IGCSE Design and Technology (Graphics)

Revision Notes

Miss Hall

Introduction

Design and Technology is a subject that covers three main disciplines; Resistant Materials (the study of woods, metals and plastics), Electronics and Graphics. Our specialist area is Graphics.

You will have three assessments for this GCSE:

1. An exam which covers knowledge in Design Technology such as environmental issues, ergonomics and health and safety etc.

2. An exam which covers drawing and design skills. You will be given three questions and you will pick one of these questions. (The questions focus on Graphics, Resistant Materials or Electronics, pick the Graphics question!)

You will have mock exams for these each term in years 10 and 11.

3. A 40 page coursework project where you will have to design and make a graphics product to a design brief. This will assess your skills, knowledge, creativity and understanding of graphic design. This will be undertaken in term 2-3 of year 11.

Revision Websites

If you do not understand any of the revision material. Please ask! If you would like to expand your knowledge or test your understanding these are very good websites to use:

1. www.designandtech.com 2. www.technologystudent.com 3. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/design/graphics/ 4. http://www.design-technology.info/graphics/default.htm

Select the Graphics area on each of these

Year 10 term one: Revise upto section on Reprographics.

Year 11: Revise everything!

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Understanding Graphics

Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain.

Examples are photographs, drawings, Line Art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images.

Graphics often combine text, illustration, and colour. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element.

Consumers

Most market research is conducted through questionnaires. This helps designers & manufacturers identify what consumers need & want out of new products.

Questionnaires contain two types of questions.

Closed questions: consumers pick from a range of given answers Open questions: consumers are free to give their own opinions.

Target Market: The term ‘target market’ refers to the demographic or group of people that a product is aimed towards.

Consumer/Customer: This is the person/people that will buy your product. It is important to consider them at all stages of the design process and to always consider their needs and wants.

Customer Profile: This is a visual representation of your customer; it should indicate the following about them

What age is your client? What type of clothes does your client like? What are your client’s interests? Is your client male or female? What design style/imagery does your client like? What are your client’s job/educational interests?

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Design and Technology in society

The manufacture, use and disposal of any product can have both beneficial and detrimental effects upon people, wildlife and the environment. All products, therefore, should be designed to minimize the detrimental effects.

Product Manufacture

Think of a super market and all the products it sells. It is important to remember that many of the processes used to make those products, or the materials from which the products are made, produce waste. All waste is unsightly, and some can be dangerous. Toxic waste is very dangerous – it can damage the health of people and wildlife. Toxic waste must be kept away from living things. This can be done by burning, dumping and burying, but these methods are not always successful. Leaks from containers, seepage from landfill sites and air pollution from burning all contribute to environmental pollution. Not to mention the waste dumped into rivers and out at sea.

In addition to pollution caused by waste materials, huge quantities of energy (power etc) are used by factories to actually make their products.

Many industries have responded to government and consumer pressure to develop alternative methods of waste disposal which avoid producing toxic waste in the first place.

Product Use

We all use products. This also puts the environment at risk. For example, every time you go for a drive in a vehicle the exhaust fumes fill the air. Aerosol cans (e.g. deodorant, fly spray) used to contain CFC’s, which were very harmful to the environment. We need to modify our behaviour as consumers with regard to product use with the aim of reducing environmental damage and providing a healthier environment for people to live in. For example we should choose products which waste less energy and use fewer materials in manufacture.

Product Disposal

Some of your discarded products may be recycled (e.g. cardboard, glass, plastic), but what happens to the rest? Often it ends up as landfill and when it decomposes it produces pollutants. Some goes into the ground and some may find their way into rivers and underground water. Good waste management is also part of looking after the environment.

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Energy

The three fossil fuels, oil, natural gas and coal, were formed millions of years ago when dead plants and animals were trapped under deposits and became buried underneath land. Compression over time fossilised the remains, creating carbon-rich fuel sources. All fossil fuels are finite - the deposits that exist cannot be replenished when they are used. With further use, all are in danger of running out.

The question of when each one will actually run out, however, is a tricky one. There are many different opinions and calculations and none really agree on the exact timing. Many different factors need to be considered including how much of each deposit is left in the Earth, how fast we are using each fossil fuel at the moment, and how this is likely to change in the future. If we start switching to alternative fuel sources that are renewable rather than non-renewable, the reserves that we have will obvious last longer.

Natural Gas

Some experts believe that current natural gas deposits fill around 6000 trillion cubic feet that could, with the current level of usage, last for about 50 years. This assumes that there are still no new sources of natural gas still to find. The difficulties in transporting natural gas (because of its explosive nature) mean that it tends to be used fairly locally to its source. The gas fields of the North Sea have been a rich resource for the UK but other countries in Europe obtain their supplies through long underground pipelines from Russia, which are hundreds of miles long. As the pipeline runs through several countries, the continuity of the supply can be compromised by political disputes.

Oil

The world could still have oil reserves that would fill 800 million barrels, with about half that in the Middle East. Because we use oil to manufacture many materials, including plastics, we use oil at a faster rate than gas or coal. People have been expecting oil to run out within the next few years since the 1990’s. No doubt it is currently getting scarcer and as a result less expensive, but currently estimates suggest we will not actually run out until between 2025 and 2070.

CoalCoal is the fossil fuel with the greatest reserves and coal reserves are spread all over the Earth. It is very labour intensive to recover as it lies deep below the surface; usually around 300 feet below land level and deposits can be only a few centimeters thick.

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Global Warming

Governments around the world realize that we are approaching the ultimate crisis in terms of oil supply and there is a global movement to reduce the amount of fossil fuels that we use. If we can find alternative energy sources, it would not matter if oil, gas or coal ran out or not. The issue of global warming and climate change is also an important reason why fossil fuels have really out of favour. Carbon dioxide emissions from burning and using fossil fuels could be contributing to global warming and causing disruption to the weather patterns all over the world.

Alternatives to fossil fuels

There are plenty of alternative energy sources that are renewable or in constant supply such as wind power and solar power. Most people are now realising that a massive switch to these types of power will be required in the future but it seems to be human nature that the urgency to make things happen will not be great enough until the prospect of running out of fossil fuels is much closer.

Ergonomics and Anthropometric Data

Ergonomics is the interaction between the Human body, products, systems and environments.

Anthropometrics is the Science used to improve Ergonomics. It is the study of the human body and its movements.

In Anthropometrics you look at the measurements of the human body.

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Supplied as figures or tables. Average = 50th Percentile Most data used between 5 & 95th percentile. Types of measurement Static = Fixed Dynamic = Moving

Ergonomics can be split into three different areas.

1. Ergonomic Design of an Environment.

2. Ergonomic Design of a Product.

3. Ergonomic Design of a system.

The aim of Ergonomic Design is to make products easy to use, to reduce the risk to the user & to make things more efficient.

What Is Ergonomics in Working Environment Design?

Ergonomics helps to make the environment you are working in safer and more efficient through ease of use – from better design.

What Is Ergonomics in Products?

Ergonomics studies the human body and its limits. The usual goal in product design is to make a product that suits the body.

These products are designed with ‘USABILITY’ in mind.

What Is Ergonomics in System Design?

Ergonomics helps to make the system you are working in safer and more efficient through design of the layout and flow.

The usual goal is maximum output without physical harm.

Design briefs and specifications in IGCSE D&T

Every designer starts work with a design brief. It is a short statement describing the following things:

why the product is needed

what the product must do

where the product will be used

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Who will use the product?

Example

Personal hygiene is an important issue in the home. I am going to design and make a toothbrush storage system for use in the bathroom. It must hold toothpaste and four brushes and will be aimed at teenagers.

Specification

A specification is a list of criteria that your design must meet. Specifications can be extremely detailed documents and it helps to consider some broad headings.

User requirements – what does the user group need?

Function – what it does and how it works.

Cost – cost to manufacturer and cost to consumer.

Aesthetics – what it looks like: form, colour, texture shape, etc.

Anthropometrics – body sizes of the user group.

Ergonomics – how the product and user interact.

Materials – what materials are suitable/available

Specifications are best written as a bullet-pointed list, containing as much detailed information from your research analysis as you know at this stage of the project.

Research skills

Researching is a vital skill for a designer. To research effectively you need to be able to collect, edit and record specific information which will help you to design and make a successful product.

Before beginning the research, you should look at your design brief and think about the following questions:

What do I need to find out?

Where can I find it out?

How am I going to record and present the information?

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Primary research means finding out information directly from a source – it’s first hand information.

writing a survey to find out people’s needs, wants and desires

testing some materials to see how they react to moisture

interviewing an expert who has specific knowledge of an area

Carrying out a product analysis of a similar product.

Secondary research means finding out information that another person has already prepared – it already exists in some format or other.

composing a theme board to collect different images for inspiration

visiting a museum or art gallery with a camera and sketch book

using text books or the Internet to search for information

investigating software packages in school

Exploring a CD-ROM for images.

When you have collected your research information, you need to edit, analyse and record it.

Editing

Read through your design brief and then select relevant information from your research. Using a highlighter may help you.

Analysing

Gather your edited research and look at it in detail. What information does it contain? How does it help you to solve your design problem?

Recording

Think about the methods you can use to communicate your research analysis, such as graphs, charts, pictures or reports.

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Rendering

Rendering: Applying colour and shade to an object to improve its presentation.

Rendering includes the thick and thin line technique, colour, tone and texture.

Typography

Why type is important

• Type is important because it's an unconscious persuader

• It attracts attention and sets the style and tone of a document

• It defines the feeling of the page

• The right typeface can encourage people to read your message.

• The wrong typeface or bad typography can make your message go unread.

Type is image

• Type can re-enforce the image you wish to portray.

• Change your typeface and you go from casual to formal, silly to serious, staid to stylish, old fashioned to modern.

• You can use typeface to attract attention, strengthen your message, and improve your image

Non-verbal meaning

• Non-verbal meanings are often used in advertising, as a graphic designer reinforces a message through the choice of typeface, arrangement of letters, and colouring effect. In

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the examples shown below you can see how a change to the style and colour can impact on the words.

Examples of non-verbal meaning

Non-verbal meaning can be achieved by creating shapes with the text.

Choosing a typeface

There are no good and bad typefaces; there are appropriate and inappropriate typefaces.

Think about your reader and the feeling you want to convey, and then choose a typeface that fits.

Type should make the words easy to read.

Serifs

Small decorative strokes that are added to the end of a letter's main strokes are called serifs.

Serif faces are more difficult to read in small scale (smaller than 8pt) and in very large sizes.

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Elegant

Thriller

Crazy

Jungle

Jungle Crazy

ThrillerElegant

Serif form contains four designs called Old Style, Transitional, Modern and Slab Serif designs.

Sans Serif

Sans serif faces don't have serifs; cross-lines at the end of a stroke. The appearance of the letters is reduced to the essential figures.

Examples of Sans serif fonts include:

• Arial

• Arahoni

Script, Brush, Italic & Freehand

• Script typefaces are based on handwriting; but often this is handwriting with either a flexible steel nib pen, or a broad-edged pen, and is thus unlike modern handwriting.

• Brush typefaces look as if they were drawn with a brush.

Examples include:

• Brush Script

• Freestyle Script

• French Script

Slab Serif (Egyptian)

• These faces have block-like rectangular serifs, sticking out horizontally or vertically, often the same thickness as the body strokes.

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• An offspring of the slab serif typefaces Century Schoolbook is often used in newspaper work, because it holds up well under adverse printing conditions.

Century School Book

One point perspective drawing

Terminology:

Horizon: This line is a horizontal line at eye level – it usually separates ground from sky.

Vanishing Point: is on the horizon. All lines apart from the horizontal and vertical lines direct towards and meet at the vanishing point.

Vertical: going up and down the page.

Horizontal: going side to side on the page.

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Two Point perspective drawing skills

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VP (Vanishing point ) VP

How to draw a basic box

1. Draw the vanishing points, towards the top of the paper.

2. Draw the front corner of the box.

3. Join the top and bottom to the vanishing points

4. Draw the back of the box verticals

5. Join them to the opposite VP

6. Rub out the unwanted lines.

Isometric drawing

Why do we use isometric drawings?

Isometric drawings are one of the most realistic ways of drawing 3D objects. They also allow us to draw to scale

This is an oblique drawing. You get no marks in the exam for oblique drawing. You must draw 3D shapes in isometric unless told otherwise.

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What are the key angles of isometric drawing?

The large angle is 60°. The small angle is 30°Notice that the two angles together add to a right angle (90°)

It is important to know the difference between different types of drawing.

You may come across a question involving planometric drawing. This is different from isometric in that the key angles are both 45°

isop

lano

Planometric drawing

This convention can be exceptionally useful as the drawing is 'built-up' from an actual plan. If a ground floor map of a room is completed and all the walls are shown as flat panels - vertical to the first 'view' - then a PLANOMETRIC view has been started. One big advantage of this drawing style is that all circles still appear as circles on the finished sketch, whereas on an isometric they will appear squashed. If measurements need to be taken straight from the drawing, it is obviously easier as you can simply measure everything on the paper and then use the scale.

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Oblique (flat fronted)

Reprographics

Process Applications Advantages Disadvantages

Lithography Magazines

Posters

High quality,

Prints photos and text

Expensive to set up

Only suitable for long production runs

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Cereal boxes Widely available

GravureExpensive packaging

Stamps

Very high quality

Prints photos and text

More expensive than Lithography

Screen Printing

T-Shirts

Printing on to products such as TV remotes and walkmans

Can print on uneven surfaces

Can print onto object that will not fit through a printing press

Can be used for batch production

Only prints simple shapes

Will not print fine detail

Flexography

Carrier bags

Yogurt pot lids

Can print onto plastic films and foil

Cheaper to setup than lithography

Lower quality than Lithography

LetterpressBooks with large amounts of text

Very sharp letter quality

Only suitable for letters and line drawings.

NOT SUITABLE FOR PHOTOS

CMYK: Four colour printing

Only four colours are needed to reproduce the millions of colours visible to the human eye when printing.

Cyan Magenta Yellow BlacK

Any colour can be reproduced using a combination of these colours.

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These four colours are usually referred to as CMYK.

Before any picture is printed is has to be 'seperated' into these four colours. This is unsurprisingly called colour separation.

Printed images are usually made up of millions of tiny dots of colour placed close to one another. You can see these if you look closely at a photo in a newspaper. When you stand back away from the image you can no longer see the individual, CMYK dots but millions of different colours.

Colours can also be reproduced by overlapping the four colours as the inks are slightly transparent. Cyan put on top of yellow will appear green.

It is important that each colour is lined up exactly with the previous colour. Registration marks are used for this. They are usually a cross with a circle around it. They are printed 4 times, one in each colour over the top of each other.

If the colours are lined up accurately you should only see a black registration mark. If one of the colours are out of line you will see that colour registration mark printed slightly to the side of the black registration mark...

If the colours are out of line the final image will appear blurred.

When printing a lot of something the registration marks are checked every so often to avoid reproducing a lot of errors.

Finishing Techniques

Techniques Example Description

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Die cutting: This is the method of cutting printed paper to shape. It works like a giant gingerbread man cutter, pressing the shape out of the paper or card cereal

Scoring Heavy materials such as board to difficult to fold, so the outside edge needs to be scored first so the material does not tear when foldedScoring can be done by machine or by hand

Ultraviolet varnishing

Uses UV radiation to harden a liquid plastic coating applied to paper or card. It is the ultimate high gloss coating

Aqueous varnishing

Is a water-based varnish, but is not high gloss

Spirit Varnishing

Is a spirit-based varnish, but is again not as high gloss as UV varnish.

Laminating The printed design can be laminated, covered in a sticky backed plastic; this will improve the aesthetics (appearance) and make the product stronger.

Embossing: This is raising the surface of the paper or card in the shape of text or image so it stands in relief.

Simple geometric shapes

Geometry can be divided into:

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Plane Geometry is about flat shapes like lines, circles and triangles ... shapes that can be drawn on a piece of paper

Solid Geometry is about three dimensional objects like cubes, prisms and pyramids.

Plane Geometry

Plane Geometry is all about shapes on a flat surface (like on an endless piece of paper).

Polygon

A Polygon is a 2-dimensional shape made of straight lines. Triangles and Rectangles are polygons. Here are some more:

Pentagon

Pentagram

Hexagon

Transformations and Symmetry

Transformations:

Rotation Reflection

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Translation Resizing

Symmetry:

Reflection Symmetry Rotational Symmetry Point Symmetry

Solid Geometry

Solid Geometry is the geometry of three-dimensional space - the kind of space we live in ...

Let us start with some of the simplest shapes:

Cube Cuboid

Solids come in two types "Polyhedra" and "Non-Polyhedra":

Polyhedra :(they must have flat

faces)

Platonic Solids

Prisms

Pyramids

Non-Polyhedra:(if any surface is not

flat)

Sphere Torus

Cylinder Cone

Packaging Design

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Why Package Things?

Promote Protect Preserve

Before about 1850, packaging was limited to barrels, wooden boxes and jute sacks. Only after this date was paper made cheaply enough and paper bags began to appear.

Other packaging materials such as tin, aluminium and various plastics developed alongside paper and board. Glass was one of the earliest packaging materials.

The purpose of packaging is primarily to protect or preserve its contents and secondly to improve presentation. Protection is needed against handling and during transportation. The presentation to the customer provides necessary information and improves sales by making the product more visually appealing.

Folding Techniques

Packaging: Flaps

The size and design of flaps is very important, both as a means of gluing the box together and also to ensure that the top bottom and sides fit well together.

The flaps should not be less than 8mm wide and wider than this for larger boxes or cartons.

The ends of flaps which are to be glued should be cut at an angle of 60 deg. to ensure that excess card does not interfere with the inside of the folded corner.

Packaging: Tabs

The shape of some boxes and cartons allows only very small glue flaps or tabs.

Sometimes triangular shapes are needed and these can cause difficulties near tight corners.

Joining curved shapes is done by creating a number of small tabs to follow the curve. Before attempting to glue these tabs, ease the crease by scoring along the edge.

Packaging: Corners

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When materials are folded up to form corners the inside of the corner often distorts. This is especially true of thicker materials because of the squeezing together or compression which occurs on the inside of any bend.

The easiest way to deal with this is to drill or punch a small hole before attempting the fold as shown in corner number 1. This removes the problem area.

When using materials such as sheet metal or plastics, which will stay in place when folded, the hole can be used to decorative effect to create open corners - perhaps revealing a lining material. See corner numbers 2 and 3.

The shapes of the flaps or tabs can also be altered to produce a more interesting design out of a construction necessity as in corners 3 and 4.

Packaging: Hinges

Simple hinges can be made in paper and card by using adhesive tapes, drinking straws, stitching, paper fasteners, rivets or by simple scoring and bending the card.

ADHESIVE TAPE is used by alternatively sticking it to the top of one side of the hinge and the bottom of the other;

DRINKING STRAWS can be used to mimic an actual butt or back flap hinge;

STITCHING like adhesive tape, proceeds from the top of one side, down in between the two pieces and then up through the opposite side;

Packaging: Card Manufacture

Paper is mainly a web of vegetable fibres called cellulose which is extracted from wood pulp. Other plant fibres such as cotton, flax, hemp, bamboo, sugar cane and cereal straw can also be used but wood is the most widely used source. Small amounts of additives in the form of minerals, chemicals or dyes enhance particular properties, such as whiteness or strength.Board is the industry's name for cardboard and is made from several layers of pulp. Very thick board is made by sticking together sheets of paper or board. This is known as laminating.

Orthographic drawing.

Orthographic drawing is a way of drawing a three dimensional object. Normally the object is drawn as three separate, related views - Front View, Side View and Plan View.

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Ellipses

Drawing Ellipses the easy way !

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Notice that the points have been joined up with a smoothly curving line and not a series of straight ones !

Resources in Graphics

Drawing Pencils are a basic requirement of any graphics course. You need a number ranging from 2B to 2H. These letters refer to the hardness of the pencil lead. When sketching a soft lead such as 2B is can be used to produce quick drawings and shading. On the other hand , when drawing precisely a 2H or even a harder pencil such as a 4H is ideal. This type of pencil keeps its sharp edge for longer and produces very fine lines.

A refillable pencil is very useful especially if you are constructing a drawing that needs a constant thickness of line. The refills are available in a range of thicknesses and either hard or soft leads.Disadvantages are that the refillable pencils are relatively expensive and so are the refills. Also, the leads tend t o break more easily.

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Although you need only draw a few 'diameters' across the circle you will find it easier to draw an ellipse with greater accuracy if more are used.

A fine pen (colour - normally black) is used to draw permanent, accurate lines. Fine pens are available with various thicknesses of 'tips'. They are especially useful for printing and placing notes alongside designs and sketches. They are also used for producing the final outline of a design. Fine pens are relatively cheap and come in a range of colours.

T-Squares are use to draw horizontal lines. They are especially useful when constructing accurate orthographic drawings or architectural drawings. A T-Square is normally used with a drawing board, set squares and clips. It must be pushed firmly against the edge of the drawing board when it is being used.

Set Squares are used to draw accurate angles. The most common are 45 and 60/30 degrees. When using set squares they should always used along with a T-Square. The Set-square rest on the straight edge of the T-Square and this ensures when the angle is drawn that it is accurate.

Board clips are used to hold the drawing paper in position. They simply clip on to the board holding the paper firmly against the drawing board

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 A ruler is possibly one of the most important pieces of drawing equipment. Rulers should only to used to measure distances with lines being drawn with T-Squares and Set Squares. However, most people use rulers to draw straight lines. But it must be remembered that the edge of a ruler is not guaranteed to have a perfectly straight edge unlike a good T-Square or Set Square.

Templates are very useful. They are plastic with a number of accurate circles cut out. They are used to draw circles of set diameters/sizes and are particularly useful if the circle is small. Small circles are difficult to draw using a traditional compass because the compass can easily slip on the paper. With a template, the circle diameter is selected and a sharp pencil is used to draw round the cutout circle.Ellipse templates are similar to circle templates and these are useful for drawing ellipse / oval shapes accurately.

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Pencil sharpeners are essential for sharpening pencils. Accurate drawings cannot be produced unless they are sharp. However, when shading a blunt pencil is sometimes useful.

A craft knife can also be used to sharpen pencils. Normal pencil sharpeners tend to shorten the lead as the sharpener is turned. This means that the pencil needs sharpening often. On the other hand when using a craft knife, the lead can be left quite long. Also, a small piece of glass paper can be used to give a precise edge to the lead. A ‘chisel’ shaped point is ideal for drawing accurate lines

A scissors is used for general cutting and shaping of paper and card. Generally, scissors very safe, unlike craft knives that can slip causing ‘nasty’ accidents. However, they must still be used with care.

A craft knife is used to cut out card shapes It is important that a steel ruler is used as the sharp blade of the craft knife is less likely to slip. a cutting mat should be placed below the card being cut. Also, if a plastic ruler is used the knife can easily cut into its straight edge, damaging it. Great care must be taken when using a craft knife as they are very sharp, if they slip they can cut hands and fingers very badly

A Flexi-curve is used to draw curves. It can be formed into almost any curve as it is flexible. Flex-curves are useful as they are simply shaped to form the desired curve. However, a flex-curve is delicate and if forced into a tight curve it will break.

French Curves are purchased in sets of three or four. They are used to draw curves by finding the section of curve that matches the desired shape on the profile of the curve.Some French Curves also have either circles or ellipses of various sizes cut out. These can be used in the same way as circle or ellipse templates.

A Parallel Rule is used to draw parallel lines. It is basically two rulers held together by two linkages. The linkages provide the parallel motion. The rulers have scales either metric, imperial or both.

An Adjustable Square is a set square which can be adjusted to almost any angle. When adjusted a small screw is hand tightened, locking the set square in position. This means that there is no need to have both 45 and 30/60 degree set squares. They are much more expensive than normal set squares.

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A compass cutter is extremely useful if you are attempting to cut circles in card or paper. using scissors often produces poor results but a compass cutter usually cuts accurately. The compass cutter can be adjusted to cut circles of varying sizes. The cutting point is a craft knife blade. care should still be taken when using this type of cutter.

 

 

Fastenings

Factors Affecting Types of Joining Processes

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A protractor is used to measure angles. A typical protractor is a semi-circular piece of plastic with 180 degrees printed around its curve. This piece of equipment is not only used in graphics for constructing accurate drawings but is also used in subjects like Mathematics.

A compass is an absolute essential piece of equipment. It is well worth buying a good set which includes at least two compasses allowing the drawing of small and large circles. The drawing opposite is a ‘bow’ compass, this is used for drawing small circles very accurately. Cheap compasses tend to slip on the paper and break quite easily. A good, quality compass set will last a life time.

Strength of joint.

Stiffness/Rigidity Needed.

Type of Material Used.

Affect of joint type on material. Appearance.

Once you have considered all of the previous factors affecting joints, you can then determine which category of joining process you can use.

Temporary or Permanent

Temporary joining processes do not damage the materials being joined when the joint is undone.

Permanent joints will damage the materials being joined if the joint is dismantled.

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Joining Materials

Adhesive Joins Notes Safety

Pritt Stick Paper and Card Safe for all

Non-Toxic

Spray Mount Paper and Card Is an aerosol spray

repositionable

Ideal for gluing large areas

Hot Melt Glue Gun Paper and Card

Wood

Requires use of a glue gun

Dries (cools) in seconds

Glue is very hot

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PVA Glue Paper and Card

Wood

Strong

Takes hours to dry

Safe for all

Epoxy Resin Everything Quick drying

Very strong

Solvent based

Use in well ventilated area

Tensol Acrylic Sticks in seconds.

Is a liquid.

Melts the two surfaces of the acrylic to bond them.

Solvent based

Fumes are very dangerous

Use in well ventilated area

Assembly drawings

Assembly" Drawings

An isometric view of an "assembled" pillow-block bearing system is shown on the left below. It corresponds closely to what you actually see when viewing the object from a particular angle. We cannot tell what the inside of the part looks like from this view.

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Year 11

Health and safety

Health & Safety in the Workplace.

Health & Safety Executive have the power to shut a site down if it is not safe enough.

H & S is important to protect you (the pupil), the employee (me), the employer (the council) and anybody visiting.

As a designer & manufacturer you have the ultimate responsibility for your product – You could go to prison if your design is faulty.

Your product needs to be Safe, not injure people or the environment.

There are Government Acts to Protect Us.

The Consumer Safety Act is mainly concerned with safety especially when considering clothing, toys and electrical goods. The government can ban dangerous goods with this Act.

The Trades Description Act protects the customer against false claims. For instance if a manufacturer says that a product will increase intelligence and it obviously fails to do so - then the manufacturer can be taken to court. The Trades Descriptions Act tries to ensure than manufacturers claims about their products are true.

The Sales of Goods Act is aimed at ensuring that goods work in the way they should and that they last a reasonable amount of time.

Fire Safety Regulations - aim to protect the public against poor quality furniture that could be a fire hazard. The aim is to stop the sale of furniture that is easily set alight and give off dangerous toxic fumes.

If you see either of these signs you know the product has been tested and will have met SAFETY STANDARDS.

The European Union has set up rules for selling certain types of products in the EU.

These rules cover such products as toys, medical equipment and electronic devices.

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If you want to make and sell a product in the EU then it must meet these safety standards. If it passes the tests it can display the CE Marking and be sold anywhere in the EU.

The British Standards Institute has hand its own set of safety and quality guidelines for over 100 years. Products which display the BSI Kitemark have passed quality and safety checks.

Customers see the Kitemark as a sign of quality. It can help sales of your product. For example, equipment for babies usually displays the Kitemark in a prominent position on the box to let parents know the product is safe to use.

The Kitemark is most visible on products where safety is important for example, fire extinguishers, and glass windows.

If the a product fails and injures someone, the fact that it has a Kitemark can be used in the manufacturing companies defense in court. It proves that they tried hard to ensure that their product was safe.

The Control of Substance Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations of 1988 are the a set of legal rules designed to protect workers from the risks of exposure to harmful chemicals

Every hazardous material that you can come across at school or at work will have a set of regulations for it that specifies exactly how it should be used to be safe.

To ensure that they do not break the law employers must ensure all hazardous substances have a COSHH certificate and they let people who use the materials know how to use them safely. Even washing up liquid at work has a COSHH regulation.

Recording and reading data

What is a pie chart?

A pie chart is a way of summarising a set of categorical data. It is a circle which is divided into segments. Each segment represents a particular category. The area of each segment is proportional to the number of cases in that category.

What is a bar chart?

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A bar chart is a way of summarising a set of categorical data. It is often used in data analysis to illustrate the major features of the distribution of the data in a convenient form.

It displays the data using a number of rectangles, of the same width, each of which represents a particular category. The length (and hence area) of each rectangle is proportional to the number of cases in the category it represents, for example, age group, religious affiliation.

What is a scatter diagram?

A scatterplot or scatter diagram is a useful summary of a set of data with two variables.

It gives a good visual picture of the relationship between the two variables, and aids the interpretation of the correlation.

Each unit contributes one point to the scatterplot, on which points are plotted but not joined.

The resulting pattern indicates the type and strength of the relationship between the two variables.

Time/cost/skill and resource consideration and planning

Any company manufacturing a product or a supplier supplying goods have to calculate their costs very carefully. The cost of employing people to promote, manufacture, market and sell products should not be overlooked when you are designing a solution and you must carefully explain the costing of designs, especially when you select your best idea and develop it. There are two types of costs - ‘fixed costs’ and ‘variable costs’

Fixed Costs

These are costs that do not increase or decrease as output fluctuates. For example, salaries of employees, rent for premises and advertising costs.

Variable Costs

These change as output increases and include such things as materials required to manufacture the product. If production increases then more materials are needed and consequently costs increase.

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TOTAL COSTS = FIXED COSTS + VARIABLE COSTS

Control

Why Do Flowcharting?

Producing a flowchart can be impressive and also helps with the design and development stage.

The feedback loops show you are using some quality assurance.

Background of Flowcharts

Flowcharts have been around for a very long time. No one is really attributed for their invention.

BUT mass industrialisation and a man called W. Edwards Deming have played a big part.

Also the fact the flowcharts are the fundamental process of a computer have meant that as computer programmers have evolved into managers then flowcharts have become more widely used as a tool for Control and quality.

Flowcharts are a quick way of visually getting the idea of a process across. Flowcharts are a quick way of managing a process. With management comes control and therefore improved quality of the output.

DecisionA decision or branching point. Lines representing different

decisions emerge from different points of the diamond.

Action or ProcessA box can represent a single step ("add two cups of flour"), or and

entire sub-process ("make bread") within a larger process.

Flow LineLines indicate the sequence of steps and the direction of flow.

Completed Product

Raw Material in bins, finished product on pallets, or filed documents

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Raw Material

Raw Material being introduced into the system.

Document

The symbol marks the use of a document, such as instructions being present in the flowchart.

Standardised symbols

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Standardised symbols are used in architectural plans to show the placement of fixtures and fittings, they are instantly recognizable by all the workers involved in the project.

Sectional drawing

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Sectioning

There are many times when the interior details of an object cannot be seen from the outside. It should not really be a surprise that a convention is required to give additional detailsabout the interior of an object. Many common examples can be seen every day - items that lookas though they may be constructed In similar ways when viewed solely with the information available from the outer surface.

We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and showing the “sectional view“. The sectional view is applicable to objects like engine blocks, where the interior details are intricate and would be very difficult to understand through the use of "hidden" lines (hidden lines are, by convention, dotted) on an orthographic or isometric drawing.

Imagine slicing the object in the middle (figure 10)

Take away the front half (figure 10) and what you have is a full section view - In isometric section and in orthographic section (figure 11)Orthographic drawings are also essential when patent drawings are filed as details within these can describe features far better than words alone. These are also labelled.

Arcs and circles in isometric

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Exploded view drawings

Exploded drawings are extremely useful when explaining a design / idea. The drawing opposite is a design for an educational toy (for a young child) has been drawn with all the parts disassembled.

It is important when drawing an exploded view that all the parts line up with each other when disassembled. The vertical guidelines clearly show how the various parts are in line with each other. If an exploded drawing is constructed properly anyone looking at the drawing should be able to see how the various parts go together to form the finished design/object.

Exploded views are useful because detail can be seen, parts are not hidden behind other parts.

 

Box nets

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circles in isometric.

Look at a typical product on a supermarket shelf. It’s packaging started life as a flat development / net, probably printed on a piece of card. It was then cut out, folded and glued to form the package.

The packaging of a modern mobile phone is seen below. Mobile phones arrive in the shops in stylish boxes / packaging. Each package is manufactured from a material such as quality card. The insert is normally made from either lower quality, recycled card or vacuum formed hi-density polystyrene. This protects the phone and charger inside the package

Card is popular packaging material because it is cheap and it can be recycled. Also, colour and images can be applied using a number of printing techniques. Normally the card is lacquered to give the box a gloss / satin finish.

Often the packages are cuboid in shape as this means that they can be transported and stacked on shelves easily, efficiently using space.

Packaging for almost any product is made in multiples. The only time a single package / net is manufactured is usually when a prototype package is required, so that it can be tested and improved.In industry a large, single sheet of card will be used to manufacture many individual developments / nets. The diagram below is a typical layout. It shows multiple nets of the mobile phone packaging, printed out on a single piece of card. This reduces waste and is a cost effective way of manufacturing packaging.

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The mobile phone packaging has been arranged as multiple nets, with very little space between each one. This arrangement of shapes is called a tessellation. A tessellation is a shape that is repeated over and over again without creating gaps or spaces. A Tessellation is sometimes called ‘tiling’.In industry it may be necessary to make thousands of the same type of package. In order that materials are not wasted, the developments / nets are organised on the card in such a way that there are only small gaps between each individual shape. Special cutters called Die Cutters, are pressed into the material to stamp out the nets / developments, which are then folded by machines to from the packages.

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Types of paper

Paper Weight Description Uses Advantages Cost

Layout 50 gsmThin, translucent, smooth surface

Sketching and developing ideas

Translucent so ideas can be traced and altered

Relatively expensive

Tracing60/90 gsm

Thin transparent paper, smooth surface.

Similar to layout, but mainly used by draftsmen

Allows tracingCan be expensive

Copier 80 gsmLightweight, good quality paper

General use, Photocopying, inkjet printer.

Cheap when brought in bulk. Available in range of colours

Fairly cheap

Cartridge

120-150 gsm

Creamy white paper, slight texture

General purpose drawing, can be used with paint

Completely opaqueMore expensive than copier

 

What does 'GSM' stand for?

GSM stands for Grammes per Square Metre. It is how the weight of paper and card are measured.

Normal paper for exercise books and photocopiers is about 80gsm.

Paper that is 160gsm is twice as heavy (Thicker)

500gsm is thick card

Below are a number of symbols often seen on packaging. Each has a specific meaning. The symbols are normally very simple and easy to understand.

The ‘Keep Britain Tidy’ symbol is regularly seen on packages in the UK. It is there to remind people to place their rubbish in a rubbish bin rather than dropping it on the floor. It is also aimed at making people

aware that they have a responsibility to keep the environment around them tidy and litter free. Sometimes the symbol is called the ‘be environmentally friendly’ symbol.

POLYTHENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET) is a material widely used for packaging, especially drinks containers. It is 90% recyclable and the symbol opposite reminds the consumer of this fact. Hopefully the

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consumer will place the used packaging in the recycle bin, if he / she can find one.

These are internationally recognisable symbols for recycling. They are seen on many packages. Again, it is to remind the consumer of the potential recycling properties of the package he/she is about to throw away. It is aimed at encouraging the consumer to recycling packaging rather than throwing it into a general rubbish bin.

This symbol also means that the material is recyclable. However, the letters ‘alu’ mean aluminium. It means the container is manufactured from aluminium and that it can be recycled and used again. Look closely at drinks cans as they are normally manufactured from aluminium and may have this symbol.

A symbol that is occasionally seen on packaging is the Fair Trade symbol.

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This means that the contents of the package has been produced in the Third World and that the producer (ie. the farmer) has received a fair and realistic price. It also means that the produce is not from countries whose Governments help their industry / agriculture undercut those of much poorer countries by giving them subsidises.

This symbol reminds those handling the package to keep out of the rain and not to store it in damp conditions. it is normally found on card based

packages which would be damaged if placed in contact with water.

The broken wine glass suggests that the product inside the packaging could be easily damaged if dropped or handled without care and attention. The contents are fragile !

The two hands holding or protecting the package is another reminder that the contents should be handled with care.

The symbol seen opposite tells those handling the package that it must be stored the right way up. The arrows point towards the top of the package.

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The symbol showing the thermometer is found mainly on packages containing food and drink. The symbol clearly shows that the contents should be stored at a temperature between 10 and 20 degrees (centigrade).

Created in 1988, when the Lion mark is displayed on a product it means that the manufacturer/retailer has agreed to the ‘British Toy and Hobby Associations’ Code of practice. It is a consumer symbol that represents the manufacturers promise to conform to all relevant safety information. Also, it means that the manufacturer will not counterfeit existing toys and will advertise the product so that advertisements state the truth about the limits regarding the way the toy performs.

The telephone attached to the letter ‘Q’ means that if you are not happy with the quality of the product/package contents, you can ring a customer services number. This is normally placed very close to the symbol.

Customer satisfaction symbol. Seen on some packaging to indicate a satisfaction statement eg. “This product has been prepared for your enjoyment. If you are not completely satisfied please return the product and its packaging to ......”

The vegetarian symbol has a ‘tick’ in its centre. This means that the contents are suitable for vegetarians to eat.

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This is an alternative vegetarian symbol. In place of a ‘tick’ in its centre it has a symbol that represents leafs. This means that the contents are suitable for vegetarians to eat.

Another alternative ‘suitable for vegetarians’ symbol.

This symbol suggests that the consumer should be aware that the product could contain wheat, gluten, sulphites, traces of nut or it has been made in a factory that uses nut ingredients.

The ‘gluten free’ symbol means that the product inside the packaging does not contain wheat extracts. Some people are sensitive or even allergic to such extracts. Therefore, clear labelling is required.

Ingredients symbol. This is often placed alongside the list of ingredients. It represents a mixing bowl an spoon, with a colourful background to highlight the black and white foreground.

The Ecolable is a scheme managed by the European Union. It was established in 1992 and aims to promote products and services that are environmentally friendly. Companies and businesses that use this symbol / label have shown consistently, that they sell products and services ,that conserve the environment. For instance, a company that has reduced its carbon footprint can apply to use the ecolabel. A company that uses recycled materials in the manufacturing of its products or encourages recycling can also apply to use the symbol.

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