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CHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONA. BackgroundAll human languages employ words to convey concepts. Words that deconstruct into discrete units, called morphemes, consist of a root, which conveys the most prominent semantic feature of the word, and affixes that attach in some way to the root (i.e., prefixes, suffixes, and infixes) that convey additional semantic features. Morphologists have traditionally divided the affixation processes that form complex words into two main categories inflection and derivation.Although derivation describes different morphological processes, Morphologists do not universally accept the reality of this division nor do they agree on how this division should be made. Therefore, the paper about derivation is badly needed.

B. Problem FormulationThe problem formulations of this paper are:1. What is the definition of derivation?2. How many types of derivation in the morphology?3. What are the problems found in derivation?

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C. Purpose of The StudyThis paper is conducted in purpose on:1. To find out the definition of derivation.2. To figure out the types of derivation in morphology.3. To discover the problems found in the study of derivation.

CHAPTER IIEXPLANATIONA. Definition of DerivationThe word derivation comes from a verb derive (means comes from or develop from). The attachment of tion make the verb derive become a noun derivation. The term derivation then relates to the concept of affixes which is divided into prefixes and suffix. In those three concept, known the term of root or base and stem[footnoteRef:1]. [1: A. S Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 8th Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 394.]

In morphology, derivational morpheme is an affix that is added to a word to create a new word or a new form of a word. Derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category (part of speech) of a word. For example, affix ful that is added to beauty change the word from a noun to an adjective (i.e. beautiful). The form that is resulted from the adding of derivational morpheme is called a derivative.Derivation is seen as a set of operations on lexemes that derive other lexemes. Each of these operations is a word formation rule with a phonological aspect (the addition of a phonological string or some other phonological operation), a semantic aspect (the change of meaning), and a syntactic aspect (the syntactic (sub)category of the new lexeme). Derivation consists of an affix or affixes added to a root. Matthews (1984) gives a good summary of the arguments concerned in the separation of inflection from derivation. Derivational morphemes produce new words[footnoteRef:2]; their function is not to express morphosyntactic categories but to make new words. They are somewhat erratic meaning and distribution. Derivational morphemes are used to change the part of speech of words. [2: Malmkjaer, Kirsten et.al, The Linguistics Encyclopedia, (London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, 2010), page 370.] 3

The basic function of derivational processes is to enable the language user to make new lexemes. Lexemes belong to lexical categories such as noun, verb, and adjective. When a derivational morpheme is added to a base, it adds meaning. The derived lexemes may belong to a different category than their original bases.[footnoteRef:3] [3: Booij, Geert, The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology, (Oxford University Press Inc. New York, 2005), page 51.]

To sum up, derivation is the part of morphology concerned with the formation of lexical items. Derivation has the permanent effect of changing the word. It also creates the different lexical item from the origin.

B. Types of DerivationDerivation happens when bound morpheme(s) is attached to a free morpheme. Bound morphemes are known as affixes, including prefixes and suffixes, yet free morphemes are known as roots, stem, or core.As it is stated before that derivation creates a new lexeme/word, the derivational affixes take the big role. The affixes attached to a root can change the grammatical category of the root. For example, the word desire (a verb) added by the suffix able becomes desirable (an adjective).The set of derivational affixes is open-ended; that is, there are potentially infinite number of them. Since it would be difficult to enumerate them exhaustively, it would never have enough time to mention it one by one. Nevertheless, it can be said that there are seven types of derivational morphemes[footnoteRef:4], as follow: [4: Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure, (Janson: Edinburg University Press, 2002), page 48.]

1. Adverbs derived from adjectivesAn adjective can be derived to an adverb by suffixing ly. For example, rapid rapidly, sincere sincerely, total totally.2. Nouns derived from nounsNot all derivational processes change word class. English has derivational processes that yield nouns with meaning such as small version of X, female version of X, inhabitant of X, state of being X, and devotee of or expert on X. Here are several representative examples: Small version of X: -let, -ette, -ie. For example: droplet, booklet, cigarette, and doggie. Female version of X: -ess, -ine. For example: waitress, princess, and heroine. Inhabitant of X: -er, -(i)an. For example: Londoner, New Yorker, Texan, and Canadian. State of being an X: -ship, -hood. For example: kingship, ladyship, motherhood, and priesthood. Devotee of or expert on X: -ist, -ian. For example: contortionist, Marxist, historian, and electrician.3. Nouns derived from members of other word classesThere are a number of nouns derived from adjectives and verbs. Here are some suffixes used to derive nouns from adjective: -(i)ty, e.g. purity, equality, and certainty. -ness, e.g. usefulness, goodness, and fierceness. -ism, e.g. centralism, radicalism, and absolutism. -th, e.g. warmth, length, and strength.Even more numerous are suffixes for deriving nouns from verbs. A verb can be a noun by suffixing ion, -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -(e)ry, -ment, -t, -tion/-sion, -ure, -ant/-ent, er/-or/-eer, -(i)an/-arian, -ist, -ing. For example, elect election, marry marriage, arrive arrival, allow allowance, persist persistence, bribe bribery, arrange arrangement, weigh weight, deviate deviation, enclose enclosure, participate participant, erase eraser, govern governor, auction auctioneer, library librarian, science scientist, dance dancing.4. Adjectives derived from adjectivesIn such category, prefixes predominate, but suffix ish is an exception. The only suffix used is ish, meaning somewhat X, as in greenish, smallish, and brownish. By contrast, the refix un- meaning not is exceedingly widespread, for instance, unhappy, unsure, unaffected, and unattached. As it is so common, most dictionaries do not attempt to list all un- adjectives. However, this does not mean that un- can be attached to all adjectives freely[footnoteRef:5]; we do not discover, for example, UNGOOD with the meaning bad. [5: Ibid, page 52.]

Another negative prefix is in-, with allomorphs indicated by the variant spellings il-, ir-, and im-, as in intangible, illegal, irresponsible, and impersonal. The use of in- is more restricted than un-.5. Adjectives derived from members of other word classesSome of the processes that derive adjectives from verbs straddle the divide between derivation and inflection in a way that has not been encountered yet. In the term of inflectional morpheme, it is found that the suffixes ed, -en, and ing, and vowel change, in passive and progressive participle forms of verbs. However, such forms can also be adjective, as in: A not very interesting book The party-goers sounded very drunk. The car seemed more damaged than the lamp-post.The modifier very and the comparative construction (more than) show that interesting, drunk, and damaged are adjectives here, not forms of the verb lexemes interest, drink, and damage.Furthers suffixes that commonly form adjectives from verbs, with their basic meanings, are: -able able to be X-ed: breakable, readable, reliable, watchable. -ent, -ant tending to X: repellent, expectant, conversant. -ive tending to X: repulsive, explosive, speculative.An adjective can be also modified from a noun by suffixing (i)al, -ar, -ary/-ery, -ed, -esque, -ful, -(ic)al, -ish, -istic, -less, -ly, -ous, -y. For example, monument monumental, fame familiar, element elementary, talent talented, picture picturesque, hope hopeful, history historic(al), style stylish, character characteristic, use useless, friend friendly, leisure leisurely, fame famous, silk silky. As will be seen, adjectives in ful and less tend to appear in pairs, although the correspondence is not exact: there is SLOTHFUL but not SLOTHLESS, and PENNILESS but not PENNIFUL.6. Verbs derived from verbsThis section is unusual through all the affixes that used in it are prefixes[footnoteRef:6]. Prefixes re- and the negative prefixes un-, de-, mis-, and dis- are the most prominent, as in the following examples: tell retell, do undo, centralize decentralize, treat mistreat, obey disobey. [6: Ibid, page 54.]

7. Verbs derived from members of other word classesThere are a massive number of verbs derived from nouns and adjectives. Some affixes for deriving verbs from nouns are: De-, e.g. deforest, delouse. -ise/-ize, e.g. organize, patronize. -(i)fy, e.g. beautify, qualify.There are also some particular verbs that are derived by replacing the final voiceless consonant of a noun with a voiced one, perhaps with some vowel change too[footnoteRef:7], as in: [7: Ibid, page 55.]

NounsVerbs

BathBathe

BreathBreathe

House [s]House [z]

WreathWreathe

The suffixes ise/-ize and ify can derive verbs from adjectival bases too, as in nationalize, tenderize, intensify, and purify. Therefore, when the roots of which they are attached are bound (e.g. cauterize, sanitize, petrify, satisfy, and magnify), it is hard to consider whether these roots are fundamentally nominal or adjectival. The suffix ate shows the same sort of ambivalence. Words such as generate, rotate, replicate, and locate clearly contain a root and a suffix, because the same roots crop up elsewhere (e.g. general, rotor, replica, and local). However, as most of the bases of which ate is attached are bound roots, it does not clearly approve either adjectival or nominal bases.There is still one prefix to be mentioned: en- (with its allomorph em-), which forms verbs from a few adjectives and nouns defining as cause to became X or cause to possess or enter X such as, enfeeble, enslave, empower, enthrone, and entomb. This suffix usually occurs without the prefix, however, and does so quite widely, e.g. tighten, loosen, stiffen, weaken, widen, redden, deepen, and toughen. These verbs have either an intransitive meaning, become X, or a transitive one, cause to become X.

C. Problems found in DerivationIn morphology, it is found that derivation, despite the inflection one, have a big role producing a new lexeme/word. However, there are still many problem emerging from the process of deriving, among others occur this way:1. Problems with derivational structure itselfSome derivational morphemes come up with such ambivalence, especially in the use of bound morphemes. The widely use of bound morpheme in some cases cannot be a guarantee for another bound morpheme existence in another word. Derivational suffixes are less predictable in occurrence[footnoteRef:8]; while weak acquired the noun form weakness, strong acquired the noun form strength. Derivational affixes are also less predictable semantically[footnoteRef:9]while fatherhood denotes the state of being a father, brotherhood denotes an association of men as well as the state of being a brother. [8: C. Poole, Stuart, An Introduction to Linguistics, (United Kingdom: Macmillan Publisher Ltd, 2000), p. 77.] [9: Ibid.]

It is common that in introductory treatments of English grammar talk as if not just many but all adverbs end in ly. If that were true, it would be an unusual word class, all of its members being derived. In fact, simple or monomorphemic adverbs, though few in number, include some very common words (often, seldom, never, soon), and some other adverbs are morphologically complex without containing ly (nowhere, everywhere, today, yesterday). Also, there are common adverbs that are formed by conversion: fast and hard, derived from the adjective fast and hard.English is also known as consistent-in-its-inconsistency language. Formerly it is said that derivation is to change the grammatical category of the word. But, why should there be the form of nouns derived from nouns? Many of the examples have unpredictable meanings (a cigarette is not merely a small cigar, and a booklet is not merely a small book; also, brotherhood means not the state of being a brother but rather semi-secret society). Why do we have droplet but not grainlet or lumplet? It is merely an accident that some of this words have come into general use while others have not, so those that do exist must be lexically listed. This gappiness also helps to confirm that this affixes are derivational rather than inflectional, even though they do not change word class.In the case of nouns derived from adjectives, all the three suffixes (-ity, -ness, and ism) mean basically property of being X where X is the base adjective. Of the three, -ness is the most widely applicable. Even so, at least one noun is lexicalized: highness, which means not property being high (for which it uses height), but rather royal personage, ad in Her Royal Highness.2. Derivation and Compound WordsThe traditional criterion of demarcation between compounding and derivation is that: compounding consists of the combination of two or more lexemes, whereas derivation is characterized by the addition of an affix, that is, a bound morpheme, to a lexeme[footnoteRef:10]. [10: Booij, Geert, Compounding and Derivation: Evidence for Construction Morphology, p. 1.]

In Item-and-Arrangement Morphology, the difference between compounding and derivation reduces to one property of certain morphemes, namely that they are bound[footnoteRef:11]. In this approach to morphology, affixes can be represented as lexical items, and will then be subcategorized as only appearing in combination with a stem. These bound morphemes are like lexical morphemes in that they may belong to a syntactic category such as N, V or A. [11: Ibid.]

Derivation is seen as a set of operations on lexemes that derive other lexemes. Each of these operations is a Word Formation Rule with a phonological aspect (the addition of a phonological string or some other phonological operation), a semantic aspect (the change of meaning), and a syntactic aspect (the syntactic (sub)category of the new lexeme) (see Beard1995 for a similar view). Compounding, on the other hand, is accounted for by a set of Word Structure Rules which form part of syntax, and combine lexical stems into compounds.Compounds are words formed from other complete words[footnoteRef:12]. In its simple form, two independent words combine to form a new one, and one of the original components modifies the meaning of the other one (Booji 2005: 75). From the examples it can be seen that compound words are made up from the combination two or more lexemes, while derivations are made up from the adding of affixes. Compound: blackboard, campsite, scrub lady etc. Derivation: definition, reference, enrich, humbly etc. [12: Stabler, Edward, Linguistics 20, 2010, p. 46.]

3. Derivation and InflectionHalle (1973) saw no reason to list inflected forms as well as derivatives; the only difference between them was that inflected forms were grouped in the dictionary into paradigms[footnoteRef:13]. [13: Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew, Current Morphology, (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 44-45.]

Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its grammatical relations[footnoteRef:14]. Terminations of inflection had possibly originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They probably corresponded nearly to the use of preposition, auxiliaries and personal pronouns in English. [14: Krik, Krlos, A Grammar of Modern Indo-European First Edition, (European Union: Dnghu Adsoqiation, 2007), p. 110]

The difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes is worth emphasizing. Derivation, being concerned with the creation of new labels, draw morphology towards lexis, while inflection, being concerned with function, draws morphology towards syntax[footnoteRef:15]. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word, for example, both strong and stronger are adjectives. However, a derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word. The verb teach becomes the noun teacher if it is added affix er. So, the suffix er can be an inflectional morpheme as the part of an adjective and also a distinct derivational morpheme as part of a noun. Just because they look the same (-er) does not mean they do the same kind of work. [15: C. Poole, Stuart, Loc. cit.]

Derivational processes occur before inflectional processes, so derivational markings are inside inflectional markings[footnoteRef:16]. Syntactically, derived words are unmarked, whereas inflected words are marked in some ways[footnoteRef:17]; inflected nouns may be marked for the plural, inflected verbs may be marked for person or tense. Whenever there is a derivational suffix and an inflectional suffix attached to the same word, they always appear in different order. First the derivational is attached to the word, then the inflectional is added to produce new form, e.g. teach teacher teachers. [16: Olsen, Mike, Cognitive Motivation for a Derivation/Inflection Division: Evidence from Native English and Spanish Speakers, (LING 2773, 2009), p. 3.] [17: C. Poole, Stuart, Loc. cit.]

4. Problems of Morphological AnalysisThe word helpful clearly consists of three morphemes which are realized by three morphs: the semantic root-help, -ful which derives the adjective and the negating prefix un-. These are easily identified because each has an obvious function and because one follows another, because they are concatenated. But there are many cases where the morphological analysis of a word is less straightforward.It is seen there is no problem with recover in the sense of put a new cover on but that there is less obvious justification for treating as two morphemes recover in the sense of getting better. Many words have an ancestor that consisted of two or more morphemes but are now morphologically indivisible, there now being no part of the word that has a distinct function. The word reject derives from the Latin elements re- and iactare giving the sense of throwing back, but nevertheless we cannot sensibly divide the modern English word; as we cannot *ject something, we cannot *ject something back or *ject something again. The analysis must leave with a root that can exist by itself.

CHAPTER IIICLOSINGA. ConclusionBased on the above explanation, it can be drawn a conclusion as follow:1. Derivation is the part of morphology concerned with the formation of lexical items. Derivation has the permanent effect of changing the word. It also creates the different lexical item from the origin.2. Derivation happens when bound morpheme(s) is attached to a free morpheme.3. There are seven kinds of derivation: (1) adverb derived from adjective (2) noun derived from noun (3) noun derived from members of other word classes (4) adjective derived from adjective (5) adjective derived from members of other word classes (6) verb derived from verb (7) verb derived from members of other word classes.4. Some derivational morphemes come up with such ambivalence, especially in the use of bound morphemes. The widely use of bound morpheme in some cases cannot be a guarantee for another bound morpheme existence in another word.5. The traditional criterion of demarcation between compounding and derivation is that: compounding consists of the combination of two or more lexemes, whereas derivation is characterized by the addition of an affix, that is, a bound morpheme, to a lexeme. 15

6. The difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes is worth emphasizing. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word, for example, both strong and stronger are adjectives. However, a derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word.B. SuggestionThe widely use of derivation, in many cases, is not always have a guarantee. Therefore, the use of derivation should be based on what is stated in the dictionary or morphology book.

BIBLIOGRAPHIESA. S Hornby, 2010, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 8th Edition, New York: Oxford University Press.Booij, Geert, 2005, The Grammar of Words: An Introduction to Linguistic Morphology, Great Britain: Oxford University Press Inc. New York.-----------------------, Compounding and Derivation: Evidence for Construction Morphology.Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew, 2002, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their Structure, Janson: Edinburg University Press.-------------------------------------, 1992, Current Morphology, London: Routledge. C. Poole, Stuart, 2000, An Introduction to Linguistics, United Kingdom: Macmillan Publisher Ltd.Krik, Krlos, 2007, A Grammar of Modern Indo-European First Edition, European Union: Dnghu Adsoqiation.Malmkjaer, Kirsten et.al, 2010, The Linguistics Encyclopedia, London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.Olsen, Mike, 2009, Cognitive Motivation for a Derivation/Inflection Division: Evidence from Native English and Spanish Speakers, LING 2773.Stabler, Edward, 2010, Linguistics 20.17