1294

The Wings

of Pterodactyls are

produced not by Dwarfing or Obhterating original Typical Parts, but byin Size of the Parts

the Excessive Growth and Increase 450.

more

especially connected with Flight

.

.1295

The Wingsa

of

Pterodactyls are Triangular in Shape, Elastic, carefully-graduated Organs, formed on

Common Typeof Pterodactyls, Bats,

....

.

.

.

.

12951295

451.

The Wings

and Insects supply Good Models

for

Winged Flying-machines

EXTINCT PLANTS AND ANIMALS THEIR PECULIARITIES LARGE SIZERELATIONS TO THE YOUNG EARTH, &c. 452. 45.3.

Extinct Plants

their

unusual Appearance, &c., as compared with Modern Plants. .

1299.

Gigantic Extinct Reptiles and Birds

13041322

454. Gigantic Extinct

Mammals

.

THE ORIGIN AND CAREER OF MAN 455. 45(j.

Antiquity of

Manin

.

.

1331.

The

Human Race

Greek and

Roman Times

1342.

457. Antiquity of

Man from

the Geological Standpoint

.

1350

APPENDICESAPPENDIXOF ANATOMICAL PREPARATION-MAKING AS DEVISED AND PRACTISED BY THE AUTHOR AT THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, AND AT THE HUNTERIAN MUSEUM OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND (LONDON)I. HISTORY

...MAREY.

.

i363

(Reprinted from the Lancet of

November 23rd and

30th, 1901.)

APPENDIX

LOCOMOTION. FESSOR COUGHTRIEII. AERIAL. .

PETTIGREW. .

versus.

By PRO13g5

(Reprinted from the Quarterly Journal of Science, April 1875.)

APPENDIX III. REFUTATION OF THE CLAIM PUT FORWARD BY THE ADMIRERS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI TO BE REGARDED AS THE DISCOVERER OF THE TRUE PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

...

1395

(" Spiral

Formations in Relation to Walking, Swimming, and Flying."

Lancet,

January 2nd 1904

)

^

INDEX'

.1,01

''

of

Wings

Oi] the I\li'i4iaiiioal Appliances by wliicli ' (Tmnx. Roy Hue. Edin., vol. xxvi.).

Flight

is

attained in the Animal

Kingdom"

(7Vrt)is. Zi/tH. ,SW'.

vol xxvi ) ''''

"

n ^"

f v,

^^'^

ni J^hysiology

PREFACETheThispresentis

work has attained much

greater dimensions than

was

originally intended or

was perhaps

desirable.cases,

due to the large number

of subjects treated,

and to the

fact that

they are correlated, and, in

many

overlap.It

Palaeontology more or less in detail, as these

was necessary to deal with Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, and all hang together and bear an important relation to each other in an

inquiry such as the present. " Design in Nature " has a far-reaching significance

that

proofs thereof are drawn from the cosmos as a whole, had confined my researches to one groove, the task would The result, however, would not have been quite satisfactory, part of the Universe, and in no one part more than in another. as Design is apparent in every The work deals with many of the more important problems of Philosophy and Life so keenly discussed of late To give breadth to the inquiry, the leading sciences years not only by scientists, but also by the general public. laid under contribution, it being pointed out that the animal is indebted to the plant, and the plant to have been the Inorganic Kingdom that all things living and dead are correlated and interact according to common laws, which alike govern the Inorganic and Organic Kingdoms. A Creator or First Cause, it is claimed, regulates and upholds everything. Nothing comes by chance. While it is hoped the work is (as far as possible) scientifically accurate and up to date, it is written in a popular

when

from the Inorganic and Organic Kingdoms. have been light and the compass of the work small.is,

If I

style

all technicalities

The great bulkof others.

of the text

being avoided or explained. care being taken to quote authorities is original:

when

I

am indebted

to the labours

In not a few cases I give extracts from the writings of fellow-workers, in order that those interested may be fully informed and enjoy facilities for exercising their own judgment in difficult and disputed points. I have not hesitated to introduce matter from my own memoirs, papers, lectures, &c., published in the Philo-

and other Transactions, in Journals, and separately, when this seemed desirable. In these instances I give the references and dates, so that opportunities for consultation may be afforded to those desiring more extended information on any point treated. The matter so incorporated is not, in any case, to be regarded as supersedingsophical

the source from which

it is drawn. In order to save the time of the reader, and simplify, as much as possible, the various complicated problems I have also taken discussed, I have introduced into the work a comparatively very large number of illustrations. quite a large proportion of them the illustrations accurate both as regards outhne and detail great pains to make being from photographs and drawings from actual specimens either by my artist, Mr. Charles Berjeau, or by myself.:

The

illustrations

when not

original are (where practicable) duly acknowledged.

It is as artistic and beautiful as it is truthful and striking. I cannot too highly praise Mr. Berjeau's work. hearty co-operation and imgrudging labour under my own eye for several years, it would not have been But for his possible to achieve the results aimed at. the admirable manner in which I have to express my cordial thanks to the Messrs. Butterworth of London for

they have executed the numerous wood-cuts, engravings, &c., and to my Publishers, Messrs. Longmans, Green & Co., vigilance and forethought displayed by them in everything of London New York, and Bombay, for the watchful pertaining to publication, for arranging important details, and for producing the work in an attractive and desirable form nor must I omit favourable mention of my Printers, Messrs. Ballantyne, Hanson & Co., of Edinburgh, for and illustrations in their passage through the press. Lastly, my best their careful and delicate handling of the text:

thanks are due to numerous friends who have kindly assisted me in correcting the proofs. Of these I have specially LL.D., University of Glasgow H. Warren Jones, M.A., Oxon. to mention the names of Professor John Ferguson, John H. Wilson, D.Sc. and John C. Bagot, Esq. Professor F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A.;

;

;

xxiiIt only remains forreference.

PREFACEmeis

to state that the

work has been divided

into sections,initself.

Each

section

intended to be, as far as possible, complete

which are numbered for easy It is, however, hoped that the

reader will peruse the sections consecutively, as they are mutually explanatory. If the accoimt given of the relations subsisting between the Inorganic and Organic

Kingdoms

serves to direct the

a,ttention of the reader to the wonderful adaptations of means to ends which everywhere obtain in the Universe, and which can only be explained by the existence of an intelligent Creator, Designer, and Upholder, the object which

I

have had in view

will

be fully attained.

The Swallowgate,St.

Andrews,Scotland.

NOTEThe manuscript of " Design in Nature " was quite completed by the Author, and a considerable Work was printed under his direction. On his death, which occurred on January 30, 1908,theSt.

portion of thethe revision of

proof and the passage of the sheets through the press were entrusted to Dr. John H. Wilson, of Andrews University, with the assistance of Mr. H. Warren Jones, M.A., and the others named in the Preface. They have endeavoured faithfully to carry out the task allotted to them, but it is very probable that if the Author had lived to see the whole Work in type, means of improvement would have suggested themselves to him. The Index has been compiled by Dr. Wilson.

INTRODUCTIONThepresent work naturally and necessarily covers a wide field, from the fact that it attempts to trace Design, Order, and Purpose in the inorganic and organic kingdoms, especially the latter. It concerns itself not only with inorganic matter and physical force, but also with organic matter, vital force, and intellect. It seeks to explain, so far as that is possible, the combinations and movements of atoms and molecules in dead and living matter, particularly where growth is concerned growth and force frequently acting on essentially the same lines, as witness the formation of dendrites, frost-pictures, lightning-imprints, the branching of plants, and the division and distribution of blood-vessels, &c., in animals. It aims at showing that growth occurs in specific or predetermined directions that atoms and molecules under the influence of hfe coalesce to form cells, and that from cells all, or nearly all, the tissues of plants and animals; ;

are produced.It

attempts to demonstrate that atoms and molecules obey certain laws, and that they are under control, and;

arrange and group themselves in straight hnes, radiating and otherwiseotherwise;

in curves and circles concentric and and multiple, and in the several forms common in crystals, plants, and animals. It strives to refer the formative processes of certain crystals and certain plants and animals to the same or similar laws, to show how inorganic and organic products are built up, and how plants and animals tend to spUt and divide longitudinally and transversely to produce branching and segmentation. The branching is well seen in the majority of plants, and in the blood-vessels and other parts of animals. The segmentation is witnessed in the horse-tails among plants and in the vertebral column of animals. It endeavours to explain that in plants and animals there is gradation and advance from lower to higher forms, according to a gradually ascending scale, as apart from evolution or the production of the one from the other by unlimited modifications in unlimited time. It makes for advance, by the improvement of individuals and by the a state of matters which gives fixity with a certain amount of fluctuation creation of higher types with varieties in spirals single, double,;

;

the fluctuation being confined within prescribed limits in such athis

way

as never to produce confusion.

It is

only in

way

that the absence of connecting links in the geologic and other records can be explained.

rudiments and vestiges and embryonic changes in the higher forms to a general plan, thus asserting and manifesting itself at every stage of the hfe histories of plants and animals. It is felt that the resemblances of the embryos of higher forms to the adults of lower allied forms afford no proof that the higher forms are manufactured from the lower ones in the course of untold ages. If this theory were true, and if, as beUeved by many, the production of the lower forms was confined to a particular period, atime would inevitably come when no lower the fact being that countless millions of such forms exist and always have existed. forms would be left It advocates the doctrine that like produces like in endless sequence, and that each begets only its own kind. It asserts that plants and animals differ, and fundamentally differ, from each other from their first inception, and that there is no such thing as a universal sarcode or protoplasm common to all. The physical conditions of reproduction are to a large extent the same as regards climate, atmosphere, moisture, heat, &c., and nothing short of fxmdamental differences in the ultimate embryonic elements themselves can account for the amazing multitude and variety of plants and animals found on the earth. It proclaims the belief that a nervous system (in the ordinary sense) is not necessary to what are essentially voluntary movements, and that myriads of lower forms act in definite directions and to given ends as apart from It further attributes to the lower animals with a nervous system a certain degree of consciousness and the it. power of reasoning the reasoning faculty being graduated and culminating in man. It endeavours to illustrate the several points alluded to above by constant references to structures and movements occurring in the two great kingdoms of nature, namely, the inorganic kingdom, represented by "brut" matter, and the organic kingdom, consisting of plants and animals in endless variety. It proceeds on the conviction that in the universe there is a store of matter and of force which, himianly that all the matter which enters into the composition of plants speaking, can neither be increased nor diminished and animals is taken from and ultimately restored to the inorganic kingdom that a certain proportion even of theIt relegates; ; ; ;

xxivforce

INTRODUCTION; ;

o g and that the inorganic and which actuates plants and animals is traceable to the same source kingdoms are co-extensive, complemental, conditioned, and correlated the one being made for the other. Cause, It attributes the production and correlation of matter, force, and mind to a Creator or First possible o p It is not cates a primal power or force from which, directly or indirectly, everything proceeds. '^S Intelligence in varying force from matter, and mind and intelligence from matter, as we know them.

^

or men a referred all the creative acts, all the known elements, and all forms of force whether physical, vital, The spherical s apes traceable. it, design, law, order and the constitutions and movements of things in general are actions ot plants and well-defined movements of the heavenly bodies, and the symmetrical forms and regulated endowment and animals, support this view. The intelligence of animals and of man is to be regarded as a special.

the product of certain forms of living matter.

It

is

the mainspring of action in the universe.

To

it

are

the but an emanation from the divine InteUigence, with this great difference, that in the creature it is finite, and consciousCreator infinite. The Creator works in and through matter and mind, and has implanted reason, Originally, matter, force, mind and ness of a kind, in varying degrees in the lower and higher organic forms. This accounts for the interdependence of all created things, and for the consciousness have a common source.

m

harmony which

characterises the inorganic

and organic kingdoms.

It also accounts for the uniformity of vital

things are not automata,

and mental manifestations. No and life

purely physical or mechanical explanation of the universe can suffice. Living Neither can the abiding presence of the is a factor which cannot be overlooked.

Deity be ignored when discussing the properties and powers of matter, and the peculiarities of mind and consciousness, whether in their rudimentary or advanced forms. Deviations from recognised laws are possible with the Creator. The Maker of all things can re-arrange without destroying His work. Aberrations apparent or real (and such do occasionally occur) are not, in a sense, miraculous. In the present work I endeavour to show that the combinations of matter, force, mind, and consciousness are I seek to prove that inorganic and organic matter, and physical, vital, and mental force, are practically endless.not opposed to each otherI find;

that a Creator, Prime Mover, or First Cause

is

necessary to produce dead and livingall.

matter, and physical, vital, and mental force, and that the same laws, to a large extent, dominate

everywhere in nature a well-ordered scheme, where everything, living and dead,it.

fits

into

some

other

thing specially prepared to receiveI

observe law and order and specific arrangements and design throughout the entire cosmos.

I can make out, is left to chance. There is no room for accident in the great scheme of the The inanimate kingdom gives of its best to the animate, and in due time the animate repays its debt to the inanimate. The inanimate gives its substance and a considerable proportion of its force to the animate. The coming and going and give-and-take movements (essentially rhythmic in character) which obtain in the physical universe, and which are represented by day and night, the seasons, the rise and fall of the tides, &c., are reproduced in circulatory movements in respiratory movements and interchanges in various ways in plants and animals in endosmotic and exosmotic currents which add to and take in the ingress of food and the egress of effete matter The in secretion and excretion, in pulsating spaces, contractile vesicles, hearts, and so on. from living structures great rhythms of the physical universe are transferred in a multitude of ways to the vegetable and animal kingdoms a circumstance of the deepest import, as showing that the inorganic kingdom is, in a sense, the parent of the organic All kingdom, and that the two kingdoms are in complete accord, and complemental, even in matters of detail. the movements in the inorganic and organic kingdoms are ordered, correlated, complemental movements. They

Nothing, so far as

universe.

;

;

;

;

;

;

bespeak a Creator, a Designer, an InteUigent First Cause. While we cannot penetrate the veil which conceals the beginnings of things, we are permitted and encouraged to reason about things as they are. If we find matter and force and the manifestations of mind everywhere presentin the organic

and inorganic kingdoms if the matter and force and mind are regulated by unalterable laws if and the most wonderful adaptations of means to ends present themselves on all hands we are forced An intelUgent agent of the highest conto postulate not only a Creator and Prime Mover but also an Upholder. ceivable kind becomes a necessity. It is not possible for a well-balanced mind to imagine that the universe, teeming with life and movement, correlated and interacting in the most extraordinary manner, is the result of accident. We cannot believe that the heavenly bodies marked out their own orbits, that the sea set its own boundaries and that plants and animals with their wealth of structure and function are the offspring of accident. There is nothing in nature to countenance the doctrine of chance, of natural selection, and of spontaneous generation, which ignores a Creator and proposes to dispense with a First Cause and Design. * Life, wherever it occurs, is transmitted It is an emanation from the primordial source, in the same sense that the matter in which it is manifested is an emanation The connection between the matter and force of the universe, and between plants and animals, is of the st intimate character. Life works in and through matter, which it is continually incorporating and discharginoTh matter, and the force inhering in it, are, as a rule, readily available for the purposes of hfe the atoms and;

;

traces of design

;

;

1

INTRODUCTIONcules being so arranged that they

xxv

discretion both matter

euArironment,

and

all

admit of being easily separated and appropriated. Life selects and rejects at and living things are superior to their surroundings. They are not the slaves of the changes and modifications which occur in them, at every stage of their histories, primarily

and

force,

origmate in themselves according to fixed laws. Environment, while it is indirectly associated with modifications up to a point, cannot be credited with the modifications, any more than it can be credited with the production of structures and organs. As a matter of fact, plants and animals are very little amenable to environment they are not moved by dead substances acting simply as stimuli, and are not irritable in the modern sense. They, as a rule, feel, but feeling and irritability are essentially different things, the one being natural, the other unnatural, that is,;

Plants and animals are entities, and represent creations in time and space. They have their incomings and outgoings, their rise and fall their habitat is provided, their food assured, and quite an extraordinary degree of permanence guaranteed to leading types. Nothing is left to the fates not only are the essential factors of plants and animals provided for in the great scheme of nature, but trivial details are arranged and boundaries thrown up which restrict modifications and variations to comparatively narrow dimensions. In no case is endless modifi-

abnormal.

;

;

cation permitted.

Boundaries and limits are set to the changes and movements which occur in the inanimate and animate kingdoms, and everything that is is amenable to law and order, and virtually to the same law and order. There can be but one Creator, Regulator, and Upholder. I am wholly opposed to the theory of irritabiUty, and its ally, extraneous stimulation, as applied to plants andAll

animals.

my

researches go to prove that plants and animals are masters within their

own domain, andItis

that

they

select,

subjugate,

and utiUse matter

in every form,

whether that be

solid, liquid, or gaseous.

able to believe that living things inaugurate and regulate their inaugurated and regulated by dead matter outside of themselves.tiveness, sensitiveness

own movements thanWhileliving things

that their

more reasonmovements aresensi-

must be credited with

proof of irritability

must not be confounded with irritability. Neither is responsiveness to external stimuh any of constitution in plants and animals. Finally, it does not follow that because plants and

animals respond, within limits, to external stimulation, the external stimulation or outside influence is identical with the internal impulse which, imder normal conditions, initiates and determines all the movements and functions of plants and animals. It is an error to suppose that plants and animals must, of necessity, be possessed of irritable

and be jogged into activity by externalities. Such views ignore the powers and potentiahties of life, and regard plants and animals as mere automata, which they certainly are not. Plants and animals never lose their identity, or abrogate their powers. Chmate and other external conditions only affect them up to a certain point. That there inheres in plants and animals a power of endurance, a power of resistance, and a power of initiation and adaptation is proved in various ways. Plants and animals of various orders protect themselves by developing structures calculated to ward off inimical influences. Thus plants which in temperate climates, where evaporation is moderate, have smooth stems and thin leaves, develop rough stems and thick fleshy leaves in tropical climates where evaporation is excessive and moisture has to be conserved and water stored. They also, in many cases, alter their shape and position and diminish or altogether dispense with leaves developing scales, prickles, hairs, &c., and exuding gums, waxes, and protecting varnishes. They hkewise, in not a few instances, develop protecting epidermic cells and ligneous and other tissues. In the case of invasion by insects and grubs, plants throw up defensive works, as happens in the formation of briar and other galls. They protect themselves from poison wounds by exuding callous substances to prevent absorption of the materies morhi. Similar remarks may be made of animals. The skin of the European is white, thin, and dry that of the negro dark, thick, and oleaginous, and adapted to high temperatures. Animals in the Arctic region have their skins protected by an abundance of fur. In tropical climates, animals have fine coats of The fact that plants hair or are hairless and thick-skinned, as witness the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus. and animals adapt themselves to their surroundings for their own protection and comfort lends no countenance to the doctrine that they are a prey to circumstances, and wholly at the mercy of external conditions and environment. The time has now come when, it appears to me, the subject of environment, irritability, and external stimulation must be reconsidered. Environment undoubtedly exercises a certain influence on the structural peculiarities and movements of plants and animals, but the influence is of an indirect and limited character, and all changes of structure, and all movements resulting therefrom, begin and terminate in the plants and animals themselves. In other words, environment does not act as a cause in the strict and proper acceptation of that term, and it does not, however great the time allowed, alter plants and animals beyond recognition. Mr. Charles Darwin in part reahsed this fact. In his " Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection " he says (p. 11) " We clearly see thatconstitutions,;

;

:

the nature of the conditionspassages, for he adds (p. 46) "

is

subordinate in importance in comparison with the nature of the organism in

determining each particular form of variation.":

acting directly

Changed conditions of on the organisation, and indirectly by

He, however, modifies and virtually alters his opinion in other life are of the highest importance in causing variabihty, both byaffecting the reproductive system.. . .

Variations of

all

kinds

VOL.

I.

^

xxvi

INTRODUCTION

and degrees are directly or indirectly caused by the conditions of life to which each being, and more especially its ancestors, have been exposed." Dr. St. George Mivart states the case as follows "It seems, then, to be undeniable that the characters and the variation of species are due to the combined action of internal and external agencies acting in a direct, positive It will be seen that Dr. Mivart, while attributing the characters and the variation and constructive manner." of species to the operation of internal and external agencies, properly assigns the internal agency the first place. It has been customary of late years, especially on the Continent, to ignore a First Cause and the Design which:

i

a First Cause imphes, and to attribute the universe and everythingparticles;

it

contains to a chance assemblage of materiallife,

to matter fashioning itself

;

to matter

assuming movements and

and, in the fulness of time, evolving

from a monad to a man. " The homogeneous, viscid, plasma substance, which singly and alone Thus Professor Ernst Haeckel says formed the bodies of the first organisms, and even at this day quite alone forms them in the case of the monera, or simplest amoebic forms, is analogous to the tenacious and viscid planetary substance which contains the elements and substance of the young earth, as well as the other glowing world bodies. In both cases the form of the creation happened, not through the capricious interference of a personal Creator, but through the original power of matter:

fashioning

itself.

Attraction and repulsion, centripetal force and centrifugal force, condensation and rarefaction of"

the material particles, are the only creative powers, which at this point lay the foundations of the complicatedstructure of creation."

This

is

the position taken up

by extreme

evolutionists.

Nothing, however,

exacting hypothesis, which seeks to set aside a Creator, Design, andstitute

Law and

is gained by accepting such an Order in the old sense, and to sub-

what

is

practically a stone for bread.itself,

Ex

nihilo nihil

fit.

rational to believe in a First Cause

Universe as we know it. It is more and Design than to leave everything to a fortuitous concatenation of circumstances. In the one case there is law and order and the adaptation of means to ends from the beginning in the other there is uncertainty, confusion, and marked disorder. The gulf between life and death is wide and deep, but evolutionists, with an assurance worthy of a better cause, perseveringly ask us to take a stupendous leap in the dark without, in a sense, looking before or behind. They say, in so many words, that inanimate or dead matter can create itself, can usurp life, can develop intellect, and can control and shape the destinies of men and nations. Every intelUgent being, however, who is capable of thinking and reasoning, has in himself the evidence of an absolutely opposite state of things. He laiows that he can control and change the shape of inanimate matter. He further knows that he can control and alter the direction of physical force. Notwithstanding all this, evolutionists calmly and confidently invite us to believe that matter, dead matter, is eternal and omnipotent, and that everything that exists is produced from it, in the lapse of time, by infinite permutations. They assert that, given sufficient time and sufficient modifications, " brut " matter assumes and exercises the prerogative of life and produces rudimentary plants and animals which trend upwards, and ultimately culminate in man. Evolutionists assuredly make large demands upon our credulity, if not upon our reasoning faculties, and in doing so they intentionally or unintentionally take for granted what requires to be proved theirs is a case Educated, thoughtful men may be pardoned if they gravely shake their heads of petitio principii pure and simple. and refuse to accept a theory which virtually asks them to suppress their reasoning powers, and to keep their iudements indefinitely in abeyance. There are serious objections to the evolutionist view in its extreme form. Thus there are breaches of continuitv and gaps in the geological record which apparently cannot be bridged over. There are, moreover, existing plants and animals on which little or no change has occurred for untold ages. It happens also, that when a race of plants and animals becomes extinct, they are, in not a few instances, replaced by forms not occupying a higher position The continuous upward trend claimed for plants and animals by evolutionists is not in the scale of being. uniform Certain plants and animals in geological time culminate or attain perfection and then or universal. deteriorate

Matter cannot possibly create

and cause and

effect obtain in the

;

:

or

altogether disappear.

Parasites, in

many

cases, afford

examples

of retrogression.

perceptibly for at least 6000 years.

Egyptian and Chaldean tombs, monuments, temples, and writings conclusively show that man has not chano- d The same is to be said of many plants. Mr. William Carruthers a hi h

shown (British Association Proceedings, 1886) that the earhest vegetable sneci by Dr. Schweinfurth from the Egyptian tombs present no appearance of change. This fact aDnears in the leaves and other organs of plants preserved in the nodules of the Pleistocene clays of the Ottawa a H specimens of similar age found in various places in Britain and the Continent of Europe. One of his illustr fauthority in botany, hasdescribed'

1'

" Oi] tlie Development of the Indiridual and the Species." {Proceedings of the Zoological Societi/, Jixue 17. Ilaeckol, " Natvlrliche Schopfimgsgesohichte, " ]>. 266. Berlin, 1868.

1884 p 472

1

INTRODUCTIONis

xxviiandis

the ancient willow, Salix folaris, which

now

lives in the Arctic regions,

found

fossil in

the Pleistocene beds

at Cromer

and Bovey Traoey.

remarksof Ufe

Professor Huxley, in his lecture " On the Hypothesis of Evolution," in discussing the permanency of type, " The progress of research has supplied far more striking examples of the long duration of specific forms:

than those which are furnished by the mummified ibises and crocodiles of Egypt. A remarkable case was found in the neighbourhood of the Falls of Niagara. In the immediate vicinity of the whirlpool, and again upon Goat Island, in the superficial deposits which cover the surface of the rocky subsoil in those regions, there are foundremains of animals in perfect preservation, and among them shells belonging to exactly the same species as those

which at present inhabit the still waters of Lake Erie We are fairly than 30,000 years hie passed since the shell-fish, whose remains are left. .

justified in

concluding that no

less

a period

in the beds to

which

I

have

referred,

were

living creatures.

" But there is still stronger evidence of the long duration of certain types. I have already stated that, as we work our way through the great series of the Tertiary formations, we find many species of animals identical with diminishing in numbers, it is true, but still existing, in a certain proportion, those which live at the present day Furthermore, when we examine the rocks of the Cretaceous epoch, we find in the oldest of the Tertiary rocks. the remains of some animals which the closest scrutiny cannot show to be, in any important respect, different from those which live at the present time. That is the case with one of the Cretaceous lamp-shells (Terebratula) which Hence it must has continued to exist unchanged, or with insignificant variations, down to the present day. be admitted that certain existing species of animals show no distinct sign of modification or transformation in the and which, whatever its course of a lapse of time as great as that which carries us back to the Cretaceous period

.

.

;

^ certainly vastly greater than thirty thousand years." " Geological History of Plants " (p. 110) conclusively shows that plants do not always Sir J. Wilham Dawson in his advance as time rolls on, but that they occasionally deteriorate, and even disappear. Thus he states that " the old

absolute measure,

is

Cambrian and Silurian seas were tenanted with seaweeds not very dissimilar from those of the present time. " Ascending from the Brian to the Carboniferous System ... we are still within the hmit of the Palaeozoic period and the reign of the gigantic club-mosses, cordaites, and taxine pines. At the close of the Brian there had been over the whole northern hemisphere great changes of level, accompanied by active volcanic phenomena, and under these influences the land flora seems to have much diminished. At length all the old Brian species had become extinct, and their place was supphed by a meagre group of lycopods, ferns, and pines of different species

But the land again from those of the preceding Brian. This is the flora of the Lower Carboniferous Series. subsided, and the period of the marine limestone of the Lower Carboniferous was introduced. In this the older flora disappeared, and when the land emerged we find it covered with the rich flora of the coal formation proper, in which the great tribes of the lycopods and cordaites attained their maxima, and the ferns were continued as before, though under new generic and specific forms. There is something very striking in the succession of a new plant world without. .

any material advance." The curious and interesting aquatic plants known as Rhizocarps seem to have reached a climax in the Brian age, since wliich time they have occupied an inferior position. The Lycopods " have long ago descended from their pristine eminence to a very humble place in nature." ^ The " in the southern hemisphere at least they retain their arboreal dimensions ferns too have deteriorated, although Similar remarks may be made of the Equisetacese, which in the older time formed conand ancient dominance."siderable sized trees.

by the modifications and variations conveniently and variations with an upward trend extending over long periods a new species is formed the species which was formed by fluctuation becoming somewhat suddenly ceasing when;

In the Brian forests the family of Cordaites flourished, but has long since perished. considerable importance arises here in connection with the modern theory of the " Origin of Species A question of Means of Natural Selection." This theory proceeds on the assumption that species are formed by modifications

and permanent. It may reasonably be urged that it is not possible or allowable to fix limits arbitrarily to and variations in plants and animals at any one stage, if these changes are taken for granted and logically the changes with an upward trend must go on. In other words, if changes recognised at all previous stages are necessary to form a species, it is illogical to dispense with them when a certain point is reached, the causes whichfixed

modifications

:

produce the changes

still

existing.

This circumstance of;

itself

goes far to prove the necessity for types, or points

of departure for plants

and animals

types being central creations to which plants and animals recur or breed back

variation under peculiar circumstances, accidental or otherwise. There would seem to be, not only types or central forms for plants and animals in the scheme of creation, but grow, increase, and perfect themselves up to a certain point, also an arrangement whereby types, like individuals, disappear. The great size and importance attained by after which they cease to grow, diminish, deteriorate, and

when they have strayed by

1

" Lectures and Essays by Thomas Henry Huxley

"

(Macmillan's

series).

Loudon, 1904

;

pages 22 and 23.

'

Op.

eit., p. 78.

xxviii

INTRODUCTIONThe view here advocated would account for the disappearance of races period, and for otherwise unaccountable gaps in the geologic record.of plants

modern time, support this and animals in the prehistoric Plants and animals, as already explained, are conditioned. Atmospheric changes, varying climatic states, the rise and subsidence of land, volcanic upheavals, the unequal distribution of mountains, plains, islands, seas, lakes, rivers, &c., would largely account for the appearance of new plants and animals on the globe, for their continuance thereon in some cases for practically indefinite periods, and for their deterioration and complete disappearance in others. Their appearance, continuation, and disappearance, there can be little doubt, are regulated by design, law, and order, and it seems certain that plants and animals appear, live, and disappear, and keep pace with the changes incident to the physical universe, particularly the earth. Plants and animals, as has been pointed out, are complemental parts of the great scheme of nature the organic and inorganic kingdoms being conditioned, correlated, and made for each other. Plants and animals are made from and for, but not by, the physical universe. While the heavenly bodies and movements proclaim Creative Energy, Law, and Order on a grand scale, the prevalence of plants and animals in such profusion and variety on the earth, each of which is cared for even in matters of detail, attests the existence of an Omnipresent, AU-ruHng Providence. The interdependence of the inorganic and organic kingdoms, and the prevalence of essentially the same law and order in both, further declare that the Great First Cause, Prime Mover, and Upholder is one and indivisible. The magnitude of the creative acts and the enormous antiquity of the universe conclusively point to the eternal nature of the Being by Whom, and through Whom, everything exists. His presence in matter, force, life, and intellectual manifestations of all kinds can scarcely be gainsaid if the reasoning faculties be allowed free play andthe Equisetaceje in plants, and the Nautilidse in animals in geologic as compared withview.i;

the dictates of conscience followed.

As

I

cannot conceive of the earth with

its

gradual but stupendous changes of atmosphere, cUmate, distribution

apart from Design, Law, and cannot imagine the great races of plants and animals in geologic and modern time as other than fixed, in the sense that their forms and functions, their duration and their distribution, have hmits which may not beof continents,islands, seas, lakes, rivers, volcanic upheavals, &c., as

mountain ranges,

Order, so

I

exceeded.

The symmetric nature

of plants

and animals,

their life-histories, their birth

and death,

their

tendency

to breed back, their unwilhngness to form hybrids, the barrenness of hybrids in the majority of cases, &c., all point

amid much apparent fluctuation and mutabihty, nevertheless remains immutable. The remarkable resemblances between plants and animals in many cases, to say nothing of the likeness of both to crystals, dendrites, spiral, and other inorganic forms and combinations, conduct to similar conclusions. It is an astonishing fact, and one deserving of very special attention, that the crystallic and dendritic arrangements seen in frost-pictures on window-panes and pavements in winter, in certain minerals and metals, in the hghtning flash obtained by instantaneous photography, or as it impresses itself on the human skin, are reproduced in infinite variety in plants and animals. Nor less astounding is the circumstance that the spiral arrangements which everywhere obtain in plant and animal structures and movement have their prototypes and counterparts in theto a well-ordered plan which,

arrangements of nebulae in spiral waterspouts and sand-storms in whirlpools of These cannot be chance coincidences. The same laws evidently apply to the organic and inorganic kingdoms. There is, it appears to me, no possibihty of getting away from a First Cause', Design, Law, and Order when the facts are squarely looked at.physical universeair;

in the spiral

;

;

and water, &c.

The modern arguments in favour of evolution, instead of destroying the arguments for a First Cause and Design do not, it appears to me, raise serious objections, and scarcely touch the hem of the subject. If evolutionists have nothing to offer but crude conjecture and wild speculation, they are not entitled to sap and destroy the foundations and superstructures of a former, and on the whole satisfying, beUef Better to leave well alone than to attempt to ground our faith upon what is virtually an ignis fatuus. A doctrine is not necessarily scientific and profound because it is destructive and unintelligible. I may not succeed in marshalling and stating the evidence in support of a First Cause and Design withas factors in creation,.

all

the

skill or force desirable,

but holding the views expressed above,

I

feel

it

incumbent upon

me

to

'make at

least

the attempt.

While the spiral and other arrangements discussed in the present work exist in the inorganic and organic kingdoms alike, I hope to be able to show that in the latter, as seen in plants and animals, they are due to design and to the operation of life and of growth, and very little, if at all, to external stimulation. Plants, in many cases twine and revolve, and bones, muscles, horns, and shells twist and coil spontaneously because of inherent bias and Similar remarks are to be made of the as apart from irritability and artificial stimuU of all Idnds. spiralarrans-eage the chih-mosscs, leriis, and horse-tails engrossed the world and grew to sizes and attained den-ref i The euttle-Hshes in the olden time were greatly in e,\-cess of those existino- in the of strneture not known in inodern times." i"""^^ 'i'^^' 'iv'''^' ^ ^ were not only more numerous and represented more sjiecies, hut they were also more highly developed and complicated^as regards ff' f^'Y''

" lu the

Pal.-eozoic

INTRODUCTIONments met with in thesteins

xxix;

and

vessels of plants, leaves,