DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF … · 2016. 2. 3. · Wariboko Sobere, Dr. Magaji...
Transcript of DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF … · 2016. 2. 3. · Wariboko Sobere, Dr. Magaji...
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WALSON, OMININI BROTHER ASAKO PG/Ph.D/09/52080
DEMOGRAPHIC AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF PRINCIPALS’ PERFORMANCE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS
Ebere Omeje Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
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TITLE PAGE
DEMOGRAPHIC AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF PRINCIPAL S’ PERFORMANCE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA
By
WALSON, OMININI BROTHER ASAKO PG/Ph.D/09/52080
A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF
PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
MAY, 2015
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APPROVAL PAGE
This thesis has been approved for the department of educational foundations, University
of Nigeria, Nsukka.
By
_____________________ ______________________
PROF. F.A.OKWO INTERNALEXAMINER SUPERVISOR
_____________________ ______________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER PROF. C.J.A. ONWUKA HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
______________________________
PROF. (MRS) UJU C. UMO DEAN OF THE FACULTY OF EDUCATION
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CERTIFICATION
Walson, Ominini Brother Asako a postgraduate student in the Department of Educational
Foundations, with Registration Number PG/Ph.D/09/52080, has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for research work for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Educational
Administration and Planning. The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been
submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other University.
_______________________ _______________________
Walson, Ominini B. Asako Prof. F.A.Okwo
(Candidate) (Supervisor)
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my Parents: Mr. Brother Asako Walson and Mrs. Evelyn B.A.
Walson.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The researcher is very grateful to the handiwork of Almighty God for his favour,
kindness, grace, love, protection, good health, guidance and strength bestowed on him and every
member of his family throughout the course of this study.
The researcher appreciates in a very special way his thesis supervisor, Prof. F.A.Okwo,
whose expert advice, encouragement, mentorship and meticulous supervision brought this study
to this level. His sincerity of purpose and dedication to duty were clearly manifested in the sense
of direction which made the task of producing this research work possible. The researcher is
indeed grateful and pray God to continually show his blessings of good health, long life and
prosperity on you and your family.
The researcher wishes to express his profound gratitude to the following professionals
and academics: His external examiner Prof. N.P. Ikediugwu and internal examiner Prof. N. O.
Ogbonnaya, Associate Prof. (Mrs.) A. I. Oboegbulem, Prof. J.C. Omeje, Dr. (Mrs.) L.N.
Onuigbo, Dr. D.U. Ngwoke, Dr. (Mrs.) T. Ogbuanya, Dr. F.M. Onu, Dr. (Mrs.) A.N. Okolo,
Dr. B.C. Madu, Dr. S.C. Ugwoke, Dr. (Mrs.) G.T.U. Chiaha, Dr. J.O. Ezeugwu, Dr. Ibenegbu
Christopher, Mrs. Obalum Marueen and the host of others who contributed in one way or the
other in making this study successful.
The researcher is very grateful to Chief (Barr.) and Mrs. Oris U. Onyiri, JP, for their
magnanimity and empowerment to foster the course of this programme. I thank them immensely
and may the Almighty God continually grant them abundant blessings. Many thanks also to the
management and staff of Vondorix Services Nig. Limited for their financial and moral support.
The researcher’s regards also go to his brothers, sisters, friends and well wishers whose
advice and encouragement remain outstanding, especially Mr & Mrs. J.O. Obiene, Mr. & Mrs.
D.B.Michael, Dr. Willie Obulom, Dr. N.S. Okoroma, Freshba Asako, Dr. (Engr.) Scott Akpila,
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Mr. Ibere Karibi, Mr. Denis Ngo-Abo, Engr. Amaechi Walson Asako, Mr. Ibim Walson Asako,
Wariboko Sobere, Dr. Magaji Waziri, Mr. Augustine Okoye, Nimiteinbo-ofori Harry,
Mrs. Felicia Mormah, Uche Osogwa, Mr. Ugwude, Anthony Chudi, Mrs. Amadi Maria Akunna,
and Mrs. Uba Felicia for their moral and financial support.
The researcher is very grateful to the research assistants whose sincerity of purpose
made a research of this scope successful. Among them are Bob Okoni, Levi Macus, Donald
Joseph, Iyasere Blessing, Aghogho Happiness, Joe Sampson and Nneji Jesline Nwakama.
Finally, the researcher acknowledges with deep appreciation the support and kind
understanding of his wife Mrs. Blessing (Lelee) Ominini Walson Asako and children: Veronica,
Godwin (Aziboabom), Raymond (Azibabhel), and Queen (Masebheziba) while the programme
lasted. He prays that the Almighty God rewards them abundantly.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page TITLE PAGE i
APPROVAL PAGE ii
CERTIFICATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
APPENDICES x
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xv
ABSTRACT xvi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
Background to the Study 1
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 13
Significance of the Study 15
Scope of the Study 17
Research Questions 17
Hypotheses 19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 21
Conceptual Framework 22
Concept of Management 22
Secondary Education 32
School Principalship 35
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Performance in the management of secondary Education 37
Demographic factors in School Principalship 79
Personality Factors in School Principalship 88
Theoretical Framework: 97
Situational/Contingency theory 97
Human relations theory 101
Behavioural science theory 102
Hertzberg’s two-factor theory 103
Review of Empirical Studies 107
Studies related to demographic variables and principals’ performance 107
Studies related to Leadership styles and principals’ performance 128
Studies related to motivation and principals’ performance 140
Summary of Literature Review 145
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 149
Research Design 149
Area of the Study 149
Population of the Study 151
Sample and Sampling Technique 151
Instruments for Data Collection 152
Validation of Instruments 155
Reliability of Instruments 156
Method of Data Collection 157
Method of Data Analysis 157
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CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 160
Summary of the Findings 222
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS, CONCLUSION, EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY 225
Discussion of Results 225
Conclusion 249
Educational Implications of the Study 250
Recommendations 252
Limitations of the Study 253
Suggestions for Further Study 253
Summary of the Study 253
REFERENCES 258
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APPENDICES
Appendix A - Summary of population of the study 278
Appendix B - Taro Yamen’s formula for sample size determination 279
Appendix C - List of sampled schools per senatorial zone of the six States in South-South Nigeria 281
Appendix D - Letter of Introduction 287
Appendix E - Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) 288
Appendix F - Principals’ Leadership styles Questionnaire (PLSQ 291
Appendix G - Principals’ Performance Scale (PPS) 293
Appendix H - Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) and Bench Mark 296
Appendix I - Comments/Suggestions of Validates 301
Appendix J - List of Secondary Schools Used for the trial testing of instrument in Enugu State 302
Appendix K - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) 303
Appendix L - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Leadership styles Questionnaire (PLSQ) 320 Appendix M - Results of Reliability for Principals’ Performance
Scale (PPS) 323
Appendix N - Results of Reliability for Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) 352
Appendix O - Data analysis print out for frequencies 354
Appendix P - Data analysis print out for correlation co-efficients 367
Appendix Q - Data analysis print out for Regressions 382
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LIST OF TABLES Page
1. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ age in South-South, Nigeria 160
2. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ gender in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria 161
3. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ years of working experience in South-South Nigeria 161
4. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ educational qualifications in South-South Nigeria 162
5. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ area of specialty in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria 162
6. Frequencies and percentage of principals’ marital status in South-South, Nigeria 163
7. Means ratings of principals’ leadership behaviours in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria 164
8. Means ratings on ‘nature of work itself’ as Motivating factor 166
9. Means ratings on ‘recognition’ as a motivating factor 167
10. Means ratings on ‘responsibility’ as a motivating factor 168
11. Means ratings on ‘achievement’ as Motivational factor 169
12. Means ratings on ‘advancement’ as a Motivating factor 170
13. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in instructional supervision 171
14. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in communication 172
15. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in decision making 173
16. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the provision of incentives to teachers and students 174
17. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in human resource development 175
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18. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in public relations 176
19. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in financial management 177
20. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’
performance in adhering to legal status 178
21. Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution 179
22. Mean ratings of plant management (classrooms) of principals 180
23. Mean ratings of plant management (staffrooms) of principals 181
24. Mean ratings of plant management (laboratories) of principals 182
25. Mean ratings of plant management (workshop) of principals 183
26. Mean ratings of plant management (toilets facilities) of principals 183
27. Mean ratings of plant management (water facilities) of principals 184
28. Mean ratings of plant management (playground) of principals 185
29. Mean ratings of plant management (electricity) of principals 185
30. Mean ratings of plant management (compound) of principals 186
31. Mean ratings of plant management (fire extinguisher) of principals 186
32. Mean ratings of plant management (medical facilities) of principals 187
33. Mean ratings of plant management (library) of principals 187
34. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in instructional supervision 189
35. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in communication 190
36. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in decision-making 191
37. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students 192
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38. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in human resource development 194
39. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in public relations 195
40. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in financial management 196
41. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in adherence to legal status 198
42. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in Conflict Management and Resolution 199
43. Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in plant management 200
44. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Instructional Supervision 202
45. Model Summary for Instructional Supervision 202
46. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on instructional supervision 203
47. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Communication 204
48. Model Summary for Communication 204
49. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Communication.. 205
50. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Decision-Making 206
51. Model Summary for Decision making 206
52. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Decision Making 207
53. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Provision of Incentives 208
54. Model Summary for provision of incentives 208
55. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Provision of Incentives 209
56. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Human Resource Development 210
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57. Model Summary for human resource development 210
58. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Human Resources Development 211
59. Analysis of Variance of Regression in Public Relations 212
60. Model Summary for public relations 212
61. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Public Relations 213
62. Analysis of Variance of Regression in Financial Management 214
63. Model Summary for financial management 214
64. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Financial Management 215
65. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Adherence to Legal Status 216
66. Model Summary for adherence to legal status 216
67. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Adherence to Legal Status 217
68. Analysis of Variance of Regression on Conflict Management and Resolution 218
69. Model Summary for conflict management and resolution 218
70. t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Conflict Management and Resolution 219
71. Analysis of Variance of Regression on School Plant Management 220
72. Model Summary for Plant Management 220
73. t-Values of the Demographic and personality Variables School Plant Management 221
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LIST OF FIGURES Page
Fig.1 - Organogram of Secondary School System 37
Fig. 2 - Schematic representation of Conceptual Framework 96
Fig.3 - Schematic representation of Theoretical Framework 106
Fig.4 - summarized findings of (tables 34-43) on correlations between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in the
management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. 201
Fig.5 - Summary of (table 44-73), demographic and personality variables that predicted principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. 222
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Abstract
The study examined the relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. The corelational survey design was adopted for the study. 13 research questions and 10 hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised of 1,356 principals of public secondary schools. The sample for the study consisted of 310 principals obtained using Taro Yamen’s formula. Proportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the number of principals per state while disproportionate stratified random sampling was used to select the number of principals per senatorial zone for fair representation. Four instruments namely: principals’ motivational factors questionnaire (PMFQ), principals’ leadership style questionnaire (PLSQ), principals’ performance scale (PPS), and plant observation rating scale (PORS) were used for data collection. These instruments were face validated by three experts: Two in educational administration and planning, and one in measurement and evaluation, from University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The overall internal consistency reliability co-efficient index of the instruments obtained through cronbach alpha method were 0.97 for principals’ motivational factors questionnaire, 0.60 for principals’ leadership style questionnaire, 0.93 for principals’ performance scale, and 0.95 for plant observation rating scale. The data collected were presented using means, standard deviations, and correlation co-efficient. The null hypotheses were tested using multiple regressions and associated t-tests at 0.05 level of significance. It was found that most principals were males, married, had first degrees in different aspects of education, and have served as principals and vice principals for not more than 11 years. Principals in South-South, Nigeria exhibited open leadership styles. The factors that motivated principals in the performance of their duties were nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and prospects for advancement. Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, financial management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management. Their performance was low in human resources development, public relations, and school plant management. Leadership styles, educational qualification, and working experience had substantial correlation coefficients with principals’ performance in some task areas of management of secondary schools. Demographic and personality factors had joint significant relationship (P<0.05) with principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary schools. These variables predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%, 20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%, 34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resource development, public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution, and plant management respectively. The following variables predicted performance in different task areas; Leadership style predicted in all the task areas except plant management; location in instructional supervision, communication and plant management; marital status in decision making and public relations; experience as principals in financial management; and academic qualification in plant management. Age and gender did not predict principals’ performance in any of the task areas. Major implications is that leadership style, experience, qualification and marital status impacted positively on principals’ performance; and the performance of principals will not depend whether the person is a male. Based on these findings and implications, it was recommended that appointment of principals should not be based on age and gender since they have no substantial relationship with any of the task areas while educational qualification, years of working experience, and marital status should be considered since these variables have significant and substantial relationship with principals’ performance in different task areas of management. Professional development and capacity building programmes in human resources development, public relations, and school plant management should be constantly organized by government for principals since their performance was low in these tasks areas. Besides, effort to improve the level of motivation of principals should be made by the respective state governments on the provision and maintenance of school facilities, and the involvement of principals in decision-making.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Secondary Education is a six-year form of education which children receive after primary
school before proceeding to the tertiary level of education. According to the National Policy of
Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004), secondary education is the form of education
attended by children after primary education and before tertiary education with the aim of
preparing individual for useful living within the society and for tertiary education. Secondary
educations exist within the ambits of the law and are supervised by the Ministry of Education
and its State agencies. For instance Section 18(3)b of the Constitution of the Federal Republic
of Nigeria 2011 as amended provides for the existence of free secondary education while the
Nigerian Educational Edicts and laws promulgated in 1955 and 1965 covered the rights of
Secondary Education. The education laws promulgated by the states in the Federation laid down
rules and regulations in respect of administration and management of Secondary Education.
The principal is the administrative head of secondary schools who ensures the effective
implementation of policies and progammes for the achievement of the school goals. For the
attainment of the objectives of secondary schools, the curriculum has been developed to suit such
desires which are to be implemented by the Principal with the coorporation of competent
teachers.
The authority of the secondary school principal, according to Ogbonnaya (2009), is
viewed in the position occupied as well as the functions performed. The Principal implements
the educational programmes of the school, ensured the provision of facilities and equipment,
keeps records both statutory and non-statutory in addition to creating a conducive teaching and
learning atmosphere in schools. These are summed up by Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004)
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into five areas, namely: Development and implementation of educational programmes,
Development of teaching staff, Student relation function, Community relation function and
financial function. Similarly, Ocho and Okeke (1997) classified these functions into five namely:
management of instructional programme, staff personnel administration, student personnel
administration, financial and physical resource management. Stoner (2002) noted that
supervision of the teaching and learning process, decision making, conflict resolution,
communication, record keeping, fund management, plant management, public relations and
compliance to legal stipulations are critical aspects of school management. In this study, the
following aspects namely: Instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision
of incentives for teachers and students, human resource development, public relations, funds
management, plant management, adherence to statutory provisions, and conflict
management/resolution are considered.
Instructional supervision has to do with what the principal does to promote or direct
teaching and learning in the school. This according to Mgbodile (2004) involves the task of
ensuring that organized teaching and learning is effective in the school system. This is done by
the principal to see that meaningful learning takes place in all classes and that teachers are
teaching what they are supposed to teach and are undertaking the teaching in a manner that the
students understand and enjoy their lessons. The essence of instructional supervision is to assist
teachers with ideas and suggestions that will improve their instructional delivery, as well as
identify their needs and problems. Haruna (2008) noted that instructional supervision is the first
and the most important responsibility of a school principal. No wonder Carter (2008) explained
that the cardinal index of the performance evaluation of the school administrator rests on the
leadership ability in instructional supervision. Similarly, Chika and Ebeke (2007) observed that
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among many factors that influence learning and achievement in secondary schools, principals’
instructional management seem to be the most critical intervening factor.
Communication is a basic administrative responsibility of the principal in ensuring that
educational goals are achieved. Communication, according to Craig (2009), is the process of
sharing information and exchange of significant messages, ideas, attitudes, and feelings in ways
that produce a degree of understanding between two or more people. Communication is the
ability to convey in the simplest form information or ideas which the recipient can easily
understand; and the ability on the other part of the recipient to reciprocate in such a way that he
can easily be understood (Otamiri, Isaiah and Wori, 2002). If the principal’s communication
style is unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the teachers would
not co-operate with the principal and performance would be affected.
Decision making is also a critical aspect of an administrator’s responsibility in the
management of secondary schools. It is simply the process of choosing from among alternatives
ways of providing a solution to a problem towards achieving objectives (Mgbodile, 2004).
Decision making involves making choices. In the school system, the principal makes informed
decisions that guide whatever the school does. Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) noted that
decision making is vital in such managerial functions as planning, organizing, influencing and
controlling. Participatory decision making in a collaborative form with stake holders in school
usually improves the quality of decisions since diverse organizational experience is drawn and
this increases the understanding of the group as well as their commitment to the decisions. This
ownership perception motivates them to successfully implement the decisions.
Provision of teaching and learning incentives to teachers and students is another area of
principals’ responsibility in school administration. These incentives are those things that
encourage teachers and students action or efforts in the teaching and learning process which fall
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within the limits of the principal (Amirize, 2009). These include stimulating, controlling,
disciplining and evaluation of teachers and students for the purpose of effective instructional
delivery (Mogbodile, 2004). Understanding that teachers and students are the most important
assets in the school is very necessary for school management. Due to the importance of teachers
and students in the school system, Mgbodile (2004) reiterated that they must be handled very
adroitly. The principal must understand how to deal with them to get the best out of them.
Human resources development is another crucial area of principals’ responsibility in the
management of secondary schools. This could also be known as professional development
(Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). These are the series of articulated training programmes designed
for enhancing values re-orientation and attitudinal change of the human resources in an
organization (Lawson, 2007). These specialized training when given to the teachers will make
them more professionally effective than those who are not exposed to such training. This is so
because these training programmes empower and motivates teachers for better performance.
Therefore, in the opinion of Achunine (1998), the length of time one stays on the job does not
necessarily make one perform efficiently rather, professional training is a more important factor
than on-the job experience in job performance.
Public relations function is another area of responsibility of the school administrator. It
underscores the need to establish good rapport and human relations between the school and the
various stake holders especially the parents, government and philanthropists (Sherlekar, 2005).
This demands that the administrator seeks appropriate ways of relating with the public on issues
of mutual interest. The performance of this function, according to Worlu (2007), could be by
operating an open door policy where administrator can easily be accessed; regularly sending out
newsletters that address school and student progress over the course of the time and indicating
dates of special events and volunteer opportunities; helping to establish PTA and working co-
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operatively with them by holding regular meetings where parents, teachers and community stake
holders discuss salient issues as well as correct the views people hold against the school; making
appeals to philanthropists in the locality to track down needed supplies in the school; and
inviting the community to important school functions such as price giving day, annual sports
competition and end-of-year events. By this, the school will endear itself to the public and will
attract support and assistance in various ways (Bander, 2008).
Fund management is one of the major tasks of the school administrator. The success or
failure of any school programme depends very much on the way the financial resources are
managed and this in turn affects the overall performance of the school. Ogbonnaya (2010)
pointed out that public schools derive most of their financial resources from the government but
the principal of such schools should be aware of other avenues for the school to generate fund for
its use. However, the crux of the matter is not just the inflow of funds but also on how best the
funds are utilized. It is therefore important that all school heads have sufficient knowledge of
financial management in order to be effective financial managers as chief accountants of their
schools. Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004) noted that the failure of many schools is due poor
financial management. Without good fund management measures, the programmes of
educational institutions will not be properly implemented.
Plant management is another crucial area of principals’ responsibility. School plant refers
to the school site, the building, the playground ground, the equipment and other materials
provided for effective teaching and learning (Onwurah, 2004). Continuing Onwurah described
school plant as the space interpretation of the curriculum, noting that the programmes of the
school are expressed through the site, the building, play grounds, the arrangement and design of
the school buildings. The school plant in this study are the school facilities which enhance
teaching and learning such as classrooms, staff offices, compound, laboratories and libraries.
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The importance attached to school facilities as a vehicle for effective teaching and learning
cannot be over emphasized. The school plant if not properly managed and utilized could
dilapidate and wear out to the extent that the school would not derive optimum benefits from it.
Consequently the educational goals for which such educational facilities are acquired would not
be achieved. Ezugwu (2005) posited that properly designed and fully utilized school plant with
wide array of teaching aids provide effective delivery of schools curriculum and are positively
related to academic achievement. The school administrator, in addition to other duties is
expected to effective utilize and maintain school plant to achieve school goals.
Adherence to legal status is also an important area of responsibility for the school
administrators. In contemporary times people are becoming more aware of their rights within the
school system. The school administrator in the discharge of the duties is expected to work
within the confines of the laws guiding school administration. This is because any act to the
contrary will be ultra-vires and ignorance of the law is no excuse. In this age of enlightenment
ignorance relative to the rights, duties and obligations of school administrators Obi (2010) noted
may no doubt be costly if not disastrous to the individual, the educational system and others
within the school environment. Proper understanding of the roles and codes of conduct as they
impact on the rights and responsibilities of teachers, students and other stakeholders in the school
system affords school administrators and teachers the opportunity to define their limits of
individual behaviours and enhance principals’ role performance in the management of secondary
education (Peretomode, 2001).
Conflict management and resolution is an important task area of principals in the
management of secondary education. Conflict ordinarily is an inescapable reality for workers in
organization which takes any form. It may be a disagreement about how to complete a task,
allocate resources, personality clash between associates, misunderstanding among students, or
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differences in individual value system (Oboegbulem and Onwurah, 2011). Leah (2008) posited
that in which ever level conflict manifests in the school of organization, be it intra-personal,
inter- personal, inter- organization and community related, if not properly diagnosed or left
unchecked can be a highly destructive force. Good conflict resolution and management strategies
in the school system brings about an enviable and productive environment for the achievement
of school goals. Hence school administrators should apply conflict management and resolution
strategies to control and prevent conflict from becoming destructive (Oboegbulam & Onwurah,
2011).
Principals’ effective performance on these critical aspects of administration determines
the achievement of educational objectives. Ibukun (2011) viewed principals’ performance as the
rate or frequency at which they carry out their daily functions towards the attainment of
educational goals. Principals’ performance in this study refers to how well or the frequency with
which the principals execute tasks in the critical areas of school administration for the
achievement of goals. Principals’ task could be high or low depending on the task area. The
more frequently principals carry out their functions in the critical task areas, the higher their
performance and the better for the achievement of school goals. High performance would lead to
discipline and the overall improvement in the teaching and learning process in the school system.
The performance of principals in the management of secondary schools in South-South
Nigeria has remained questionable in contemporary times as there is still public outcry. Several
authors attributed it to the performance of school administrators in task areas like supervision of
instruction, decision making, communication, human resource management, conflict
management and resolution, and plant management. Evidence abound for poor infrastructure,
teachers poor attitude to work due to vacillating nature of principals like nagging, and non
involvement of teachers in decision making. Indiscipline among staff and students are not
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uncommon. Students’ performance in external examination is low. Student’s unrest, continuous
rancor between staff and student, and illegal activities like embezzlement of funds and cheating
are also perpetrated in secondary schools. Okujagu (2005) questioned the management of
secondary schools by principals who have abdicated their functions and compromised their roles
to the extent of aiding and abetting examination malpractice which led to the removal of four
principals and the relocation of several centres for the West African School Certificate
Examination in Rivers State. He noted that this has not augured well for the school system.
For principals to perform efficiently and effectively, it is presumed that demographic
could essential. They also need to adopt certain management styles and be motivated (Oredien,
2004). Peretomode (2001) noted that demographic variables such as age, gender, educational
qualification, experience and marital status, could be advantageous or disadvantageous in the
principals’ performance of duties. In the Nigeria setting, according to Ibukun (2011), age has
been considered with other factors like qualification, and experience in the appointment of
teachers into position of principalship with the believe that these factors would make some
individuals to be more effective than others. Therefore, there is the need to examine the
relationship between these variables and principals performance.
Age is viewed as the length and time a man has lived from birth (Sturman, 2000). The
general proposition is that younger principals exhibit better management capabilities than the
older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work with age
(Feldman, 1990). The age of a person could also enhance his performance since age and
experience go together. Due to these inconsistencies, it has become necessary to determine the
extent to which age relate to principals performance in the critical task areas of management of
schools.
9
Gender is described as the behavioral characteristics distinguishing between males and
females in any society. Gender according Onyeonoru (2005) refers to the differentiation in roles
between men and women which is different from sex but construed by society through
socialization. Sex is the biological differentiation between the roles of men and women. There
are contrasting views over which gender performs better in the management of things in the
society. This work seeks to contribute in resolving this controversy on gender as it affects
principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools.
Professional qualification is the requisite knowledge and skills a person has acquired
from training to enable him carry work proficiently in his occupation. Akpan (2007) described
professional qualification as the knowledge and skills acquired after a period of training and
instruction by seasoned experts. Professional training could expose one to knowledge, skills,
and values needed for effective job performance. However, there are contrasting views. This
study seeks to resolve this controversy as it relates to principals performance in the management
of secondary schools.
Experience as viewed by Sturman (2000) is the culmination of context based events that
a person perceives. It is the professional growth as a result of a period of continued work,
training and retraining on the job and other related processes. Sturman further noted that
experience has some level of influence on principals’ job performance. It has been suggested by
Nwangwu (2006) that experience assists in developing the required social and intellectual skills,
in learning how to work closely with other people and in finding out about individual interests
and differences. This indicates that experience may be related to performance. However,
Achunine (1998) opined that the length of time one stays on a job does not necessarily make one
efficient; and argued that professional training is a more important factor than on-the-job
experience in an administrator’s job performance. It is therefore important to determine the
10
extent experience relates to principals’ performance in some aspects of the management of
secondary schools.
Marital status is the state of being married or not married by a man or a woman
(Anyanwu, 2009). It has been suggested by Enukoha (1999) that marital status influences
teachers and administrators motivation, commitment to duty and task performance; and that
married school administrators and teachers were more satisfied than the single ones. This implies
a significant positive relationship between marital status and task performance. However,
Okpalogu (2008) found an insignificant relationship between marital status and students
achievement in schools administered by married and single principals. It is therefore necessary
that the relationship between marital status and performance in different task areas be
determined.
Leadership styles are the behavioral approach a leader adopts to influence subordinates in
the pursuit of organizational goals. Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) described leadership styles
as the underlining needs structure of an individual that determines his behavior in various
leadership situation. Oredien (2004) submitted that variables like gender, experience and
qualification do not influence performance with respect to staff and students achievement, rather
school factors such as style of principal’s management do influence the staff and students
achievement. Leadership styles considered in this context are democratic, autocratic and
laissez-faire. The features of these leadership styles could depict an open or close form of
leadership. An open leadership style has democratic tendencies while a close leadership style has
autocratic and laissez-faire tendencies. It is possible to determine the extent which a principal
frequency exhibit a more open or close leadership style and relate to the principals’ performance
in some task areas of management of secondary schools. This is examined in this study.
11
Motivation is described as the psychological forces that determine the direction of a
person’s behaviour, level of effort and persistence in an organisation (Hoy and Miskel, 2005). It
is concerned with the forces that influence people’s behaviour in certain ways. Motivation is
therefore necessary for effective performance at work. In the view of Sinden and Hoy (2008), the
principal who is the chief executive officer of a secondary school needs to be well motivated
towards achievement of educational goals. Ekere (2010) asserted that no matter how automated
an organization may be, high productivity or performance depends on the level of motivation.
The relationship between motivation and principals’ performance is to be examined in this study.
The extent to which demographic and personality variables have become factors in the
performance of principals in the different task areas of school administration is a subject of
concern for verification. Therefore there is need to examine the relationship of these variables
with the performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools in
South-South Nigeria.
Statement of the problem
In South-South Nigeria, appointment to position of principalship is from a pool of
teachers without considering the demographic and personality factors which can influence their
performance. Their selection is based largely on their seniority as classroom teachers, salary
grade level, and possession of some tertiary level qualification such as a first degree in
education. In some cases many teachers who have not gained any experience are upgraded to
principalship position to learn on the job while many who have served as Vice Principals still
remain in those position unremembered due to primordial considerations (Nwosu, 2009).
The method of selection of school principals which does not consider demographic and
personality variables is unsatisfactory and gives room for concern. The consequences of this
anomaly are that most school principals grope around and often use trial and error method in
12
their daily school administration which results to noticeable lapses which has led to public
outcry. For instance there is evidence in poor performance of students in West African
Examination Council and National Examination Council examinations, cheating, embezzlement
of fund, dilapidated facilities, students’ unrest, teachers’ poor attitude to work, and other illegal
activities perpetrated in public schools in South-South, Nigeria.
Although there are theoretical connection among these demographic and personality
variables and principals performance. For instance experience of the principals could enable
them monitor and supervise the various aspects of school activities like teaching and learning to
ensure that teachers are teaching what they are suppose to teach and students are learning what
they are suppose to learn in the teaching and learning process. Experience could also be a burden
to the principals if their professional experience and academic base is weak. It might be an
obstacle to innovation. Similarly, marital status could enable a principals adjust properly to
handle complex issues since marriage comes with emotional stability, love and tolerance which
could be extended to relationships with teachers and students to promote cooperation in the
general administration of schools. Being married could also be a hindrance to the effectiveness
of the principal as marriage subjects couples to more responsibilities which gives them little time
to attend to official matters very regularly and punctually in the management of schools. This
could impact negatively on supervision of instruction, communication, decision making, public
relations and other task areas of management of schools. The negative impacts may possibly
result to poor performance of students, and indiscipline among teachers and students. However,
the extent to which these demographic and personality variables relate with or predict principals
performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools have not been determined in
spite of their presumed connection. Their relationship may differ depending on the task area.
Perhaps lack of empirical evidence has limited the consideration of demographic and personality
13
variables in the appointment of principals, in spite of the presumed connection between these
variables and performance. Although studies have been done on the relationship between these
variables and performance, no study to the knowledge of the researcher related the variables to
principals’ performance in the critical task areas of management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria. The problem of the study is: To what extent do demographic (age, gender,
qualification, experience, marital status) and personality (leadership styles, motivation) variables
relate with or predict principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between demographic and
personality factors, and the performance of principals in the task areas of management of
secondary education in South-South Nigeria. Specifically, the study seeks to determine:
1. Demographic (age, gender, qualification, experience, marital status) profile of principals
of secondary schools in the South-South Nigeria.
2. Personality (leadership styles, and motivation) profile of principals of secondary schools
in the South-South Nigeria.
3. Performance of principals in the task areas of management (instructional supervision,
communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, human resource development,
public relations, financial management, adherence to statutory provisions, conflict
management and resolution, and plant management) of secondary schools in the South-
South, Nigeria.
4. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in South-South,
Nigeria.
14
5. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
6. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in decision making in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
7. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in South-South,
Nigeria.
8. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in human resources development in the management of secondary schools in South-South,
Nigeria.
9. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
10. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in financial management in the management of secondary schools in South-South,
Nigeria.
11. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in South-South,
Nigeria.
12. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria.
13. Relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance
in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
15
Significance of the Study
This study will be beneficial in theoretical and practical dimensions. Theoretically, the
study hinges on the human relations theory and the Herzberg’s two factor theory. The human
relations theory proposed that when workers in an organisation are treated humanely by giving
attention to their personality, productivity or performance is likely to increase regardless of
actual changes in working conditions. According to the theory, what spur workers to higher
performance are non-monetary incentives as recognition of their personal values, encouraging
their sense of achievement and making the job challenging and interesting. The human relations
theory is also the basis of democratic management which supports the involvement of all
members in a group in decision making process. This theory is important to this study because it
provides the basis for examining the relationship between leadership styles, motivational factors
and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools.
Besides, Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation hold that one set of factors consists
of the motivators or satisfiers which are concerned with the content of the job. These factors are
nature of work itself, recognition, responsibility, achievement, and advancement. They are seen
to be effective in motivating an individual to superior performance. The finding of this study will
essentially provide information to validate the persistence of these factors as motivators as
proposed by the theory.
Practically, the findings of this study will be of importance to the government, school
proprietors, administrators, parents, general public, students and researchers in the area of
educational management.
The result of this study will provide the ministries of education and the education boards
with the factors that relate to principals’ performance in the management of secondary schools.
This will guide them in selecting from the pool of teachers rather than consider variables which
16
are insignificant to management effectiveness and result-oriented performance. For instance, it
will unveil the relationship between age, gender, experience, qualification, marital status,
leadership styles, motivation and performance. This will enable the government use such
significant variables to principals’ performance in the management of secondary education as
benchmark during the selection and re-training of principals.
The findings of this study will be used by government, especially the Ministry of
Education, in formulating, developing, sustaining and evaluating policies and programmes that
will positively impact upon the performance of secondary school principals. This will reduce
lukewarmness and poor job performance among principals in secondary schools in the South-
South, Nigeria. By determining task areas of management on which principals do not perform
well, areas of interest to organize seminars, workshops and in-service trainings as professional
development initiatives to improve principals’ performance will be identified.
The findings of this study will help school principals as administrators to identify their
inadequacies and make effort to improve upon their managerial skills in communication,
instructional supervision, human relations, plant management, conflict management, decision-
making and financial management. The findings will form the basis on which the Association of
Principals would organize in-house seminars for their members.
By identifying areas were principals have not performance well and efforts made by the
government to enhance them will create a school climate for effective interaction and
interpersonal relationship for parents and the general public.
The findings of this study will serve as a source of data to students and researchers in
educational administration and related field of study as a reference material on the subject which
will also stimulate further research.
17
Scope of the Study
The study is de-limited to principals of government owned Secondary Schools in the six
States of South-South Nigeria, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross Rivers, Delta, Edo and
Rivers State.
The study focuses on demographic (age, gender, professional qualification, working
experience, Marital status) and personality (leadership styles, and motivational factors) variables
as correlates of principals performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools
namely instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,
financial management, public relations, human resource development, plant management,
adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution.
Research Questions
The following research questions were posed to guide the study:
1. What is the demographic (age, gender, educational qualification, working experience and
marital status) profile of principals of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?
2. What is the personality (leadership styles and motivation) profile of principals of
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?
3. What are the principals’ mean performance scores in the task areas of management
(instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,
financial management, public relations, human resource development, plant management,
adherence to statutory provisions and, conflict management and resolution) of secondary
schools in the South-South, Nigeria?
4. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
18
5. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
6. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
7. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
8. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in human resources development in the management of
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?
9. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
10. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
11. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
12. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?
19
13. What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of probability. 1. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals’
performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in the
South-South, Nigeria.
2. There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality
variables, and principals’ performance in communication in the management of
secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
3. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’
performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in the South-
South, Nigeria.
4. There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality
variables, and principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of
secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
5. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals
performance in human resource development in the management of secondary schools in
the South-South, Nigeria.
6. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals
performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in the South-
South, Nigeria.
20
7. There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality
variables, and principals’ performance in financial management in the management of
secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
8. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’
performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in the
South-South, Nigeria.
9. Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals
performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary
schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
10. There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality
variables, and principals’ performance in plant management in the management of
secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
21
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter presents a review of literature that are related to the present study. A
preliminary survey of books, journals, theses and other resource materials was carried out with a
view to finding out what works other researchers had done on the study and other related studies.
The literature review was organized under Conceptual Framework, Theoretical Framework,
Review of Empirical studies and Summary of Literature Review.
• Conceptual Framework
Concept of management
Secondary Education
School Principalship
Performance in task areas in the management of secondary education
Demographic Factors in Secondary School Principalship
Personality Factors in Secondary School Principalship
• Theoretical Framework
Situational/Contingency theory
Human relations theory
Behavioural science theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
• Review of Related Empirical Studies
Studies related to demographic variables and principals’ performance
Studies related to Leadership styles and principals’ performance
Studies related to motivation and principals’ performance
21
22
• Summary of Literature Review
Conceptual Framework
Concept of Management
Management has been described in a variety of ways by different scholars. Management
is seen as a group of people or as a team of individual in an organization who perform specific
functions (Mgbodile, 2004). Others see management as a profession with certain responsibilities
like special training, guided by code of conduct with benefits from well spelt out conditions of
service (Heinz and Harold, 2005). In this view management ensures a life-long vocation/career,
permanent membership and possession of self-authority to control admission, recruitment,
training, qualifying examinations, license and certification, standards of practice and retention of
members. Ndu and Anagbogu (2007) defined management as an executive function which
involves the strategic process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals,
working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims.
Management is a collaborative effort geared towards the utilization of human and
material resources for the attainment of organizational objectives. Nwachukwu (1990) viewed
management as the coordination of all the resources of an organization through the process of
planning, organizing, directing and controlling in order to attain organizational goals. It is the
process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals working together
efficiently to accomplish selected aims. Tony and John (1994) defined management as an
activity involving the responsibility of getting things done through people. It is the co-ordination
of the resources of an organization in order to attain organizational goals. This involves the
organization and mobilization of all human and material resources in a particular system for the
achievement of identified objectives.
23
The effective utilization of human and material resources of an organisation promotes
co-operation which foster the achievement of results. The United Nations Education Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) cited in Ogunu (2000) observed that management as a
social process is designed to ensure the co-operation, participation, intervention and involvement
of others in the effective achievement of a given or predetermined objectives. In the view of
Peretomode (1996), management is a process involving a sequence of co-ordinated events –
planning, organization, coordinating and controlling or leading in order to use available
resources to achieve a desired outcome in the fastest and most efficient way. Gareth and Cuthert
(1994) observed that the essence of management in every human setting, organization, society or
culture is to see that valuable scarce resources are effectively and efficiently used for the well
being and prosperity of the people. From these definitions of management, it is deduced that:
Management is a social process by which goals are achieve through planning, organizing,
leadership and coordinating the efforts of people. Precisely, management in this context is about
planning, organizing, coordinating and stimulating available human and material resources of
secondary schools towards achieving desired goals or objectives.
Planning has to do with decision making. Thus, to plan is to decide in advance what is to
be done and how to do it. The importance of planning in the management of school activities
according to Olagboye (2004) is to decide, in advance the objectives to be achieved in the school
and how to utilize the available resources in achieving these objectives. The function of planning
consists of forecasting; establishing objectives; programming; scheduling; budgeting; developing
procedures; and establishing and interpreting policies. Within the secondary school system,
Olagboye noted that virtually all the various programmes and activities should be planned. The
principal in collaboration with the teachers may be involved in planning for a number of school
activities like examination, sports, prize giving day, school plant maintenance, time-tabling and
24
applying and distribution of functions to teachers, disciplinary procedure for erring ones and
acquiring and distributing instructional materials and equipment for the school. In a way to make
school plans effective, the principal should endeavour to involve as many teachers as possible in
formulation and implementing plans, since people tend to avoid implementing plans they did not
help to formulate. Such Plans should be flexible to accommodate changes which may be coming
up from time to time. This is geared towards ensuring efficient management of school activities
in the pursuit of it objectives.
Organizing is the management function which relates to arranging work schedules in
such a way that they can be carried out most effectively by people. Odimegwu (2003) viewed
organizing in the school system as an administrative process which provides a structure whereby
posts are created and functions assigned to such post for the purposes of performing specific
duties. The function of organizing includes activities like designing the organizational structure,
delegating responsibilities and authorities and establishing relationships. Since no school
administrator like the principal can function alone without the assistance of others, it becomes
necessary that in order to achieve the set educational objectives, there should be a framework or
structure for the school on which post are created and assigned to people. For instance within
the secondary school system, there is a structure on which such post as those of the principal
through the vice down to the school prefect exist. Each post has specific functions attached to it
to ensure that no conflict in functions comes up in course of performing school functions.
Organizing helps in delineating areas of interactions within the system. Odor (1995)
noted that organizing is undertaken because of: the need for people to co-orporate in the
achievement of organizational goals. Without proper organization, the teachers, pupils and non-
teaching staff will not be able to cooperate with their principal or even among themselves in the
execution of school activities since each one will be acting independently. Organizing enables
25
the administrator to assign duties to people according to their competence. This ensures that
people put in their best efforts in the execution of assigned duties which in turn promotes
organizational efficiency. Organization tends to minimize conflicts in schools since each person
knows his own area of influence and limitation; finally, organizing helps the organization to
coordinate the various activities of the establishment. Practical instances of activities relative to
organizing in the school system according to Peretomode (2001) are: assigning teachers to
various classes or subject areas according to training, experience and specialization whereby
teachers with qualifications in similar or related disciplines are made to belong to the same
department or teach the same subjects; assigning duties to teachers for instance games master,
social master, choral master, and farm and craft mistress etc is based on competence; creating
administrative sub-units, departments or committees and assigning activities to them; appointing
sectional or departmental heads, based on laid down criteria, and assigning duties to school
prefects.
Coordination is a function of management which involves the process of bringing human
and material resources together to achieve the set educational objectives. It is a basic
administrative process for educational and other institutions. According to Odor (1995),
coordination is the process of fitting together the various groups and operations into an integral
pattern. In effect, coordination is a process of directing and harmonizing resources and group
activities for achieving set educational goals without frictions. Supervision, directing and
leadership are aspects of coordination. Therefore, the various departments, units, and individuals,
with their different functions in the school system must be properly harmonized to ensure that
the set school objectives are achieved. Practically, coordinating activities in the school system
includes: principals ensuring that every teacher is working towards the attainment of school
goals without coming into conflict with one another; the existence of an effective time-table;
26
ensuring that conflict do not arise from the use of school facilities such as laboratories, libraries,
games pitches and music rooms; appointment of games masters, hostel matrons and student
affairs master to co-ordinate the various aspects of the school system to achieve specific
objectives; appointment of subject co-ordinators like subject heads; appointment of committees
in handling school programmes like inter-house sports, send off ceremonies, Parents’ day and
founders’ day.
Stimulating, otherwise known as motivating, is another management function which
refers to the process of making people to work efficiently without force. Osuku (2004) noted that
stimulating is a condition of mind which activates and directs human behaviours towards
achieving desired goals. It is important to recognize that motivation depends on the goals to be
achieved, and the conditions for achieving them. Where the two are satisfactory and attractive, it
is likely that individuals will be motivated. Mgbodile (2004) identified practical aspects of
stimulating and motivation in the school system to include: encouraging sense of achievement by
ensuring that staff who perform certain feats are duly rewarded; recognizing staffs’ personal
value by delegating functions to them according to levels of competence; ensuring that school
policies in place are not frustrating. Others include provision of adequate incentives like praise;
recommending staff for training and re-training; involving staff in decision-making process;
showing concern to staff welfare; and delegation of function to staff. The application of these
management functions in educational institutions is educational management.
Concept of Educational Management
Educational management is the process of applying the functions of management in the
routine activities of educational institutions to foster the achievement of their set objectives.
Okoroma (2000) and Mgbodile (2004) described educational management as the process of
formulating educational polices or programmes with a view to achieving educational goals. Their
27
view is considered as an aspect of educational management. Educational management is seen as
the process by which educational objectives are achieved. Peretomode (2001) stated that,
alternatively, “educational management can be defined as the application of the processes of
planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating human and material resources in
order to achieve stated educational goals or objectives”(P.34). These definitions imply that
educational management is concerned with the process by which school administrators like
principals utilize human and material resources by bringing them together, setting objectives and
working out modalities like arranging structures and activating them to achieve such objectives.
This is done while appraising situations in order to determine their relationships with the stated
goals to guide against deviation from targets.
The importance of educational management as an instrument par excellence for achieving
growth, progress and national development cannot be over emphasized. Advanced nations of the
world have attained a high level of social, economic, scientific and technological advancement
through well planned and implemented educational systems. Educational management,
according to Abraham (2006), is the cardinal factor that determines the success or failure of
educational plans. The effective management of educational institutions helps in the
implementation of policies and programmes aimed at realizing envisaged educational targets.
The importance of management of educational institutions cannot be over emphasized.
According to Ogbonnaya (2009), it is with efficient management that an organization or
institution can coordinate its activities to achieve predetermined goals. Thus, the task of
educational administrators is to establish the environment for group effort in such a way that
individuals will contribute to group objectives with the least amount of such impact as money,
time, effort, comfort and materials. The essence of educational management as highlighted by
Ogbonnaya (2009) are: enhancing the planning and implementation of policies and decision in
28
the educational system. Educational administrators/managers help to plan, direct and implement
policies and decisions in the educational system; as an administration or management tool for
service delivery through which the fundamental objectives of educational process may be
efficiently realized; as a tool used to determine clarity and develop educational goals and
policies; education institutions are managed for the effective utilization of funds; management
of educational institutions ensures that educational programmes are well coordinated by the
control of factor resources for the achievement of educational goals/objectives; management of
educational institutions also ensure that physical facilities and equipment are provided and
maintained (P. 46).
The essence of management of educational institutions is the enhancement of teaching
and learning. The administrative heads of educational institutions must ensure the provision and
prudent use of all the available human and material resources for the achievement of educational
objectives.
The effective management of secondary education in South-South, Nigeria, has remained
questionable in contemporary times as there is still public outcry on the standard of education.
Several authors attributed it to the performance of school administrators in specific task areas
like supervision of instruction, decision making, communication, human resource management
and conflict management and resolution. Evidence abound for poor infrastructure and teaching
facilities, teachers poor attitude to work, indiscipline, students poor performance in external
examination, students unrest, continuous rancor between staff and student, and illegal activities
like embezzlement of funds and cheating. Okujagu (2005), in an article titled “government goes
tough with schools” questioned the management of secondary schools by principals for
abdicating their functions and compromising their roles to the extent of aiding and abetting with
students in public examinations which led to the removal of four principals and the relocation of
29
several centres for the West African School Certificate Examination in Rivers State. He stated
that principals have built a culture of collecting examination fees from students as implied source
of revenue to aid them in perpetrating examination fraud. The level at which Principals
compromise their roles in the management of secondary schools in South-South Nigeria
according to Awosiyan (2009) was clearly manifested in Delta State. Awosiyan observed with
dismay the poor management of secondary schools which has eaten deep into the fabrics of our
educational system as only 23.5% of Nigerian candidate who sat for Nationwide West African
School Certificate Examination in 2008 passed. He also noted that the result in 2009 May/June
West African School Certificate Examination did not record a better performance as only 25% of
the Nigerians were successful.
The situation in Delta State was more awful according to Awosiyan (2009) who observed
with dismay the poor management of secondary school students in West African School
Certificate Examination in 2008. He also noted that the result in 2009 May/June West African
School Certificate Examination did not record a better performance as only 25% of the Nigerians
were successful.
In Cross Rivers State it was observed that the Ministry of education banned six secondary
schools from conducting external examinations for three years for involvement in examination
malpractice between 2012 and 2013 academic period despite repeated warnings to the principals
(Ukeh, 2013). The ministry expressed with dismay, the act perpetrated by these schools and
attributed it to the laxity of the principals who compromised their roles in managing the affairs of
their respective schools.
The cases of student unrest and infrastructural decay in most Secondary Schools have
been stressed. An instance in Rivers State were two rival cult groups engaged themselves and led
to the killing of four students was reported (Obinna, 2013). Additionally, most schools have
30
experienced dearth in infrastructure to the extent that classrooms, laboratories, libraries and
playfields are going extinct. Some authors (Adejo and Sam, 2012) regard this as a development
that does not promote an all round development of the students. Adaeze (2013), in an article
titled ‘schools without playground’ noted that the social skills that children develop on
playground become lifelong skills that are carried forward into their adulthood. She pointed out
that there is a general consensus that physical activities reduces the risk of psychological
problems in students and fosters their self esteem in learning. The principal should ensure that
infrastructural facilities are improved and utilized optimally in secondary schools for the
achievement of desired educational objectives.
Principal in their unique position, according to Awosiyan (2009), can utilize their
leadership and managerial behaviours to create a more conducive school climate for teachers,
students, parents and the general public to work and enhance meaningful teaching and learning.
This position was reiterated by Eboka (2010) that principals can enhance proper overhaul in the
management of secondary education. This they can do by exercising full control of teachers and
students activities, as well as supervising various sections of the school system rather than
delegating functions which are not supervised.
The implication of indulging in examination mal-practice by students or aiding and
abetting by school authorities was made apt by Asuru (2004) who noted that the law specifies
jail terms for perpetrators. Asuru also noted that principals are expected to continually let
teachers and student know their rights and limitations by providing the relevant laws guiding
school activities. This is to enable them adjust properly as cases of litigations in the school
system in contemporary times are not incidental.
Proper control of students’ activities is essential to cub the rising menace of students’
unrest and indiscipline in the school system. Musa (2013) noted that a principal who is ill-
31
motivated, lacks managerial acumen by way of demonstrating democratic principles as well as
exercising control over his school. To that extent, the principal cannot effectively maximize
machineries to inculcate discipline and provide a healthy environment needed for effective
teaching and learning.
The ineffective management of instruction has also brought about some irregular
conducts in the school. Shaman (2006) noted that most principals have not adequately handled
the issue of instructional supervision in their schools. This could have checked the excesses of
teachers by regularly inspecting their lesson notes as well as paying unscheduled visits to classes
as some teachers skip their periods for their private business. Teachers also skip classes due to
lack of the subject matter. Musa (2013) noted that this cannot be unconnected with the fact that
most teachers have compromised their roles as loco parentis and seem to have lost the passion
and commitment for the teaching profession, and taking teaching as the last resort amidst the
high rate of unemployment. The principals in their leadership and supervisory roles can re-shape
teachers focus to realize that it is the teacher that holds the key that unlocks the door to students
academic excellence. This, the principal could do by recommending teachers for professional
development or creating avenues for their value re-orientation and attitudinal change (Lawson,
2007). Jennings (1998) noted that principals should encourage others working in the school
environment to achieve educational objectives. In implementing policies and programmes in
secondary schools, the principal acts as a catalyst and control agent (Scott, 1998). Scott also
noted that in the process of managing human and material resources, the principal of secondary
schools need to be inspired to enable them inject humour towards achieving school objectives of
improving the knowledge, skills and competencies of the learner. This fact has been emphasized
by Ehiametalor and Aderoumu (1995) that in the management of educational institutions,
32
administrators have to be enthused to enable them interact with other members of the school
system to promote team spirit towards achieving the expected goals.
In effective management of secondary schools, principals are urged to be concerned with
how best to plan, organize, coordinate and stimulate the limited human and material resources,
such as men, materials, finance, and time, to achieve needed objectives. Managing these
resources in the school system according to Handy (1996), is a very difficult task. Hence
administrators are expected to rely on standard procedures for routine administrative operations
to guide them. In the management of educational institutions, administrators should appreciate
the fact that high performance is ensured when there are standard procedures in routine
administrative operations which are adhered to by members in the pursuit of organizational
goals. From the foregoing, it can be said that the management of secondary schools in South-
South Nigeria, may depend on certain demographic and personality variables. This study tried to
determine these variables.
Secondary Education
Several definitions of secondary education have been provided by scholars. Rowntree
cited in Ogbonnaya (2010) referred to secondary education as full time education provided after
primary education for pupils in secondary schools between the ages of twelve and eighteen plus.
Worlu (2007) described secondary education as a transitory level of education received by pupils
between primary and tertiary education whose curriculum is pre-vocational and academic at the
junior level and comprehensive with core-curriculum designed to broaden pupils out look at the
senior level. It is further defined in the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004) as education children receive after primary education and before tertiary stage.
From these definitions one can deduce that secondary education is the form of education which
33
children receive after they have received primary school education. It constitutes post primary
education and is a link between primary and tertiary level education.
Secondary education is managed by the state ministry of education and its agencies such
as states education boards. Secondary education is a six-year course and is in two stages of
three-year duration, called the junior secondary school stage now known as upper basic 1-3,
and the Senior secondary stage (Implementation guidelines of the Universal Basic Education
programme, Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2000). The policy document specifically states that
students who complete Junior Secondary School shall obtain the Basic School Certificate and
thereby streamed into either the senior secondary school, technical college, out of school
vocational training centre or an apprenticeship scheme. The streaming shall however be based
on the results of test to determine academic ability, aptitude and vocational interest. At the junior
secondary level, students are thought both academic and pre-vocational subjects.
The senior secondary school will be for those able and willing to complete six year
education based on their academic aptitude and are expected to have the Senior Secondary
Certificate on completion (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). It will be comprehensive and
diversified in nature but will have a core curriculum designed to broaden pupils’ knowledge and
outlook. The core curriculum is the group of subjects every student must take in addition to his
or her specialty and will enable students to offer art or science in the higher education. The
broad aims of secondary education in the National policy on Education (Federal Republic of
Nigeria) include the following: Preparation for useful living within the society; and preparation
for higher education.
Emphasizing the importance of secondary education in nation building, Ogbonnaya
(2010) stated that secondary education helps to produce good citizens whose greatest pride is in
their contribution to the happiness and joy of others and of themselves through hard work,
34
sacrifice, tolerance, diligence, kindness, consideration, sympathy and truthfulness. It inspires in
youths the desires for achievement and self-improvement. In addition, secondary education
serves as a stepping-stone to higher education by providing opportunities for primary school
leavers to acquire more knowledge, develop skills and prepares them to live successfully in our
changing society. Ogbonnaya further stated that the broad and diversified curriculum of
secondary education provides for differences in talents and opportunities. Some secondary
school graduates are of the junior secondary school level while some continue up to senior
secondary. Others go into technical trades and crafts or commercial areas. Secondary education
helps to encourage cooperation among students with the establishment of unity schools or
Federal Government Colleges and the learning of one Nigerian language other than the child’s.
Secondary education apart from helping in the development of potentials of our youths
and their cultural talents through the teaching of music, craft and religious studies, also
compliments the manpower demand approach to educational planning. Graduates of the
secondary school serve as feeders to tertiary institutions where high level manpower training is
sustained for the manpower needs of the society for economic development (Okoroma, 2000).
The management of secondary education lies in the hands of the Post Primary Schools
Board under the ministry of education with the Principal as the administrative head (Nakpodia,
2006). The education laws promulgated by the states in the Federation lay down rules and
regulations with respect to the administration of secondary education and statutory system of
public education in Nigeria. The education Edicts of 1980 amended in 1985, and 1987 (Official
gazette, Rivers State Ministry of Education), cover the establishment of State Education Boards
under the Ministry of Education to cater for Secondary Education. The boards are charged with
the responsibility of recruitment, posting and discipline of staff of secondary schools. They
allocate resources like funds and aids to educational institutions.
35
The Post Primary School Board oversee the activities of secondary schools. Peretomode
(1996) described the Post Primary Schools Board, under the Ministry of Education as saddled,
among other things, with the responsibility of managing post primary schools and the
establishment of conditions of service for Secondary School employees subject to approval by
the commissioner of Education. Some State Ministries have the final say on the admission of
students to post primary institutions. Alternatively, the decision is left to the School Principal
with little or no interference by the Ministry in the selection of pupils for state secondary
schools. Mgbodile (2004) noted that the Post Primary schools Board which is headed by an
administrative chairman also supervises the activities of Post Primary Institutions through the
Principal with a view to ensuring that available resources are committed earnestly for the
achievement of educational goals of the institutions. To ensure effective management of
secondary schools, the state government provides grants to the Post Primary Schools Board
through the ministry for financing secondary education such as payment of staff salaries and
other overhead cost.
School Principalship
The Principal as the administrative head who is accountable to the Schools Management
ensures the effective and efficient utilization of human and material resources towards the
achievement of educational goals. Reiterating on the position of the School principal,
Peretomode (2001), posited that the school as a social system and a formal organization, and like
every formal organization, elements of administration must be used in running the organization.
Some of these elements are clear statements of aims and objectives, hierarchy of authority, unity
of command, delegation of authority, division of labour, and effective communication and
coordination of various tasks such as staff development and students’ personnel functions. In the
Secondary School, these responsibilities of coordinating the activities normally fall on the
36
principal. The Principal is appointed based on qualification and seniority to oversee the proper
running of the school in terms of staff and students’ welfare and discipline. Oyewale and Alonge
(2013) noted that the principal in the school system is a professional leader and foremost
supervisor who combine the roles of administration supervisor, instructional supervisor and
subject supervisors. Hence the growth and development of secondary schools in Nigeria
depends largely on the administrative effectiveness and efficiency of the principal.
In essence, the principal implements the policies of secondary education by coordinating,
controlling and organizing available resources for the achievement of set objectives. Igwe
(2003) listed the duty of the principal to include oversee the proper running of the school in
terms of staff and students’ welfare, development and implementation of educational
programmes, provision of proper instruction, school-community relations, discipline and proper
keeping of school records. Other duties to be performed are; students admission, proper
documentation of school finance and creating a conducive learning atmosphere. Stoner (2002)
identified critical task areas of principals in the management of secondary schools namely:
instructional supervision. Communication, decision making, provision of incentives to staff and
students, human resource development, public relations, financial management, adherence to
legal status, conflict management and resolution, and school plant management. Principals
performance in these task areas are examined in this study.
Secondary Schools have the following organizational structure or organogram with the
Principal, Vice-Principal, the staff (teachers), students, prefects, non-tutorial staff and the
community as major components. The organizational chart of secondary school is shown in
fig. 1. However, it is the principals knowledge, experience, marital status and personality that
affect his/her performance. Hence this study attempted to examine how these variables related
with principal effective management of the schools.
37
P r in c ip a l
G u i d a n c e C o u n s e l o r
B u r s a r
V .P A c a d .
Y e a r H e a d s
P r e fe c t s
A d m i n . S t a f f
M in is t r y o f E d u c a t io n
F o r mte a c h e r s
F o r mt e a c h e r s
S tu d e n t s
( H . O . D ’ s )
B u r s a r
V. P. A d m in .
M in is t r y o f E d u c a t io n
F o r mte a c h e r s
H e a d o f D e p t ’s
P o s t P r im a r y S c h o o ls B o a r d
Fig. 1: Organogram of a Secondary School System (Adapted from Oboegbulem &
Onwurah, 2011 P.10)
Performance in task areas in the management of secondary education
Performance is the frequency or how well a job task is carried out by a person. Principal
performance is the measure of how well or the frequency at which principals carries out their
duties in the task areas of management of secondary schools. Rosenthal and Pittsky (2002) stated
that task performance is an individual level variable which indicate whether a person did well
or not in his expected roles. It is therefore the measure of how well a job task is performed by
38
the principal in his roles towards ensuring that effective teaching and learning take place for the
achievement of secondary school goals.
With schools facing increased pressure to improve teaching and learning, Stoner (2002)
posited that the duties and responsibilities of principals expanded further to include task areas
were their performance is measured like instructional supervision, communication, decision-
making, provision of incentives for teachers and students, professional development, financial
management, public relation, adherence to statutory regulations in school administration,
conflict management/resolution, and plant management. Thus, success in school reforms to
increase student achievement often hinged upon a principal's ability to effectively perform his
duties within the context of these task areas in the management of schools.
The performance of principals in supervision of instruction could made teachers teach
effectively. Supervision of instruction is the process of ensuring that effective teaching and
learning takes place in the school system. According to Mgbodile (2004), supervision of
instruction involves the school administrators’ ability to effectively see that aspects of
instructional delivery in the school system are properly carried out to enhance learning.
Supervision is one of the indispensable task of an effective administrator in the operation of a
good school system because in addition to arranging and organizing for effective teaching and
learning to take place, the school head must undertake to supervise the instruction going on. It is
the duty of the Principal to see that meaningful learning is taking place in all the classes and that
the teachers are teaching what they are supposed to teach, and in a manner that the students
understand and enjoy their lessons.
Supervision of instruction is a vital area in the management of secondary schools.
According to [Ezeuwa (2005) instructional supervision entails the process which by means of
advice, direction and discussion, principals as supervisors help to see that available resources,
39
manpower, finance and capital equipment are utilized for the achievement of effective teaching
and learning. Hence supervision of instruction is interactional in the sense that it involves the
relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. Udochukwu (2003) described
supervision in school management as the process by which school administrators bring about
improvement in instruction by working with teachers who are working with students to ensure
that effective teaching and learning takes place. It is also the process through which the principal
stimulates growth in teachers and helps them to help themselves. Nwuzor and Ogbonna (1995),
and Peretomode (1996) described instructional supervision as a set of activities carried out with
the purpose of making teaching and learning better for the learner.
Instructional supervision also involves effort made by the principal to enhance effective
teaching and learning. According to Igwe (2003), it includes all designated school efforts
directed towards leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of
instruction. It involves the stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers; the
selection and revision of education objectives, material of instruction and methods of teaching,
and the evaluation of instruction. Eferakeya cited in Igwe (2003) posited that the role of
instructional supervision in educational management and control may be viewed as that of
monitoring different aspects of the school system in terms of resource utilization and relating
them to the level of educational goal achievement. This role would embody establishing and
clarifying role relationship; developing the curriculum - setting goal, planning learning
experiences, allocating resources; supervision of programmes including procurement and
allocation of instructional materials and equipment; evaluation of programmes – checking of
notes of lesson, scheme of work, diaries, registers and financial records; provision and
submission of all school records on demand to the inspectors for cross-checking.
40
Principals role in instructional supervision include curriculum development and
evaluation. Curriculum development in instructional supervision suggest that teachers and
principals need to work together to decide what the programme ought to be, how it should be
implemented and how it is to be evaluated (Keoreng, 2004). The development of the curriculum
is an aspect were the principal is expected to play a leading role in instructional development.
The principal should play this role as a team leader by way of guiding teachers either directly or
in conjunction with the heads of department in terms of helping to indentify relevant goals to the
community, planning and selecting relevant learning experiences, helping to implement
programmes improvement and evaluating changes.
Evaluation as principals’ role in instructional supervision entails judging the extent to
which school objectives have been achieved. According to Mgbodile (2004), evaluation of
teachers is needed in the school to measure the quality of services rendered by the teachers.
Mgbodile noted that the school head should undertake periodic supervision of the classes to
ensure that meaningful teaching and learning are taking place. Enyi (2012) noted that principal
should also inspect teacher’s notes of lesson before hand to ensure that they were well written
and set in line with the scheme of work to enhance effective teaching. The Principal will also
have to observe the teacher in class during class delivery to get an insight into the teacher’s
mastery of the content, method of lesson delivery, the use of instructional media, classroom
control, technique of asking questions and manner of involving students in active learning as
well as his evaluation techniques to ensure that student understand and enjoy their lessons
(Agbo, 2013). On the other hand, students’ evaluation is also necessary as a measure of their
progress. Through the evaluation of the students orally, written or practical examination, the
extent to which they understand the curriculum content is ascertained. Through evaluation of
students, the principal will be able to determine the capability of his teachers and determine
41
whether the pupils are learning, and whether they are making progress individually and
collectively. Oyewale and Alonge (2013) noted that the principal as the school administrator
should, therefore, perform the within-school supervisory role in instructional improvement and
in evaluation of education by assisting teachers determine the right methods, teaching facilities,
physical setting, and classroom attributes that are likely to promote effective learning. Through
evaluation, the principal and teachers are able to identify areas where special attention should be
paid in a particular subject for the interest of the learner.
The objectives of instructional supervision have been stressed. Lamude & Torres (2000)
noted that instructional supervision enhance quality control through regular and continuous
monitoring of instructional services, and identifying the needs and problems of teachers.
Contributing on the subject, Okwor (2001) emphasized that a situation where the principal
devotes little or no time to instructional responsibilities, the quality of education been offered to
the students cannot be effectively and adequately ascertained and guaranteed. Akubue (1998)
noted that the primary purpose of supervision of instruction in the school system is to help
teachers improve their instructional practice in the classroom, quality control, professional
development to encourage teachers’ growth, remediation of weak teachers, and empowerment to
develop teachers’ autonomy. Aburdene and Naisbitt (1992) noted that for effective school
management, the principal can be the catalyst for a successful teacher supervision and evaluation
which leads to a consistent and flourishing system of school improvement. The primary purpose
of instructional supervision is to improve classroom teachers’ link between the planned
curriculum and the learning experienced by the students. Thus, for the principal effectively
supervise instruction, he must have extensive knowledge of teaching skills and theory to enable
him recognize what should be obtainable in the classroom. This knowledge according to Brown
& Cooper (2000) includes lesson planning, teaching methods and skills, and evaluation.
42
The essence of instructional supervision seems not to be achieved in most schools.
Ezeocha (1990) noted that effective supervision of instruction is lacking in most Nigerian
secondary schools hence the perceived decrepitude in the standard of education. He emphasized
that Nigerian society demands qualitative education to give the youth functional education,
which cannot be achieved without effective supervision of instruction to check if learning
content in the curriculum is taught the students. Therefore, without adequate commitment to the
performance of the school administrators in their instructional role, categorized as supervision
and curriculum development and innovation, and other aspects of school management, the goals
of educational programs will continue to be shattered. The extent some factors will relate with
principals performance of the task of supervision will be examined in this study. Effective
instructional supervision is enhanced by communicating specific issues through advice, direction
and discussion to teachers and students by the principals as supervisors.
The concept of communication has been defined in different ways by different authors.
Koontz (1992) defined communication as the transfer of information from the sender to the
receiver with the information being understood by the receiver. Karen (1993) regarded it as the
process of meaningful interactions among human beings which involves the transmission of
information, direction, ideas, feelings and understanding. Communication is thus the process of
sharing information, ideas, or attitudes in ways that produce a degree of understanding between
two or more people. Otamiri, Isaiah and Wori (2002) view communication as the ability to
convey in the simplest form information or ideas which the recipient can easily understand; and
the ability on the other part of the recipient to reciprocate in such a way that he can easily be
understood. In this case, communication is perceived as a psychic as well as verbal
understanding between the sender and the receiver of which the essential point is the ability of
the parties to share information, idea or attitude. Communication is said to have been
43
accomplished if the message is interpreted in the same way by the sender and the receiver. It is a
transactional process where people construct meaning and develop expectations about what is
happening around them through the exchange of symbols. Constructing meaning involves,
people using symbols that is, objects or words that stand for ideas, feelings, intentions, and other
objects, to describe their experiences with others.
In this regard, communication is defined as the exchange of information, feelings or
messages between the principal and other members of the school system for effective
achievement of goals. Communication is important in any social setting because it is one of the
chief means by which its members work together. According to Hoy & Miskel (2005), the
influence an executive has over his subordinates is partly a matter of his position on the
hierarchy and partly a question of his competence which is partly dependent on the existence of a
complete and sensitized communication system. Communication is vital in the relationship
between employers and their employees, supervisors and their subordinates in any organisation.
It is the process through which work gets done by way of giving instruction. Communication in
organizations according to Kate (2010) serves a number of key purposes such as, production and
regulation, innovation, and individual socialization and maintenance. Production and regulation
purposes include activities aimed at doing the primary work of the organization, such as teaching
and learning in schools. They include setting goals and standards, transmitting facts and
information, making decisions, leading and influencing others, and assessing outcomes.
Innovation purposes include messages about generating new ideas and changing programmes,
structures and procedures in the school. Finally, socialization and maintenance purposes of
communication affect the participants’ self esteem, interpersonal relationships and motivation to
integrate individual goals with the school objectives.
44
Other purposes of communication have been highlighted. Oboegbulem and Onwurah
(2011) enumerated the purposes of communication in the school system as: influencing the
performance of organizational members – that is to motivate, direct, instruct and evaluate; to
clarify and express feelings; and to serve as an information input or exchange. In the school
system, communication is vital in the relationships between principals, teachers, students,
parents and the public for the achievement of the goals and objectives of education. Effective
communication could play an important part in all forms of relationship between the school and
the public. This is because it is the process by which ideas, attitudes, and opinions are exchanged
between the school and the public. Oboegbulem and Onwurah further noted that the medium of
communication is perhaps one of the most crucial determinants for effectiveness of
communication in the school system. They enumerated the following as medium the principal
could use to enhance communication in the management of secondary schools. These include
school morning assembly, letters and memoranda, staff meetings, school rules and regulations,
signs, meeting with school functionaries, and prefectorial representatives. If the principal’s
communication style is unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the
teachers would not co-operate with the principal and productivity would be affected.
The communication climate created by the school management directly influences the
extent to which communication is positive or negative in an organization. Richard (1999) opined
that an open or supportive communication climate promotes co-operative working relationship
and it is therefore conducive for effective information gathering and transfer. A closed or
defective information climate has the opposite effect. The communication climate influence
productivity. Jack cited in Richard (1999) suggested that in an open or supportive
communication environment, people are more likely to have a sense of worth and speaks freely
without fear of reprisal. This kind of environment created by the school administrator promotes
45
an understanding of what each team member wishes to accomplish and the mutual coexistence
towards a common goal of the school. Scorth (1992) stated that in the school system, when
suggestions are welcomed and acted upon, and mistakes used as an opportunity to learn while
crises being evenly handled, then staff are more likely to be open in their communication. They
will feel trusted, secured and confident in their jobs for the organizational growth as a whole.
Thus effective team working, flexibility and a sense of involvement all contribute to and benefit
from an open and supportive communication climate operated by the principal in the
management of secondary schools. The relationship between some factors and principals’
performance in communication will be examined in this study.
Decision-making is the act of choosing between alternatives in the process of solving a
problem to bring about optimum results. Decision-making is defined by Charis (2001) as a
process of identifying and selecting a course of action to deal with a specific problem or take
advantage of an opportunity. Decision-making is the heart of administrative process and
leadership in schools. According to Charis, a good decision is arrived at from five stages which
include: recognizing and defining the problem, analyzing the problem, establishing the criteria
for solving the problem, developing a plan or strategy for problem solving and imitating the plan
for action.
A good decision could reduce tension in schools. As a fundamental process in an
organization, decision making is the central responsibility of the educational administrator
(Peretomode, 2001). Decision making according to, Peretomode, is the process of choosing from
among alternative ways of achieving an objective or providing a solution to a problem. It
involves choice and entails cost although not an end in itself but a means to achieving
organizational goals and objectives. Decision making from the view of Heinz and Harold (2005)
is the process of selecting a course of action from among alternatives. It is the core of planning,
46
as a plan cannot be said to be complete unless a decision involving commitment of resources,
direction, or reputation has been made. Gareth and Jennifer (2006) described decision-making as
the process by which school administrators respond to the opportunities and threats by analyzing
options and making determinations about specific school goals and courses of action. They
pointed out that good decision results in the selection of appropriate goals and courses of action
that increase organizational performance while bad decisions result in low performance.
Decision making in response to opportunities in the secondary schools occurs when
principals search for ways to improve organizational performance to benefit students, teachers,
parents and the government. On the other hand, decision making in response to threats occurs
when events inside or outside the schools are adversely affecting its performance and the
principal searches for ways to enhance organizational performance. Thus, principals in
secondary schools are faced with myriads of challenges in administrative activities which seem
to have consistently hampered the realization of the objectives of the school. These problems
according to Hallinger and Heck (2009), require unified effort from the principals and the
teachers for quality and effective decisions in the management of schools. The most typical areas
of decision-making in secondary school administration include curriculum and instruction,
students’ personnel management, discipline, sports, recreation, physical facilities, evaluation,
continuous assessment, staff personnel management, delegation of authority or responsibility and
supervision. These decisions areas as noted by Ijaduola (2007) and Dosunmu (2004) will affect
the principal performance in the pursuit of school goals if not properly handled. Hence the
principals' decision-making competence would go a long way in influencing performance.
It has been observed that Principals who are effective in decision making process could
reduce a lot of rift, conflict, misgiving and hindrance to the realization of the objectives of the
school goals (Olagboye, 2004). This is so because the success or failure of any secondary school
47
is largely dependent upon the decisions taken by the principal who is the administrative head.
Hence his actions or inactions could make or mar the school system. Abbot cited in Peretomode
(2001) identified five decision-making skills that contribute to the effectiveness of the school
administrator in the management of secondary schools. These include: Skill in differentiating
among types of decisions, skill in determining the amount and type of information needed to
reach a decision, skill in determining the appropriate involvement of other people in reaching
decisions, skill in establishing priorities for action, and skill in anticipating both intended and
unintended consequences of decisions.
There are different types of decisions that could be taken by the Principal. Simon cited
in Peretomode (2001), distinguished between two types of decisions taken by the principal in the
management of schools. They include programmed and non programmed decisions depending
on the type of problem. Programmed decisions are those which are structured, repetitive and
general routine in nature which have defined rules and procedures in handling them. The risks
involved are not high and can therefore be more easily delegated. Perhaps most of the decisions
made by the principal are routine; for instance, calculation of grade points and disciplinary
measures for students, in which case rules or guidelines to be applied have been developed in
that circumstance. Another example of Programmed decision making, according to Gareth and
Jennifer (2006), takes place when a school principal asks the schools board to hire a new teacher
whenever students’ enrollment increases by 40 students. Non- programmed decisions on the
other hand are those that are out of the ordinary or are unique and which the administrator is
expected to rely on the directives of the government. They are new and non-repetitive;
unstructured and entail high risks. It means that non programmed decisions cannot easily be
delegated to subordinates as there are not established procedures for handling the problem
48
because of its novelty. Example of non programmed decision is a decision to construct a new
classroom facility.
Making a good non- programmed decision is critical for running an effective
organization. Stoner (2002) stated that the ability to make a good non-programme decision helps
to distinguish effective managers from ineffective managers. He reiterated that for
administrators to be successful in making non programmed decisions which has no decision
rules, they may rely on their intuition or may make reasoned judgment. Intuition requires little
effort and information gathering, and result in on-the spot decisions while reasoned judgments
requires decisions that take time and effort to make and result from careful information
gathering, generation and evaluation of alternatives. However, “exercising” one’s judgment is a
more rational process than “going with” one’s intuition (Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). They
suggested that effective and efficient decisions are taken when the various groups in the school
are consulted and involved. This implies that involving these groups of human resources could
mean utilizing their intellectual abilities which help in the development of such an organization
or school.
Involving teachers in decisions may lead to job satisfaction. Udoh and Akpa (2007)
asserted that where teachers are adequately involved in decision making process, there would be
commitment and adequate support with the principal and the realization of school goals will be
easy. In this regard, apathy and opposition within the school will be minimized. Glew and
Griffin (1995) called the system of involving other parties rather than the principal taking
decisions alone, as participative decision making. It is higher level individual’s effort to provide
those at a lower level with a greater voice in organizational performance. Participative decision
making represents a deliberate change from traditional management in which minority of upper-
level management employees make all of the decisions regarding organizational policies and
49
functioning. Jewell (1998) summed up participative decision making as an effort to avoid the
“nobody asked” syndrome; and explained it to mean soliciting employee’s idea for turning the
situation in an organization around.
Disenchantment may result when teachers are not involved in decision-making. Ndu and
Anagbogu (2007) noted that when teachers are not involved in decision-making, they behave
like strangers within the school environment. That is why most teachers do not put in their best
to have full sense of commitment and dedication to the school, hence principals performance is
hampered. Mullins (2005) was of the opinion that many people believed that staff participation
in decision making leads to higher performance and this is necessary for survival in an
increasingly competitive world. Wolfson (1998) reiterated that boredom and frustration at work
is often the result of an employee’s lack of involvement in decision making processes within the
organization and a feeling that their ideas are not wanted or listened to. Wilkinson (1999)
corroborated this view and noted that the involvement of teachers in decision making also
empowers them while a neglect of them in decision making was seen as an assumption that they
were untapped resources with knowledge, experience and interest in becoming involved.
Employers need to provide opportunities and structures for their involvement. Wilkinson also
assumed that participative decision making is likely to lead to job satisfaction and better quality
decisions and that gains are available both to the principal to increase efficiency and workers job
satisfaction. In short, an everyone-wins scenario is maintained.
Staff cooperation is believed to be an indisputable asset to school management. Ukeje,
Akabogu and Ndu (1993) reiterated that involvement in decision making process by the
teachers could ease the principal’s mounting problems as many heads would be put together to
intellectually solve problems that could have remained unsolved by the principal alone.
Ukeje, et tal stated further that continuous involvement of teachers in decision making by the
50
principals will enhance teachers’ development and job satisfaction. The principals should not
totally neglect the less experienced teachers in decision making as they also need to be
developed on the job. Principals should also attend more workshops and seminars to know how
to manage the younger teachers so as to build them up since they will eventually take up the
mantle from them later. Brown (2005), observed that Principals relied heavily on information
fed to them by others. Continuing, Brown noted that there were no laid down procedures for
decision-making, while level of education and administrative experience were not factors in the
decision-making process of principals. Therefore, most principals in Nigerian Secondary
Schools are poor decision makers and their performance is affected by this. In this study,
attempt will be made to examine the relationship between some demographic and personality
factors and performance of the principal indecision making.
Incentives are the set of activities carried out by the principals with the aim of sensitizing,
mobilizing, and motivating staff and students in the school towards performing their duties
optimally in terms of achieving stated aims and objectives of the School. Due to the importance
of teachers and students in the school system, Mgbodile (2004) maintained that they must be
handled very adroitly. The principal must understand how to deal with teachers and students to
get the best out of them. Kanabe (2013) posited that to make a teacher committed, the school
management must motivate them by showing that they are cared for by listening to them and
assisting them in their personal problems. Continuing, Kanabe noted that frequent
acknowledgement of teachers and students whose performance are outstanding will make them
consistent and spur others work hard to the lime light. Teachers must be handled with care and
encouraged to do their work. Their feelings and problems must be understood by extending love
and friendship towards them as this will add value to their welfare, and repudiate the notion of
treating them as mere working tools for achieving school goals. The principal should help to
51
secure discipline among the students, monitor their attitudes to their studies and their
commitment to hard work and learning and rewarding hard work like excellent performance in
examination. Provision of incentives could also entail monitoring their needs such as the need
for affection and attention, for play, for safety and protection, for convenience such as having
adequate urinal and toilet facilities and medicare in order to give meaning for learning to take
place.
Teachers need to be motivated for effectiveness and efficiency. Oyewole and Alonge
(2013) observed that one of the problems confronting schools today is that of motivating
teachers to perform assigned task to meet predetermined goals. Consequently, the teachers have
to be motivated to be in the right frame of mind to deliver qualitative instruction to the students.
The authors reiterated that if teachers are well motivated, they will be happy to put in more
efforts on their jobs, and better results will be achieved. Chukwu (2003) posited that in
motivating teachers, principals should employ democratic leadership skills, involve teachers
fully in programme development, provision of adequate teaching materials and improved
condition of service by liaising with the Schools Board. Mgbodile (1986) argued that since the
planned objectives of an organization must be achieved using people, it is important that
administrators try to create conditions that encourage workers to do good job. Administrators
can make excellent plans and organize work operations efficiently, but if they lack the ability to
motivate the workers, their efforts at planning and organizing will be rendered useless. Thus, the
key success in any organization lies on the effective use of the human resources.
There are little things that affect principals’ relationship with teachers. Mgbodile listed
some basic but often forgotten little things that matter in human relationship, to include: smile at
workers, show recognition for their efforts like rewarding them for job well done, show
sympathy and understanding when they make mistakes, encourage them when they lack the
52
spirit to go on. Listen to them, appreciate their problems, feel concerned about their welfare like
ensuring that the learning environment is safe from hazards, and rendering both official and
unofficial assistance to them in times of need. These will make workers perform at high level.
An effective administrator could as well motivate the staff through avoidance of the little things
that kill or dampen the morale of workers such as shouting at them in the public, using
derogatory words against them, rebuking them in the public or before those under their control,
refusing to treat them as human beings and generally carrying a stern face all the time. These
agree with the views of Otuya-Thom (1998) that:
the human nature is so complex that it is not easy to determine the how’s and why’s of human behaviour. Therefore, administrators should regard the human resources as having feelings that can be hurt, nerves that can be shattered, prides that can be injured and hopes and ambitions that can be frustrated, hence if administrators have the habit of shattering subordinates nerves, hurting their feelings, injuring their prides and dashing their hopes, then they will lose interest in working for their organizations and worst still they may cause serious trouble in the organization. (P. 27)
In the light of this, Mgbodile (2004) stressed that while avoiding the behaviours that keep
the subordinates sad, dispirited, nervous and tensed up, the principal should make effort to see
that his teachers enjoy a measure of security by ensuring that they get what belongs to them in
due time especially as it concerns regular and timely payment of salaries, promotion and
allowance by liaising with the schools boards. This will make teachers to be prepared to work
cooperatively with the principals in the pursuit of school goals. The extent of provision of
incentives to the teachers and students and the factors that relate to this will be examined in this
study.
Human resources development is the series of training and retraining given to workers in
an organisation to increase their knowledge and skill for better job performance. Human
resource development otherwise known as professional development according to O’Neil (1995)
53
is the series of activities engaged in by employees in an organisation to enhance their knowledge,
skills and attitude in order to improve productivity. Uwalaka (1998) described human resource
development as the comprehensive process by which educational institutions working with and
through their faculty design both on and off campus, a variety of programmes and activities to
strengthen faculty members in their Institutions. Okendu (2009) asserted that human resource
development in the educational system are planned activities concerned with increasing and
enlarging the capabilities of teachers to successfully improve instruction. It enables them occupy
higher positions in the hierarchy to handle current responsibilities. It is geared towards
improving upon workers’ performance with the ultimate aim of achieving set organizational
goals.
Human resources are the most important factor of production. The human resources in
any organization according to Hunter (2006) is the fulcrum upon which all other resources
revolve. Igwe (1990) pointed out that in the educational system, the teachers are the most
important elements. This according to him is because with the best of all facilities, books,
infrastructure and other materials and equipment, the aims and objectives of education may still
not be achieved if the teachers/principal as the organizers of all these are incompetent.
Therefore, instructional professional development is important to realize the ever cherished
dream of a greater tomorrow. This implies that no organization can succeed without the
availability of human resources in the right quantity and quality. Lawson (2007) reiterated that
the human resources even when available in the right mix could not attain organizational goals
because they are either not properly utilized for effective performance or may not have been
properly harnessed for effective result-oriented purposes.
Proper training and development programmes are expected to be continually given to
workers relative to their roles in an organization to enhance their performance due to
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innovations. The principal according to Ikpeba (2012) should ensure the professional and
academic development of his staff through meetings, nominating staff for in-service training like
seminars and workshops, building a sense of team work to help each staff achieve their
potentials, and setting time in staff meeting to discuss professional issues relative to instructional
improvement as well as personal contacts. Continuing, Ikpeba pointed out that the principal
should encourage those nominated for seminars to share their knowledge and experiences to
other members of staff as a way to impact on their wellbeing for service delivery. Through these
learning activities joint problem solving attitude/spirit is cultivated which have a direct impact on
instructional improvement.
The importance of continuous training cannot be overemphasized. Kabiru (2000) noted
that for the school teachers to be fully equipped for their professional duties, continuous training
in instructional development, teaching skills, and managerial ethics are needed so as to meet the
objectives of education. Continuing, Kabiru noted that the glaring insinuation of a short fall in
the administrative competency level of teachers and administrators in state secondary schools in
Nigeria is a direct reflection of lack of training of incumbent and would be administrators by the
educational planners. Buttressing this point, Nwosu (2009) stated that from available evidence,
it has been discovered that the methods of selection of secondary school principals in Nigeria is
unsatisfactory. This is so because a situation where all shades of graduates without teaching and
administrative experience are appointed principals of school gives room for concern. The
consequence of this anomaly according to Nwadinigwe (1997) is that most of the school
principals grope around and often use trial and error method in the day-to-day administration of
their school. Commenting, Iguisi (2009) stated that the shallow knowledge of teaching and
managerial skills of most teachers and principals tend to affect negatively their morale,
perception and work attitude. Hence the need for continuous re-training to update their
55
knowledge with new work methods, ethics and skills about their work and organizational
environment to enable them handle complex situations and do better jobs with the aim of
achieving set objectives.
Leadership skills are required for high performance. However, acquiring and mastering
the requisite skills of school management and leadership, especially in the context of
contemporary pressures and expectations is a supremely challenging and difficult task for school
teachers and administrators (Ogunsaja, 1990). This can only be harnessed through in-service
training, seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences. In these fora they are exposed to
modern techniques to sharpen their creative, imaginative and analytical disposition towards
solving instructional and administrative problems especially in developing communication,
conflict management and supervisory skills. It becomes important to point out that pre service
education is never adequate to cope with the tremendous changes in the educational system.
Hence, professional development service serves as a medium of complementing teachers and
principals’ skills in handling complex situations in secondary schools (Lawson, 2007).
For effective implementation of the curriculum, the teachers/principals’ attributes,
professional background and orientation are to be considered. Instructional development of
teachers act as a way of assisting the school to initiate, coordinate, and provide programme
planning and actualization. Okendu (2009) emphasized the need for teachers/principals to
improve their knowledge, administrative skills, attitudes and behaviour while on the job. This is
necessitated by the fact that pre-service training rarely prepares principals for their future
positions and their accompanying responsibilities. Constant changes in educational policies
coupled with educational technological innovations which are nurturing unprecedented
innovations in the transmission of information, which greatly affect the speed of knowledge,
production and transfer have rendered most teachers/ principals inadequate in policy
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implementation. Other reasons include: public and organizational disenchantment with the
quality of the educational products; the rate of youth restiveness; cultism and indiscipline in
secondary schools; the dissatisfaction of teachers over the leadership style of the principal;
inadequate maintenance of school plant, equipment and materials; ineffective communication
flow among the school personnel, and lack of mission, vision statement in secondary schools
(Lawson, 2007).
For human resource development to be successful and worthwhile Akanwa, (2003)
reiterated that it must be embedded into the job with fund and time consciously committed to its
process. This is because, in any professional development programme, it is observed that
finance and time has been woefully neglected. Brown and Cooper (2000) pointed out that in
times of fiscal difficulty, professional development of employees would first be cut off. A job-
embedded human resource development programme is one in which administrators and teachers
align their respective roles with research best practices, and with national
educational/professional standards. Continuous human resource development will enhance the
administrative effectiveness and efficiency of principals and improve the teaching skills of
teachers. The extent demographic and personality factors relate with principal’s performance in
professional development of teachers’ in the management of secondary schools will be examined
in this study.
Public relations is the practice of managing the spread of information between an
individual or an organization and the public to ensure mutual co-existence. The school as an
institution is a social organization which is designed to serve the needs of various stake holders
of whom the students are the main clients, while parents, government and the society at large are
the secondary clients (Peretomode, 1996). The school system cannot ignore the existence of
these groups hence school administrators are concerned with techniques of relating with each of
57
them effectively. No school can ever operate in a social vacuum outside the society it serves.
This is so because it derives its existence and life blood from the various individuals and groups
which it is established to serve and from which it is supplied with human and material resources.
This means that the school interacts with the elements within and outside the system with a
mutual relationship exiting between the school system and other systems in the school
environment. Idemili (1990) observed that the survival of the school is a function of the strength
of its social, economic, legal and political environment. Based on these realities, it is assumed
that each school should establish public relations that are good enough and favourable to the
school.
Public relation is about mutual understanding. Public relations, according to Nwosu
(1996), are concerned with creating subsisting rapport among the students and teachers and the
environment consisting of parents, government, and the society at large. The immediate
environment or community in which the school is built is an important aspect of the general
society which the school relates and derive its support. The public image of the school depends
largely on the opinions which the public either wrongly or rightly holds about the school. The
concept of public relations could be seen from the leadership point of view where the
administrator has concern for the organizational goals and working in accord with the various
interest groups (Odigbo, 1999). Therefore, the effective school administrator tries to balance his
concern for organizational goals with those of the stake holders in the school system through
good public relations practices. In essence, public relations as an administrative tool is people –
oriented, work-oriented, effectiveness-oriented and very useful at all levels of the hierarchy in
the organizational set up.
In the administration of secondary schools, the principal tries to integrate all the
components involved. The work of the school is a joint effort of the principal, teachers, students,
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members of the community where the school is situated, and government agencies. These
groups are expected to be placed in a good standing by strengthening the relationship with them
for the achievement of desired educational objectives (Mark, 1998). Good public relations
between the principal and the various stake holders are therefore necessary. As basic components
of the system their behaviours determine the systems effectiveness (Ezeocha, 1990). Ensuring
that communications are maintained with the various stake holders of the school system is
important for mutual co-existence.
The community members according to Mgbodile (2004) need to understand clearly what
happen in the school as early understanding of school events could enable the public to form
correct opinions about the school. Early corrections of wrong information which the society
members hold about the school will help to prevent damage to the reputation of the staff and the
school as a whole. The school programmes must aim at projecting the achievements, hopes,
aspirations of the school and also propagating the needs of the public. Mgbodile reiterated that
the students programmes should be communicated to the community early enough through the
students and Parent Teachers Association (PTA) members so that when the same programmes
are made public, they will receive public acceptance instead of rejection. The principal gets the
public informed about events, needs and programmes in the school through various ways
namely: through personal contact, the staff, the students, the PTA, and through the public use of
school facilities. Stanfill (1990) observed that Parents who are involved in school activities and
interact with staff will often reject negative generalization about the school. They defend the
school against erroneous publications and rumours. If parents are unsured of the validity of a
report, they are likely to check it up with the school staff if they generally know what is
happening in their school.
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It is the principal’s role to initiate Parent Teachers Association meetings during which
explanations about the school activities, events, problems and needs are given to the parents. The
association is a valuable advisory body to some reasonable extent. The opinion of the PTA
according to Idemili (1990), is the representative sample of the community views. This is
because it is in a better position to interpret the community to the school and also interpret the
school to the community as a representative of the public. In this regard if the PTA is properly
organized, informed and involved in school affairs, then through the association, the community
will learn to develop right notions, and pride about the school programmes, objectives and
achievement attained by the school head, the staff and the students (Okwor, 1998).
Effective communication could play an important part in all forms of relationship
between the school and the public. This is because it is the process by which ideas, attitudes,
opinions are exchanged between the school and the public. Communication in this sense could
be relating with people within and outside the school such as parents, teachers, students and
friends through writing notes, and letters upon which feedback are received for necessary
actions. Benson-Eluwa (1998) explained that apart from formal PTA meetings, the school could
establish good public and school relations by allowing and inviting parents to participate in a
variety of school events such as prize giving day, end-of-year activities, sports fiesta like inter
house sports competition, seminars, workshops and symposia. Benson-Eluwa reiterated that
parents could be encouraged especially those who are guidance counselors to educate the
students about careers choice relative to their interests, skills and aptitudes. Health personnel
among the parents could be invited to present talks on health matters such as the causes and
prevention of AIDS, the importance of personal hygiene, the place of parents in child health
care. If parents were encouraged to pay visits to the principals and staff in order to discuss the
60
behaviour and academic achievements of their children and also express their suggestions on
how to improve the school, then these could help to raise school and promote public relations.
The identification and clarification of role relationship in the school system is a task
which the school administrator must ensure to keep the arms of the school system properly
incorporation into the school programmes. This includes sustaining school-community relations,
teacher and students’ relations and principal-teacher-student relations. In school-community
relations, the principal should by his training and interactions with the immediate community
endeavour to participate in communal activities to which he is invited. He should on the other
hand invite parents, the community stakeholders to some of the school activities like inter-house
sports, sales of agricultural products, and end of year activities. According to Nwuzor and
Ogbonna (1995), the principal should maintain a good channel of communication with Parents
Teachers Association (PTA) for purposes of getting new ideas, being sensitive to the feelings of
parents and acquainting parents and guardians with the problems of the school. This can be done
through initiating Parents’ workshop, school visitation by parents’ organisation to enhance their
interaction with teachers. The emphasis on school-community relations according to Odigbo
(1999) is to enable the principal know the community, facilitate community participation in the
life of the school since education for all is the responsibility of all especially now that effort is
been made to promote public-private partnership (PPP) in infrastructural development scheme in
the school system since government alone cannot provide the needed facilities. The principals
need not relent in his responsibilities in this direction to ensure that the community and the
school share there expected economic and social benefits since the school is a microcosm of the
community.
The school and public relations programmes which are based upon principles of objective
participation of parents and teachers, using PTA as a major organ, can bring more merits to the
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school and its personnel (Blasé, 1997). Continuing, Blasé observed that a PTA under an able
and effective school principal, if sufficiently motivated and mobilized, could be a lasting asset
which can establish and maintain cordial relation between the community and the school.
Idemili (1990) noted that school principals who are considerate in allowing members of the
public to use some school facilities e.g halls, play grounds indirectly establish rapport and
invariably strengthen school public relations. It is suggested that principals should encourage
community use of school facilities by allowing the school premises to serve as venue for
community events of non-commercial nature such as football competition, church and
association meeting among others but supervising their use to avoid destruction of facilities
(Nkado, 2012; Maica, 2009; and Combs, 2007).The merits of such positive school public
relations practices are immense to the existence of the school in maintaining cordial relations
with the community where it situates. But these benefits could only be derived by both the
school and the community, and from each other when mutual understanding through effective
communication, cooperation and unity of purpose exist between the school and the public. The
extent of principals’ performance in public relation and factors that relate to it will be examined
in this study.
Managing school funds is one of the major tasks of the principals which accounts for
their performance in the management of secondary education. According to Mgbodile (2004),
effective financial management is the pivot of effective school management. The success of any
school programme depends very much on the way the financial inputs are managed and this, in
turn affects the overall performance of each school. Mgbodile noted further that financial
management is one of the areas where many practicing school administrators have neither pre-
service nor in-service training prior to their appointment and has contributed to the failure of
many schools. The Federal Ministry of Education (1993) observed that it is important that all
62
school administrators should have sufficient knowledge of financial management to be effective.
It also noted that financial management is one of the areas where many practicing school
administrators have neither pre-service, nor in-service training prior to their appointment. This
has contributed to the failure of many school programmes. Without good measures of financial
management, educational programmes will not be properly implemented. George and Storey
cited in Mgbodile (2004) stated that proper fund management in educational institutions entails
essential elements like: educational plans, revenue plans and spending plans. Education plans
refer to the objectives of the educational programme or the desired outcomes that are to be
achieved as a result of the expenditure of money. The revenue plan refers to the ways to obtain
needed resources. The school principal should be aware of various sources of funds for the
operation of the school. Some of the sources of fund in secondary schools are government
grants, school fees, proceeds from school activities, communities, individuals and charitable
organizations, endowment fund, external aids and trust funds. Spending plan refers to the
activities and materials that would be used to achieve the desired outcome. The generated
revenue has to be judiciously managed to achieve the objectives of the school.
Financial management entails sourcing and use of funds. According to Ogbonnaya
(2009), the central purpose of financial management is the raising of funds and ensuring that the
funds are ultilized in the most effective and efficient manner. Mogbodile (2004) noted that the
principal is expected to keep accurate records of all incoming monies to the school as well as a
proper account of the disbursement and expenditure of such monies. This is prudent financial
management that ensures that funds are judiciously spent for the purpose they are meant.
Commenting on the effective use of funds for educational programmes, Okoroma and Walson
(2010) advised that adequate plans be made by government on how the funds realized in schools
from various sources be accounted for to avoid misappropriation. “Adequate funding alone does
63
not guarantee the success of any school programme, rather effective management of funds and
other resources is imperative to enhance effective implementation of the programme” (P.8).
The concern for effective financial management has been expressed. Mgbodile (2004)
cautioned principals to eschew the temptation of embezzling or mismanaging school funds as
these not only work against the progress of the school but could attract unpleasant consequences
to them and the school in general. Judicious management of funds ensures availability of funds
for procuring instructional media for promoting teaching and learning. Aitken (1995) identified
behaviours that demonstrate the skill of financial management to include: knowledge of financial
terms; keeping close check on financial matters; prioritizing financial allocation according to
needs; ensuring budgets agree with goals and objectives; working within the confines of budget;
knowledge of appropriate financial system and regular reports of progress against budgets
figures.
Therefore, effective principals must engage in financial management. In view of this,
Odor (1995) enumerated principals’ financial management activities as involving: budget
preparation, securing revenue, managing expenditures of the school, keeping accounts of money
received and spent by the school. Therefore, good knowledge of budget preparation and
financial accounting is essential for effective financial management. School budgets could help
school principals and their staff to develop plans for instructional procedures, guidance services
and students activities. However, Odor noted that incompetent school administrators may
mismanage a good budget even when the funds are available while on the other hand a
competent school administrator is most likely to administer and control the school budget
judiciously and prudently towards the desired objectives. It is not enough to prepare a good
budget, but there must be effective supervision, administration and control of the activities in the
budget by the school administrator. Odor identified the following as functions of the school
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budget: Provision of an operational cost-time and frame work for the implementation of school
programmes; serves as an instrument for the delegation of authority in the schools; shows the
particular people responsible for specific programme; and as an instrument for controlling and
evaluating performance.
Other functions of school budget have been articulated. Ogbonnaya (2009) outlined the
following as importance of budget: Controls financial behavior of administrators in schools,
preventing waste or reckless spending as the implementers are compelled to follow the approved
estimates in expending funds, budgets attracts the interest and support of tax payers, and finally,
budget authorizes expenditure. Thus, Ogbonnaya emphasized the need for principals to involve
teachers, especially the management staff, in budget preparation as this will help them collect the
necessary data and information which constitute the income and expenditure of the institution for
the financial years. Failure to involve staff who are concerned in budget preparation is a mark of
administrative incompetency and ineffectiveness. This could result to mistrust, lukewarm
attitudes, and lack of co-operation by the subordinates who always complain that they are not
considered as part of the organization.
In any case, the achievement of educational goals depends on adequate financial support.
In spite of the efforts of government to provide funds for secondary schools, there is still lack of
funds to implement various programmes. Okoroma and Walson (2010) observed that inadequate
financial resources have been the cause of failure of educational programmes in Nigeria.
Ogbonnaya (2009) argued that since various governments cannot adequately fund the
educational institutions, the institutions should look for possible sources of revenue for financing
their programmes. Based on this, the Federal Ministry of Education (1993) emphasized that the
school administrators need to have appropriate knowledge and skills of revenue mobilization
from other sources. It posited that once the needs for human and material resources have been
65
identified, estimates of the amount of finance required to deploy and use these resource
effectively should be worked out. Therefore, school administrators should be able to identify
sources of school funds and plan on how to raise money from such sources. The Federal
Ministry of Education identified such sources to include government, parents, community, Non
Government Organizations (NGO’s) as well as the school itself through finance generating
projects like school farms, business centers, craft or handwork. Ogbonnaya (2009) also outlined
means through which secondary schools raise funds for the implementation of their programmes
to include: school fees, government grants, proceeds from school activities, community support,
donations from individuals, charity organizations, endowment funds and Trust Funds. Mgbodile
(2004) and Ndayelechi (2011) added that the school can also raise fund from sports fees, caution
fees, library fees, development fees, appeal funds and proceeds from agricultural products
concert and local craft.
The principal as the school head is expected to know how to keep complete and accurate
financial information and to present the information properly. This according to Federal
Ministry of Education, should include the sources of revenue and accurate entry of expenditures,
avoiding errors or omissions as much as possible. Odimegwu (2003) posited that the principal
should ensure that the financial provisions are made for the running of the school in the annual
budget. In conjunction with the bursar, the principal should ensure that the school funds are
spent according to the provisions of the budget in a prudent manner. The Federal Ministry of
Education (1993) further stated that at each financial year ending, principals are statutorily
obliged to prepare and present to the school board a financial report for auditing. Such audit
would enable a competent auditor to determine and form an opinion on the true and fairness of
financial statement of the school for the period under review. This, it noted will give a true and
fair view of the financial position of the school. The Federal Ministry of Education identified the
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objectives of auditing to include to: enable auditors to form an opinion on the accuracy of the
financial statement prepared by the school principal; help the school principal improve the
school accounting system, and detect or prevent errors. Principals’ performance in financial
management and its relationship with some factors was examined in this study.
School plant refers to the material provisions of the school. The school compound,
buildings, playgrounds, library, laboratories, classrooms, furniture, equipments, hostels, common
room, canteen – all these put together form school plant. The school plant is an integral part of
the learning environment. School plant or educational facilities are the tangible assets of an
institution such as building, land, equipment, machineries, furniture, fittings and fixtures which
are put into use for and capable of producing excellent educational services (Njoku, 2004).
Educational facilities also known or referred to as school plant include school buildings
(classroom, laboratories, libraries and workshops etc), teaching aids and devices such as modern
educational hardware and their software in the form of magnetic tapes, films and transparencies
like projectors. Bryce (2006) described educational facilities as those things of education which
enable a skilled teacher to achieve a level of instructional effectiveness that far exceed what is
possible when they are not provided. Educational facilities imply substantial cost to the school
system for their establishment but they facilitate teaching and learning in the school system.
There are other views of school plant. Mgbodile (2004) described the school plant as the
space interpretation of the school curriculum. The programmes of the school are expressed as it
were through the school site, the buildings, playgrounds, the arrangement and design of the
buildings. It seems that a well designed functional school building with a wide array of teaching
aids therefore provide effective delivery of schools’ curriculum and are positively related to
academic achievement. Peretomode (2001) opined that school management in the traditional
form was often thought of as involving the management of only men (teachers and students) and
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perhaps money (school finance). The building, school space and equipment are usually taken for
granted as given, for they are there or ‘on the ground’ as it were and therefore should not be
given attention. This assumption is unwarranted for they are usually not there. Therefore, if not
properly managed and maintained, they dilapidate, and wear out faster than their normal “life
span”. If not properly utilized, the school system and the particular school units would not derive
optimum benefits from their use. For effective management of secondary schools, adequate
facilities and equipment must be provided for the achievement of educational programmes. This
is because, physical facilities and equipment can be said to be physical expression of the school
programme and activities. It is a consciously designed and controlled environment with the sole
aim of promoting teaching and learning activities within the school.
When these instructional facilities are lacking, the principal and teachers will hardly
perform their instructional roles. According to Amirize (2009), the importance of physical
facilities and equipment is expressed in a conducive physical accommodation like classrooms
and offices with furniture, libraries, laboratories and playground. Donnelly (2009) observed that
the physical appearance and general condition of school physical facilities are striking basis upon
which many parents and friends of any educational institution make their judgment about the
quality of what goes on in the school. That is to say that the facilities play a major role in
determining the type of relationship between the school and the community. This is because
parents and pupils make their judgment and take their decisions on whether to associate
themselves with a particular school after a careful evaluation and consideration of the physical
facilities and equipment in the school. Ndu, Ocho and Okeke (1997) opined that if the quality
and quantity of the physical facilities attract the admiration of a parent, the conviction of the
parent will be that since the quality and quantity of the school physical facilities and equipment
are of such level, the quality of the staff and school will be of high standard. Therefore, in an
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attempt to attract the admiration and acceptance from the community, there is need for a well
planned physical facilities plant.
The principal as the head should see that the necessary requisition for infrastructure are
sent to the appropriate authority for provision. This point was made more emphatic by Hanushek
(1998) who stated that some administrators do not give regard to school facilities by making
necessary request from the board and following up till they are supplied to serve the needs of the
school. The consequence is obvious and students are left with no choice than to sit on the bare
floor in some schools, with the staff room if any, having neither chairs nor tables for teachers to
sit comfortably.
The cost of providing school plant is high. According to Peretomode (2001), the cost of
the stock of educational facilities in the school system in Nigeria is enormous even at the present
state of their insufficiency and inadequacy. They represent substantial financial outlay to the
tax-payers. Establishing new educational facilities is no longer that easy because of the current
state of economic depression and constantly rising costs. These factors make it imperative for
administrators to ensure that the existing facilities are regularly maintained to extend their useful
life and maximize their utility. In view of this, Enyi (2012) pointed out that, for effective
performance in the management of schools, administrators are expected to have a good
maintenance programme in the schools to protect the initial capital investment made by
government. Proper utilization of facilities through an effective maintenance culture is a prime
means of reducing the total cost of school operation and make achievement of objectives
effective and efficient. This fact was further buttressed by Bryce (2006) that the actual role of
school administrators in the area of plant management is maintenance. Therefore, resources
available to them should be used to maintain the buildings, furniture and equipment as far as is
possible in their original condition either through repairs or by replacements.
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The maintenance of school plant is important in the management of schools. MacCabe
(1998) reiterated that government should build maintenance cost into educational budget since
wear and tear or deterioration of educational facilities is a natural process. It is inevitable that
maintenance be conceived as an on-going activity designed to keep the educational function and
environmental conditions of school buildings and other facilities at maximum efficiency and
effectiveness. This would be to the enduring benefit of school principals both now and in the
future in the management of their schools.
School plant maintenance refers to keeping of school property in a condition close to
their original state. Although it is impossible to convert an old material or equipment to an
entirely new one but renovation would in all cases add life to that material or equipment. Plants
generally loose values continuously as soon as they have been put into use. Lack of use also
reduces durability of equipment which therefore calls for maintenance. The factors that cause
depreciation and loss of value of school plant, according to Allen (2007), include: wear and tear,
physical decay, obsolescence or growing out of use, and accidents. Depreciation of school plant
is a usual occurrence and it is inevitable, and can cause setback in the achievement of school
aims and objectives. Achunine (1997) noted that adequate programme for school plant
maintenance include detecting and repairing or replacing damaged or lost portion of school
facilities. This is done to prevent total deterioration by getting rid of obsolete materials which
are no longer useful as the need arises.
Management of School plant entails a lot of activities. Mgbodile (1986) indicated major
areas of responsibility and duties that need to be performed for proper management and
maintenance of school plant to enhance their life span. These are: regular replacing roofs, doors,
windows, repairs of broken chairs and tables as well painting of offices and classrooms. Others
include ensuring that gardeners and labourers keep tidy the plants and flowers through regular
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pruning for esthetics. Fire Prevention and Safety to put off fire outbreaks, with the use of fire
fighting materials which are kept in strategic corners of buildings are also necessary. Buckets can
also be filled with sand which could be used to put off any minor fire outbreak. These provisions
are necessary because students who attend well organized and equipped schools prove some
level of superiority over those that attend classes under dilapidated buildings and untidy
environments.
Lack of school plant maintenance makes the environment untidy and unsafe for staff and
students. It is also important to note that maintenance of building and equipments provide safety,
and reduce accidents, stress and time for the individual in the school community. Principals who
lead schools that have dilapidated structures stand the risk of answering question of poor
performance in examination and regular accidents as well as damages within the schools
(Amadike, 2002). Similarly, most causes of anti-social behaviour by students could be traced to
the state of the school or the school environment. This is so because a cozy environment can
kindle the behaviour of students as well as staff. Bryce (2006) noted that school compound
where property are defaced, esthetics destroyed, classrooms not swept and machines rendered
unproductive, leaves students unsecured, frustrated, discomforted and may encourage
indiscipline and wanton destruction of property and total disorder in the school. This same
experience may be observed in laboratories and libraries that are ill-maintained and may affect
the students’ academic performance through poor teaching and learning. Therefore, school plant
management is critical to students’ performance. In this study, the extent of Principals
performance in the management of school plant, and the factors that predict it was explored.
Conflict refers to some form of friction, disagreement, or discord arising within a group
when the beliefs or actions of one of more members of the group are either resisted by or
unacceptable to one or more members of another group. The pluralist theory, according to Okene
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(2001), looked at the workplace, the school inclusive, as a microcosm of the society replete with
diversity of social groups, social interest, values and beliefs that generate discord among
members. The proponents of this theory according to Okene saw these diversities as the basic
sources of conflict which to some extent do enhance group unity and brings solution to problems
in the society. This is so “if the basic relationship in a society were codified, we would have a
very static society and if the fundamental relationships were sympathetic in character we would
have anarchy” ( P.48). Organizational conflict, according to Gareth and Jennifer (2006), is the
discord that arises when the goals, interest or values of different individuals or groups are
incompatible and those individuals or groups block or thwart one another’s attempts to achieve
their objectives. Conflict, according to them, is an inevitable part of organizational life because
the goals of different stakeholders such as administrators and subordinates are often
incompatible. They outlined the sources of organizational conflicts as: incompatible goals and
time horizon, overlapping authority, task interdependence where roles are not properly defined,
and individuals getting on each other’s way, scarce resource, status inconsistencies and
incompatible evaluation or reward system.
There are different levels of the manifestation of conflict. In which ever level of conflict
manifests in the school system, be it intra-personal, inter- personal, inter- organization and
community related, if not properly diagnosed or left unchecked can be a highly destructive force
(Bouta, George, & Bannon, 2005). Hence school administrators should apply conflict
management/resolution strategies to control and prevent conflict from becoming destructive.
Conflict management and resolution is therefore an important area of principals’ responsibility in
the management of secondary education. Conflict resolution involves implementing strategies to
control the negative aspects of conflict and to increase the positive aspects. These strategies
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include compromise, collaboration, competition, accommodating, and avoiding (Smulyan,
2000).
Compromise is a method of conflict resolution which involves the process of negotiation
and bargaining were feuding parties give-and-take certain concessions to reach a resolution.
Peretomode (2004) noted that in compromise, feuding parties are made to give up some and take
up some issues which led to the conflict. It is often known as middle of the way option where
you win-some and lose-some. If compromise is properly utilized, it can create an atmosphere of
understanding and peace within an organisation. A principal who uses compromise in resolving
disputes ensures that concession is reached between feuding parties on the causes of the conflict.
In which case, the feuding parties concede some issues in order to have peace for them to meet
their objectives
Collaboration is a problem-solving approach to conflict resolution which is characterized
by a win-win scenario. This option according to Okon (2008) involves a joint effort of
disputants to solve a problem that led them to the conflict. In using collaborative option, Okon
reiterated that all parties endeavor to understand the issues which are considered. Solutions are
developed collectively by the feuding parties with mutual trust and respect. Although considered
as the best or ideal conflict resolution method, the collaborative option has a reputation for time
consumption. The problem-solving nature of the collaborative option according to Ohio
Commission (2004), involves brain storming with the goal of identifying as many solutions as
possible for resolving a conflict. Albanese cited in Okon (2008) noted that several conditions are
involved using the collaborative option. These conditions include an attempt to depersonalize
the conflict were efforts are made in the conflict channel towards solving the problem rather than
defeating each other; the goals, options, attitudes and feelings of all parties are seen as legitimate
and acceptable concerns which play a constructive role; and the parties realize that a conflict
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issue can make a constructive contribution to the quality of human relationship. The principal
who is good in using collaborative option according to Idoko (2010) gives equal consideration to
people and production of results; views conflict as beneficial if handled in an open manner were
all cards are laid on the table; guides the group through the basic problem-solving procedure;
attempts to reach a consensus by spending a great deal of time to achieve purposeful results; and
tends to lead in an open management style.
Competition is a conflict resolution technique which involves a strong desire of a person
to attain or satisfy his interest at the expense of others. The Ohio Commission (2004) noted that
competition can be appropriate in certain circumstances when one knows that he is right on a
conflict issue and would contest at all cost to prove that point right. In the management of
schools, the competition option in conflict resolution is advantageous when a quick decisive
action must be taken. According to Smulyan (2000), school administrators who practice the
competition technique of conflict resolution view the results expected of the school as their
personal goals which are more important than the people and therefore see nothing wrong using
force when necessary and are quite willing to endanger some relationship and satisfy others in
order to have the school goals realized; views conflict as a win-lose situation or as a contest of
power in which one person must fail so that the other can succeed without the opportunity for
compromise; have great respect for power and would submit to arbitrators only if their power is
greater; and tend to lead in the blind management style, that is autocratic, over-confident and
seldom seeks feedbacks. The consequence of this style in school administration is the attempt by
the principal to dominate, suppress, intimidate or coerce the subordinates in accepting solutions
to the conflict but does not indicate the resolution of the conflict. The conflict could erupt again
as cordial relationship, team spirit and cooperation is hampered in the pursuit of school goals.
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Accommodation is a conflict resolution strategy in which one party simply allows the
other to achieve its goals without interruption. It portraits a win - lose syndrome. The primary
strength of this option according to Gareth and Jennifer (2006), is that it energies co-operation
were one person oblique to the other in order to preserve a relationship. This style highlights
hypocrisy by giving up something now and eventually getting something of value in return at
another time. This technique depicts the Chameleons symbol which changes its colour to match
the color of its environment to fit quietly in the surrounding. Using accommodation in conflict
resolution focuses on appeasement of another with the aim of maintaining harmonious
relationship at all cost through self sacrifice by one party to the conflict. Adopting this technique
by administrators, Idoko (2010) noted the negative aspect as docile, dependent and submissive
personality which leads to lack of influence and recognition. On the positive side, the
accommodation option may be very beneficial as a starting point to handle intense and
aggressive feelings of subordinates. A school administrator when confronted by a highly
emotional subordinate who is shouting and pounding the desk, may well find this approach
beneficial to calm down the situation by obliquing his actions. Peretomode (2004) noted that
principals whose conflict resolution style is oriented towards the accommodation option are
those who believe that harmony is important in maintaining a good relationship and gaining
personal acceptance. The principals give high esteem for people regardless of the production of
results. In this way, they try to smooth over or ignore conflict in an attempt to keep everyone
happy. However, principals who use the accommodation technique tend to lead by a hidden
management style with distrust on people and desires for social acceptance while over using feed
backs.
Avoiding is a conflict resolution approach by which feuding parties refuse to recognize
the real source of the problem and act as if there was no problem. This approach to conflict
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resolution according to Smulyan (2000), may be appropriate when the conflict in question is
perceived to be minor and the cost of solving the problems are greater than the benefits derived.
Smulyan further noted that although the avoidance option is perceived appropriate when the
conflict is minor, the gravity of the conflict builds up between parties when used by principals. It
is therefore important that conflict between parties should be resolved immediately when noticed
to avoid situation of perceived withdrawal, evasion, flight, isolation and apathy capable of
building up non communication and corporation by the feuding parties. If left alone and
unaddressed through the avoidance technique, conflicts have the tendency to grow and the cost
of declined performance is potentially huge. However, principals who exhibit avoidance
approach should show the following characteristics: treating everybody equally; being neutral at
all cost and looking at conflict as worthless; not taking sides to parties experiencing any form of
conflict; non involvement in any situation that might possibly produce conflict; give little
concern for people or production of results; tends to lead in closed management style, that is a
non communicator and seldom seeks feedback.
On the other hand, conflict management involves the reduction, elimination or
termination of all forms and types of conflicts. This could take the form of mediation and
arbitration. Mediation refers to a broad variety of practices that includes techniques designed to
promote relaxation, build internal energy or life force and develop compassion, love, patience,
generosity and forgiveness among people. By mediating, the principal helps to counsel feuding
parties to generate an emotional state for the purpose of analyzing that state such as anger,
hatred, or cultivating a particular mental response to various phenomena to produces a deep state
of relaxation and a tranquil mind for compassion on others in the group. During mediation,
Jennifer and Gareth (2006) noted that attention is focused on eliminating the stream of jumbled
thoughts that may be crowding the minds of feuding parties with respect to improperly defined
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roles. This process may result in enhanced physical and emotional well-being by resolving the
conflict through role specification. In mediation, the principal ensures that role conflicts are
minimized by ensuring proper school organisation by defining roles and responsibilities to avoid
a clash.
Arbitration is a conflict management process which involves private and informal
adjudicatory process for settling disputes between feuding parties. Jennifer and Gareth (2006)
pointed out that in arbitration the disputants believes that solutions to their problems could be
determined by the arbitrator. The principal acting as the arbitrator make decisions that are
binding in honor and respected by the parties. The hearing is much less formal in procedure, but
each party has the right to present proofs and arguments to substantiate their claims if any in
issues giving rise to the conflict. Therefore, properly managed conflict increases learning
through increasing the degree to which groups ask questions and challenge the status quo
(Luthans, Rubach and Marnik, 1995).
The aim of conflict management and resolution is to enhance learning and group
performance in an organizational setting (Rahim, 2002). Okontoni and Okontoni (2008) asserted
that most school administrators are not knowledgeable in conflict management and have led to
high rate of conflict situations and indiscipline in the schools. The school principal is expected in
the light of this to adopt possible management strategies which will remove all sources of
conflict in the school system and resolves conflicts amicably.
Good conflict resolution and management strategies in the school system bring about
enviable and productive environment for the achievement of school goals. The school principal
as an administrator is expected to possess and employ the skills for resolving conflicts among his
subordinates, so as to maintain peace and harmony which is very crucial for team work
(Ikoya and Akinsende, 2009). The Federal Ministry of Education (1993) noted that dispute is
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part of human life and that there is no human organization where workers from time to time
would not have conflict among them. It argued that when such conflicts occur, it is expected that
the school administrators should be able to resolve conflicts amicably to allow staff and students
work harmoniously and co-operatively towards the achievement of the school goals. However,
to resolve conflicts amicably, school administrators need the following competencies: ability to
state what is acceptable and what is not; intervene if and when appropriate; discuss fairly; be
neutral; don’t take sides; clarify needs; show a clear understanding of natural justice and equity;
know the rules and apply them confidently; absorb external resolution; work to get consensus;
calm people down; negotiate to achieve resolution; compromise where necessary; get others
involved if necessary; look at the suggested solutions required; and know when to get outside
assistance.. This study provides an opportunity to determine the extent school Principals manage
and resolve conflict and those factors that make this possible.
Effective school administration is the pivot upon which the success of the entire
educational system of the nation revolves. The school administrators in the discharge of their
duties are expected to work in confines with the laws regulating administration of secondary
school (Obi, 2010). Otherwise there will be mischief which could lead to series of litigations in
the school system. Obi noted further that in contemporary time everybody is getting aware of
his/her rights with respect to the roles and code of conduct as they impact on the rights and
responsibilities of teachers, students and other stakeholders in the secondary school system.
These rights ought to be respected. According to Ellah (2004), knowledge of the legal
provisions of principals rights and privileges, roles and codes of conduct as they relate especially
to the rights and obligations of teachers and students should be of great concern not only to the
school administrator but to all members of the society who are directly or indirectly involved in
the educational system. This is important in order to define the limits of individual behaviours,
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provide understating, inject respectability and mutuality of interest and induce co-operation for
the smooth running of the school for the attainment of its goals. Any mistake made to the limits
of their respective rights are very costly and in several instance; have resulted to series of
litigation in the school system which may not augur well to the effective administration of
schools (Kalagbor, 2004). This position is buttressed by Ozurumba (2007) who noted that:
in Nigeria, there is the awareness of the increase in attention given to individuals’ rights, especially those described as fundamental rights of the citizens. This state of affairs has led to more litigations in schools. Given the climate of the times, it appears not only prudent but also necessary for educational administrators and teachers to understand their own rights and limitations, as well as the legal implications of what they do, particularly in dealing with students and parents’ in educational matters (P.34)
Therefore a knowledge of their rights and responsibilities to others and the legal
implications of their actions and inactions through rules and regulations governing the
administration of the system will probably enhance principals effectiveness in their respective
roles in the school system. According to Igwe (2003), most school administrators and teachers
are not aware of their rights, duties, obligations and responsibilities under the law. They are also
not aware of the probable consequences or implications of their actions in their day-to-day
activities within the school system. Thus, in this age of enlightenment, such ignorance may no
doubt be costly, if not disastrous, to the individual, the educational system and others within the
system. As stipulated in the Nigerian Teachers’ Service Manual cited in Igwe (2003), it is
expected that principals shall continually seek to uphold the constitutional provisions and the
various state education laws in order to protect their own rights and the rights of students. It is
expected also that upholding the constitutional provisions will make principals effective
professionals as administrators and academic heads in the management of secondary education.
In this study, Principals’ adherence to statutory regulation, and the factors that relate to this was
determined.
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Demographic factors in School Principalship
These are factors such as age, gender, qualification, experience and marital status that
may impact on the performance of the principal in the management of schools. In Nigerian
setting, Ibukun (2011) stated that factors such as age, qualification, gender and experience have
been considered in appointing teachers to principalship position with the belief that some
individuals would be more effective than others.
Age is the number of years a person has lived. Age may not be a determinant of a
man’s sense of good judgment. Reyes (1990) and Feldman (1996) asserted that the general
proposition is that younger principals in their fifties exhibit better management capabilities than
the older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work with age. It
may as well be that older principals will be more effective than younger ones. This was
buttressed by Oredien (2004) that showed a positive relationship between principals’
productivity and age. However, in a study Domina (2005) found that there was no significant
relationship between principals’ age and administrative performance. In this study, these
assertions will be tested.
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles of men and women. Gender could
also be described as the behavioral characteristics distinguishing between masculinity and
femininity in any society. Gender, according to Pollard and Morgan (2002), refers to the socially
constructed expectations for male and female behaviours which prescribe a division of labour
and responsibilities between males and females. According to Oluseyi (2001), gender studies is
traced to the 1976 University of Sussex workshop on the subordination of women where a
consensus emerged that unlike sex, which is biologically determined, women’s subordination is
socially constructed. Hence, while sex refers to the biological differentiation between males and
females in terms of their reproductive functions, gender refers to the differentiation between the
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roles of men and women as socially constructed by society through socialization (Onyeonoru,
2005).Thus, while sex is biological and fixed, gender is varied in space and time and is culturally
determined. The World Bank report on gender, conflict and development according to Bouta,
George and Bannon (2005),viewed gender as socially construed roles ascribed to women and
men as opposed to biological and physical characteristics, and which vary according to
socioeconomic, political and cultural contexts, and are affected by other factors including age,
class and ethnicity. They posited that gender roles are learned and negotiated, or contested and
are therefore changeable. Although, there are differences in roles between men and women, both
can also combine different roles individually over time, or even simultaneously. Madunagu
(2005) defined gender as a widely shared ideas and expectations concerning men and women
which are typically masculine and feminine characteristics and abilities. Gender, therefore,
refers to commonly shared expectations of how women and men should behave in various
situations. These ideas and role expectations reflect and influence the different roles, social
status, economic and administrative power of men and women in the society.
Scholars have given contrasting views about gender difference in performance
effectiveness among school administrators. Daresh and Male (2000), reported that females
principals are more effective and efficient in school administration because they extend their
motherhood roles to the school environment. Uko (2002) contend male superiority over females
as male principals usually apply their domineering capabilities to achieve the school goals. The
tacit assumption in most South- South States of Nigeria according to Ezeh (1997) is that males
are superior to females in most things that count. Females are assumed to be dependent on males
for taking initiatives and for leadership. Since principalship involves exercising the role of a
leader or administrator in secondary school, one wonders whether the socio-cultural influences
that expose males to different problems solving situation and place females in subordinate
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position would affect the performance of the different genders in school administration. These
suggest that there are fundamental differences in the leadership, beliefs and practices of male and
females leaders. Ezeh further stated that it has been frequently claimed that female leaders are
more collaborative and relational. This means that female principals relate more friendly with
subordinates teachers and students as well as the community where the school situates.
There are indications that these assumptions may not be always true. Recent gender
discourse, according to Fadekemi and Isaac (2011), reveals growing skepticism with the validity
of gender typecast of men as instrumental, bureaucratic and competitive being and women as
nurturing, relational and collaborative. Accordingly, theories based upon transmission models of
gender socialization are also too simplistic. They fail to recognize that individuals who become
teachers and principals draw their beliefs from a range of value system and undergo extensive
periods of training and reflection which may lead them to question broad social norms. This
could imply that there are a lot of complex social forces which interact with gender to produce a
range of beliefs and values which could be cultural, institutional, historic, and environmental in
performance effectiveness (Gbinigie, 2001). Grogan (1996) argued that women were not only
positioned by the discourse of educational administration but were simultaneously positioned by
other dominant discourse of motherhood, house hold management, labour and relationships.
Therefore, many of the obstacles women face are a consequence of the demands of these
clashing discourses. Those women who were successful had found ways to navigate their career
path through the demands of competing discourses. Saduwa (2011) maintained that gender has
its own advantages and disadvantages for management effectiveness of an administrator but
there is more emphasis on their capabilities. Research suggests that among the whites and
middle-class Americans, the following gender schemas are prevalent: Men are action-oriented,
assertive, independent and task-focused; women are expressive, nurturing, and oriented towards
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and caring of other people (Gareth and Jennifer, 2006). It was also noted that any schemas such
as these are bound to be inaccurate. For example, not all women are alike and not all men are
alike, and there are many women who are more independent and task-focused than men.
In assessing male and female principal’s managerial performance, Vincent (1998)
pointed out that men exhibit low dependency on feelings of competence in judging self-work
while women are more sociable and caring. It is sometimes argued that since women have been
socialized to be more “open” or “interpersonally aware”, their managerial style is likely to be
less autocratic than that of many men. In some parts of Nigeria, there are fewer women than
men that hold administrative position. According to Peil cited in Wagbara (2004), employers of
labour are always reluctant to accept women in key sensitive positions which demand high
frequency of attention such as monitoring and overseeing specific performance. Men are highly
effective in this position than women because of time spent by women on their pregnancy,
maternity leave and monthly flow which make their male counterparts more effective than them.
The role of gender in school-community relationship has been discussed. Ozunna (1997)
stated that women by their nature and nurture are generally less prone to the vagaries and
vicissitudes characteristics of the political arena. They are consequently very apprehensive of
such acts which are likely to polarize their self-actualization and thus create an internal distortion
within them. It has been known that apart from few women who have made significant impacts
on their job, administrative positions have been one of the areas women have not performed so
wonderfully (Reshine, 1993). Continuing, Reshine maintained that women are limited in their
capabilities and endeavors to establish remarkable school-community relations. Male principals
always maintain better relationship with the problems often associated with local politics,
especially in a community torn apart by bitterness and feud. Nwagwu (1995) observed that in
some countries only very few husbands if any, would allow their wives to be exposed to the
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problems, harshness and uncertainties of community politics in the name of running a school.
Wives are therefore seriously cautioned against this which have made some women even afraid
of the community they find themselves. This makes some to disregard the community oblivious
of the fact that the school cannot exist without the community. This therefore goes to buttress
the claim that most schools led by female principals have problems coping with the
establishment and maintenance of good community relationship (Wagbara, 2004).
Most scholars hold the view that men make better principals than women, but in actual
fact it may not be so. Akande (1997) stated that only very few of the women in the labour force
find themselves in the supervisory and managerial cadres in their respective occupations.
Women are looked down because of their weaknesses and are seen as inferiors but statistics have
shown that they equally perform well as school principals. Akande further noted that although
management has been traditionally male dominated, statistics show that women can do the work
of principals, even in some cases perform better than their male counterparts. The contrasting
views on which gender enhances principal’s performance in the task areas of secondary school
management was tested in this study.
Professional qualification refers to the skill and standards of behaviour expected of a
trained person to perform specialized tasks. Mgbodile (2004) defined professional qualification
as a body of knowledge acquired by a person after a programmed learning designed for
performance in a specific task. The body of knowledge, skills and values makes person a
professional, and capable of high performance. According to Williams (2000), professional
qualification are required for practice at a high level in certain jobs or professions. Professional
qualification refers to the competencies of members of a given profession. Onwurah (2004)
stated that professional qualification is the increased growth and advancement in knowledge,
skills attitudes and sophistication needed for continued effective performance of a profession and
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its members. Onwurah further explained that professions have specific certification that qualify
one to become a member. It is only possible to join these professions if one has passed the
prescribed courses the professional body has approved. Professional training plays important role
in the task performance of educational administrators. In view of the role of professional
training in the functioning of the school principals, Okolo (2001) emphasized the need for
training and development of newly appointed principals.
Professional qualification is a vital factor for Principals to exercise positive influence,
control and have authority over the behaviour of the teachers, students and the entire staff in the
school. It is a symbol of one’s intellectual maturity and experience not only in his management
of school staff but also in management of school finance (Onyejemezie, 1991). Fletcher and
Mclnemey (2005) opined that professional training is critical to efficient performance of school
principal. According to Kalagbor (2004), professional qualification of a principal when
juxtaposed with administrative effectiveness has some relationship. It serves as a means by
which the principals potentials for maximum effectiveness is assessed. Ellah (2004) commented
on the issue of qualification of principals and noted that the academically qualified principals
have shown the tendency to succeed more than their non-qualified counterparts in a situation
where many things have to be managed. This is so because adequately qualified ones have the
confidence and courage to use their initiative and to experiment. Ibukun (2011) reported that
principals with professional qualifications are more productive than those without such
qualification. It is believed that specialized training empowers and motivates such principals for
better performance. Eyike (2001) also affirmed that principals who completed in-service
trainings were more effective than those who did not. An important implication of this is that
professionally trained principals perform their roles better than non-professionals in the
management of secondary schools. From the fore going, principals’ professional qualification
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seem to have a relationship with their performance. Though professional qualification has some
research evidence in support of its potential in improving principals’ job performance
(Nwangwu, 2006), Ogbaji and Oti (2006) posited that professional qualification of principals has
no impact on their job performance. It is therefore important that the relationship between
professional qualification and principals’ performance in the critical task areas be examined.
This study provides an opportunity to examine this relationship.
Experience is the number of years or the period a worker has been performing assigned
duties. The term experience is defined as professional growth that takes place in the educator as a
result of continued stay, or study on the job and other related processes (Hallinger and Heck,
1996). Experience as viewed by Sturman (2000) is the culmination of job specifics from action,
practice and perception of the task and duties associated with a specific job due to training and
retraining on the job. Experience is a person’s particular instance for encountering or
undergoing through something. This relates to a person finding himself in some situation and
being aware of it. Carroll and Harrison, (2008) explained experience to mean the totality of such
events in the past of an individual or group; a sense of knowledge that one saw or participated in
previously. Specifically, administrative experience is a growth in personal and inter-personal
leadership skills, knowledge and values due to continued stay on the job or through training. The
general notion according to Obasi (1999) is that every employer believes that employees with
high level of experience perform better than those with lower experience. This conception is still
a matter of great debate among researchers in education and management sciences. The truth is
that the more an individual performs a job over and over; there is a higher tendency for
specialization as a result of experience as he remembers more of what he does (Okpalugo, 2008).
Many authors believe that experience is related to performance. Nwangwu (2006) opined
that experience is a major feature of most profession. Such experience has been observed to
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assist in developing the required social and intellectual skills, learning how to work closely with
other people and in finding out about individual interests and differences. Peretomode (2001)
pointed out that experience enables principals to monitor and supervise the various aspects of the
school activities like teaching and learning school plant and records, as well as extracurricular
activities. Experience is one factor or quality, which cannot be over emphasized in the choice of
school administrators. This is because in climbing the seniority ladder, the teacher would have
been a form master/mistress, headmaster/mistress, games master/mistress or a vice principal.
After going through these various positions, the individual would have acquired enough
experience to be able to lead other people in the development of leadership trust and team work.
This is also why supervisors of schools are selected from experienced teachers and principals
(Mbiti, 1993); for job experience leads to accumulation of relevant knowledge, skills and
abilities for the effective performance of a particular job.
Professional experience comes through training, and working on the job. According to
Peretomode (2001), the principal who is an instructional supervisor in the school system is
expected to have professional experience which is not spontaneous but acquired through
developmental and professional training programmes. This position therefore holds that
experience can influence the administrative ability of principals. Fadekemi and Isaac (2011),
affirmed that experienced principals operate from a deeper and more sophisticated knowledge
base. Their years of working experience have given them extensive repertories to effective
management, counseling, supervision, and evaluation of teachers under them.
From the foregoing, there is a perceived relationship between experience and
performance effectiveness of principals in the management of schools. This statement is
supported by Okolo (2001) who opined that the major influential factor to effectiveness of
school administrators today is experience gained in the course of working. Experience can also
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be a burden to the principals, especially if the persons professional and academic base is weak.
It may be an obstacle to innovation. In this study, the relationship between experience and
performance of the principal was determined.
A person can either be married, single, divorced, or separated. Marital status is the state
of being married or not married by a man or woman (Anyanwu, 2009). Continuing, Anyanwu
noted that the traditional vitures of marriage such as love, fidelity and mutual fulfillment imbibed
by married men and women are often presumed to transcend to the work place. There they
exhibit love and fidelity with the drive for mutual fulfillment of individual and organizational
goals. The married principal (Thompson, 2000) imbibed the culture of tolerance and apply it to
their relationship with students and teachers in the general administration of schools. The
presumed maturity that comes with marriage could enable the principal to handle some complex
problems that face the school. There is a general notion (Obasi, 1990) that most married
individuals tend to be more stable and focused with “things” of life. No wonder, it is argued that
those who are not married are not yet accountable and their responsible life style is always in
most cases doubtful. Otamiri (1998) stated aptly that;
the problems encountered by principals in their administration of students personnel such as cheating, sneaking out of class and school compound, fighting, poor feeding, propensity to be heard, accepted and loved, freedom of choice and rather passive participant than active participant in the learning process calls for principals who are empathic, caring and passionate which comes with child care relative to child bearing in marriage life…(P.46).
This implies that marital status is related to performance.
A single person who works as a principal may have emotional instability. Accordingly,
Forgaty and Hayghe cited in Anyanwu (2009) reported heightened emotionality and lack of
concentration among singles who work with people. Anyanwu (2009), also noted that females
are more vulnerable to negative or psychological effects of marital distress than men and this
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may inadvertently affect their effective performance. Findings reported by John and Tarlor
(1999), and Tsui, Leun, Cheung, Mok, and Ho (1994) indicated that married people were more
committed to their organisation than unmarried people. Married people have more family
responsibilities and need more stability and security in their jobs; and therefore, they are likely to
be more committed to performance of their duties than their unmarried counterparts. Besides,
Enukoha (1999) opined that marital status influences teachers and administrators motivation,
commitment to duty and task performance; and concluded that married school administrators
and teachers were more satisfied than the single ones. Married principals may also do better
because instructional leadership may be seen as an extension of fatherhood and motherhood
responsibilities. However, married principals may face more distractions than the singles and this
may affect their performance. The contrasting views on marital status and principals’ task
performance was tested in this study.
Personality Factors in School Principalship
Personality factors refer to the attributes of a person which provide mental and emotional
dimensions to the persons’ activities. Personality factors are those individual or organizational
factors which can spur a leader towards achieving prescribed goals (Osuku, 2003). Continuing,
Osuku stated that these factors vary depending on individuals. They include self concept,
honesty, realism, drive and tenacity (motivation), psychological openness, leadership styles,
ambition, emotional stability and conscientiousness. Charan (2007) stated that leadership styles
and motivation are personality factors that can distinguish people who can perform from those
who cannot. Oredien (2004) submitted that factors such as style of principal’s leadership and
level of motivation do influence staff and students achievement. In this study, personality factors
considered are leadership styles and motivation as they relate with performance effectiveness of
school administrators.
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Leadership styles
Leadership styles are the behavioural approach adopted by a leader to influence
subordinates towards goal achievement in an organisation. Leadership styles according to
Okoroma (2000), are the various patterns of behaviour leaders adopted in the process of directing
the efforts of subordinates towards the achievement of organizational goals. Oboegbulem and
Onwurah (2011) described leadership styles as the underlining needs structure of leaders that
determines their behaviours in various leadership situations. Leadership styles identified by
different theorists are democratic or people oriented, autocratic or task oriented, laissez-faire, and
eclectic or situational.
Democratic leadership involves the workers in all aspects of management. Democratic
leadership style otherwise known as people-oriented style, demonstrates openness, and respect
for every person in the group (Udeh, 2000). It is characterized by adequate welfare attention,
shared responsibilities, and group members involvement in decision making. These encourage
individual and group initiatives and creativity. In Blake and Moutons’ managerial grid,
democratic leadership style depicts high concern for people and low concern for task (Donnelly,
2009). Nwankwo, Loyce and Obiorah (2011) noted that democratic leadership of the principal
in his performance effectiveness has an objective dimension of accomplishing school goals by
applying democratic principles. These principles are overcoming resource constraint, building
teams, providing feedback, coordination, and conflict management, creating communication
networks, practicing collaborative politics, and modeling the school’s vision. The school
administrator who adopts the style tries to be very objective in his praise and criticism and at the
same time becomes a regular group member without doing much of the work. Each group in the
school system ensures that their contributions are earnestly made for the success of the task since
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each member has been involved in the task right from the planning stage hence none of them
could allow it to fail.
Conversely, autocratic leadership concentrates decision making on the leader, with
minimal involvement of the workers. Autocratic leadership style, according to Tony and John
(1994), is task-oriented and believes in task performance as the primary concern. The principal
identifies the work to be done and closely supervises the performance of each worker by
assuming complete control of all segments of the work. Subordinates are allowed little freedom
to exercise initiative or creativity in their operation. This leadership style according to Cynthia,
Lyle, and James (2003) is characterized by the following: denial of group members respect,
welfare of group members accorded little or no consideration, little participate in decision
making process by group members, leader exercising control in decision-making process, and
imposition of task to subordinates without due consideration of their aptitude. Continuing,
Cynthia et al noted that individual and group initiatives and creativity are discouraged while the
leader alone exercises the authority for determining policy and procedures for achieving goals.
The leader uses command to give directives and exert compliance on group members with
constant suspicion and distrust on members.
A principal may adopt autocratic leadership style. Onyiri (2007) noted that the autocratic
leadership style is a direct opposite of the democratic leadership style and signifies a self-
centered leader whose administration is centered on him. Onyiri reiterated that the autocratic
leader is the center of all the activities that go in the organisation by his dogmatic nature and
leads by withholding or giving rewards and punishment. The school principal adopting the style
(Dididjon, 2002), may be feared but not respected. Dididjon noted further that autocratic leaders
have the advantage of taking speedy decisions since he does not consult others most times. The
implication of this is that a principal who adopts autocratic management style may not achieve
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much result through the co-operation of teachers and other staff. This according to Nwokafor
(2010) will be a direct reflection of teachers’ reaction in many ways to cope with his stringent
management style for which many may show resentment and resort to eye service and
sycophantic behaviors. In this way, the leader will find it difficult to get genuine love, support
and co-operation from teachers who regard his administration as a one man show thereby
achieving few results. Graham and Benneth (1998) stated that autocratic leadership cause test
subjects to become aggressive, discontented, and lack initiative and commitment when
accomplishing task. In the school system, teachers will pretend to be serious in the presence of
the leader while the task is left non-accomplished in his absence.
Laissez-faire leadership style is a behavioural approach that shows indifference. Laissez-
faire leadership style also known as free-reign is the pattern of leadership behaviour distinctly
marked by indecision, vacillation and indifference towards group members and activities, goal
setting and goal achievement of both the group and organisation (Osuku, 2003). Continuing,
Osuku stated that in this type of leadership style, group activities are not interfered by the leader
except on invitation and much freedom given to subjects to do as they like. The leader does not
possess a clear vision of the group goals nor develop policies for it. This type of leadership
behaviour according to Fowers (2008) does not make any meaningful progress in an organisation
rather would lead to a state of organizational anarchy since every member acts independently.
This situation Fowers noted is a common case were school principals give instructions to class
masters, house masters, and association heads with little input in their affairs. In this case, they
are simply given goals to accomplish and using their experience and ingenuity. In this way, the
teachers explore their potentials for self development which does not promote group cohesion
and unity towards the achievement of the set goals. The teachers according to Salako (1998) will
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lose direction and lack control in the absence of the principal and easily collapse in crisis
situation.
This style has no concern for either the organisation or workers. Laissez-faire leadership
style, according to Donnelly (2009), is likened to an impoverished management style labeled as
[1,1] in Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid which has low concern for people and task. It was
noted that such leaders have neither concern for people nor task. Their behaviour may be
passive or political. Their passive behaviour is expressed in acts of laziness, apathy, and
resistance to change. They are not involved in group activities and blame others for creating
intolerable conditions. Their political nature is expressed in concern about status, quick to
criticism, drawing attention to others faults and their inconsistency in decision-making.
Eclectic leadership style is a behavioural approach based on surrounding circumstances.
According to Glasscock (2006), Eclectic leadership style is also known as situational leadership
style. It describes the leadership behaviour adopted by a leader on the situation that best fits the
surrounding circumstance he finds himself. Most scholars in the areas of leadership, according
to Pieters (2008), now agree that neither a set of personality trait approach nor the search for
the ‘best’ leadership style or behaviour was adequate to deal with the complexities of the
underlying process in the management of organizations. Consequently, contingency leadership
approach has been advocated which suggests that leadership effectiveness depends upon the fit
between personality, task, power, attitudes and perception. It is obvious that most effective
school administrators are neither authoritative nor democratic but flexible to select a style that is
not only comfortable to them but also appropriate for the situation they are handling. Within the
contingency leadership approach, a principal may be more open or closed in the leadership style.
An open leadership style is one which has the tendencies of democratic principles such as
collaborative decision making, delegation of authority, concern for people, and creating
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communication networks. A close leadership style has the tendencies of autocratic principles
such as imposition of task, and denial of group members respect and concern. A principal may
be more open or closed depending on the situation, and this reflects the personality of the
principal. The open-close leadership styles is a continuum, in which a principal may exhibit
more frequently a more open or closed leadership style. It is possible to determine the extent a
principal is open or close by behaviours demonstrated in the normal course of managing schools,
and relate it to the performance on some administrative task. This is one of the objectives of this
study.
Motivation
Motivation is the process of stimulating and directing human behaviour towards
achieving desirable goals. Motivation is a very important concept in school organisation and
management. It is very essential in achieving effective teaching and learning. Odenewu (2005)
described motivation as an inducement, incentive, inspiration, or encouragement in order to
incite an individual to action. Motivation can also be seen as the over-reaching concept that
includes a number of relatively particularized conditions, which are geared towards realizing
certain objectives (Fabunimi, 2001). In this way, motivation is central to all forms of learning
and can be described as that which is responsible for the initiator and sustenance of behaviour
that is goal directed. It is an abstract construct, something we cannot see but observe the effect.
In the school situation, staff motivation if properly utilized, gingers staff competitive
responsibility, and a sense of belonging and participation. Ekere (2010) asserted that no matter
how automated an organization may be, high productivity or performance depends on the level
of motivation for the effectiveness of the workforce. Motivation is therefore a drive or intrinsic
force within the individual or human organism that makes him take action towards the
achievement of an organizational goal. Thus, to motivate is to ‘translate one into performing
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what he would not naturally perform. Accordingly, Chukwuemeka (2008) argued that while
knowledge and skills possessed by the employee are important in determining his job
performance, these factors alone are not sufficient. An understanding of what motivates the
individual is needed to reveal how abilities and skills are activated and their personal potentials
realized. The managerial function and responsibility for eliciting this desired organizational
behaviour is referred to as ‘Motivation’ (Ekere, 2010).
Motivation is what people need to perform better. However, the same things motivate
individually differently. Where one gets motivated, obtains satisfaction, and consequently
performs better from getting additional responsibility assigned, another may feel much better
valued and encouraged to higher productivity if he or she is merely being listened to, or given
some flexibility in his or her work schedule. This means that individual differences also
contribute to motivation and performance effectiveness. The principal as an administrative head,
manager, public relations officer, a supervisor, an instructional leader, a curriculum innovator
and a catalyst towards the achievement of educational goals in secondary schools (Adenuga,
2008), is expected to be motivated to demonstrate effectiveness in the performance of the
duties.
Operationally, motivation can be defined as the process of stimulating principals to action
to achieve desirable educational objectives. In this context, motivation refers to the ability of the
government through the Ministry of Education to influence or energize the principals to respond
in certain expected ways to perform their functions effectively. Chukwu (2003) noted that if the
school, like any other organization, is set to make maximum utilization of its workforce by
recognizing the role of the human resources as facilitators and coordinators then there is need to
effectively articulate this factor by way of motivating it especially when we consider the high
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level of service expected from the principal. Leithwood and Jantzi cited in Uduchukwu (2003)
noted that school principals who have succeeded in their role performance are properly
motivated by way of a range of mechanisms like promotion, recognition, and advancement for
personal and organizational growth through professional development. When the job
description of the principal is challenging and interesting that requires their initiatives and
contributing to decision making concerning their schools while being commended for doing
well, with freedom of exercising job roles without restrictions in a environment where cordial
relationship exist with opportunity for promotion and professional growth and self actualization
could lead to strong motivation, satisfaction, and performance effectiveness. This was verified
in this study. The relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals
performance in the task areas of management is presented in fig. 2.
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2
3
1
D1
D2
D3
D5
D4 Professional
Qualification
M4
Motivators
M3M1
M2M5
Age
Gender
Experience
MaritalStatus
Personality Factors
Demographic Factors
Leadership Styles
L1 L2
Principals’ Performance
Pp1 InstructionalSupervision
Pp2 Communication
Pp3 Decisionmaking
Pp4 Incentives
B
A
Pp5
Pp6
Pp7
Pp8
Pp9
Public Relations
Human Resourcesl Development
Financial Mgt
Conflict Mgt./ Resolution
PlantMgt.
Pp10
Adherenceto LegalStatus
KEY= M1 = Nature of work itself M2 = Recognition M3 = Responsibility M4 = Achievement M5 = Advacement L1 = Open leadership style L2 = Closed leadership Style
Fig 2. Schematic representation of Conceptual framework
The relationship between demographic and personality factors as the independent
variables and principals performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools as
dependent variable is shown in fig.2. The principal as the executive officer of the secondary
school carries out several tasks in the management of secondary schools. These tasks are
represented in the oval marked 3 and range from pp1….pp10 which are instructional supervision,
decision making, communication, provision of incentives to teachers and learners, human
resource development, public relations, financial management, plant management, conflict
management and resolution, and adherence to legal status. The effective performance of these
tasks in the management of secondary schools may depend on certain factors. These factors
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include demographic and personality factors represented in the oval marked 1 and 2 respectively.
The demographic factors labeled D1…D5 are Age, gender, Experience, professional
qualification and marital status respectively. The personality factors in the oval marked 2 consist
of motivators and leadership styles. The motivators in the oval marked A are the nature of the
work or work itself (M1), recognition (M2), responsibility (M3), achievement (M4) and
advancement (M5). The leadership styles in the eccentric oval marked B exist in a continuum L1
to L2 representing open-close leadership styles continuum. The demographic and personality
factors may be independently or jointly related to principals’ performance in the task areas of
management of secondary schools.
Theoretical Framework
Situational/Contingency theory
Situational/Contingency theory provides that leadership effectiveness in an organization
depends upon the fit between personality, task, power and perceptions. Two perspectives to the
theory are: Tannenbaum and Schmidts situational approach which holds that effective
performance of a leader depends on forces in the administrator, situation, and subordinate. The
other perspective is Fielders Contingency Approach which is of the view that leaders achieve
greater influence on subordinates for effective performance if: there is positive or good leader-
member relations, high task structure, and strong position power.
Tannambaun and Schimidt’s situational approach
This perspective of the situational/contingency theory is developed in 1934 by
Tannambaun and Schimidt and describes a set of factors that influence a managers or
administrators choice of leadership style in a particular situation. This theory proposes that
managers should not stick to a particular leadership style but rather be flexible enough to cope
with different situations. The exponents of this theory argued that administrators are often faced
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with difficulty in deciding what type of action is most appropriate for handling a particular
problem. When faced with this situation, the school administrator/manager should consider
three sets of forces acting in the organization before choosing a type of leadership style. These
forces are: those on the administrator, forces in the subordinates and forces in the situation.
Forces on the School administrator are forces within an administrator which influence his
behaviour in a particular situation e.g, the value system, background, experience, knowledge,
confidence in subordinates, leadership tendencies and security. For instance, a school
administrator who strongly values individual freedom and has self-confidence and trust in
himself may allow subordinates a great deal of independence in carrying out their assigned
duties. Conversely, a school administrator who believes that the needs of the individuals come
second to the needs of the organization may take a more directive role in his or her subordinates’
activities.
Forces in the subordinates are characteristics or behaviour patterns and expectations
exhibited by an individual or subordinate in an organization which affect his or her personality.
A school administrator can allow a greater subordinate participation and freedom under the
following conditions or circumstance: When subordinates crave independence and freedom of
action; when they want to achieve decision making responsibility; when they identify with
school goals; when they are knowledgeable and experienced enough to deal with the problems
efficiently and when their experience with previous boss leads them to expect participative
management. When these conditions are missing, school administrators lean towards the
authoritarian style, but may however vary their behavior when subordinates gain self-confidence
in working on the assigned duties.
Forces in the situation may influence an administrator to behave in a particular way or
choose a type of leadership style. Such situational factors include school climate, the nature of
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subordinates, work task, members’ attitudes towards constituted authorities, group effectiveness,
the pressure of time and nature of the problem.
Therefore from this approach, it is deduced that the most effective leaders are not those
who are either autocratic or democratic, but those who are flexible to select a style that is not on
comfortable to them, but also appropriate for the situation they are handling. Thus, a secondary
school principal who uses leadership style depending on the task and situation is most likely to
be effective in task performance towards achieving school goals. When a principal uses
predominantly a particular leadership style, then it is possible for performance to vary from task
to task, since that leadership style may not suit all tasks. The correlation between leadership
styles and performance in different tasks areas may also vary. This theory is related to the study,
which among other objectives examined demographic factors in relation to principals’ leadership
styles and the relationship between leadership style and performance in different task areas.
Fielders Contingency Approach
The Fielders Contingency theory was propounded by Tom Burns and Stalker of Britain,
and Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch of the United States of America in 1960 but expanded by
Fielder in 1967. This theory was proposed to address the problem of identifying the best
situational conditions for task performance. Fielder posited that effective group performance
depends on the proper match between leader’s style of interaction with subordinates and the
situation. The implication of this proposition is that for any school administrator to achieve
enviable results with his teachers and others in the school system there is need to match
leadership style to any given situation. This is on the presumption that no one leadership style is
appropriate for every situation. The different leadership styles will have different impacts in
different situations. Fielder pointed out that the effectiveness of a leader or the performance of
a group is dependent on the interaction of the leaders’ style or behavior and certain
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characteristics of the situation namely: leader-member relations, the task structure, and leaders’
position power.
Leader-member relations refer to the degree of confidence, trust and respect the
subordinates have in the leader. If high or considered good, will make it easier for the exercise
of influence and leading informally without having to rely on formal rank, authority and
directives to accomplish organizational goals. Therefore the quality of leader-member relations
is the most important influence on the school administrators’ effectiveness and efficiency.
The task structure refers to the degree to which the task to be accomplished is
programmed. The task may be structured, routine or spelled out via established procedures.
This is the degree to which duties are simplified for easy understanding of subordinates.
According to Fielder, the more the task structure is simplified, the greater the influence of the
leader on administrative effectiveness and efficiency.
Leaders’ position power refers to the power inherent in the leadership position measured
by the degree to which the leader can reward, punish, promote and demote subordinate
employees in the work group. However in determining the leaders’ position power, questions
as to whether a school administrator can recommend reward and punishment to his or her boss;
punish or reward subordinates on his or her own; and recommend promotion or demotion of
subordinates are obvious. But Fielder contended that such questions provide a profile of high or
low position power. The position power can vary from strong to weak. Hence, the more control
leaders have over reward and promotion, the greater their position power and the greater their
influence on effective and efficient school management.
Fielder contended that the most favorable situation for greater leaders influence for
effective task performance is one characterized with positive or good leader-member relations;
high-task structure and high or strong position power. Given the not too high position power of
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principals of secondary schools in Nigeria, the interaction of leadership style and other variables
and their effect on performance in different task areas is not known. Leadership style may also
vary not only according to the structure of the task, but also on the position power of the
principal in relation to the tasks. This study provided opportunity to verify these assumptions.
Human Relations Theory
This theory was propounded in 1904 by Mary Parker Folleft as the fore runner and
subsequently expanded by her associates Lewin (1938), Roethlisberger (1939), Mayo (1945),
and Yauch (1949). This theory proposed that individuals are spurred to participate actively in the
pursuit of organizational goals when they are treated adroitly. The proponents of this theory
believed that organizational goals will be better achieved with the cooperation of the workers
when their welfare is taken into consideration. The exponents of this theory were also of the
view that human problems in an organisation will be minimized when there is cooperation
among the workers. Based on this, they emphasized coordination as the basis of any
organization to achieve optimum goals.
The proponents of human relations theory argued that employees are human beings and
not machines, as such should be given due recognition to their welfare. The theory further hold
that economic rewards are not the only motivators, incentives such as recognition of personal
values, and encouraging their sense of achievement, could make them productive. This theory
apart from being accepted as the basis of democratic administration is important because
building of a dynamic interpersonal relationship is an important issue in school management.
The principal can achieve this through effective communication; delegation of functions to
teachers; collaborative decision making; developing interest in teacher’ welfare; and maintaining
open-door policy with the staff, students and the public. Besides, this theory will help school
administrators to understand the school organization as a complex social group which requires
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effective handling of its activities. The human relations theory is the basis of democratic
management in the work place by giving cognizance to collective decision. This process gives
subordinates a sense of belonging in the implementation of school programmes. Involving
subordinates in decision making is a sense of encouragement and motivates them to higher
performance in the discharge of their duties. This theory is relevant to the present study as the
basis to determine the relationship between leadership styles and motivational factors, and
principals’ performance in different task areas of management of secondary schools.
Behavioural Science Theory
This theory was propounded by Chester Barnard, Max Weber, and Herbert Simon in the
early 1940s when the behavioural science movement started from the social science. They
assumed that the best approach to facilitate work and productivity in an organisation is through
an understanding of the worker, his job content, and the work environment. The theory proposes
that to achieve organizational goals effectively, consideration should be given to both the job
content and the worker and the work environment. It is no longer desirable to concentrate on the
job alone, as in the classical management era, or on the worker alone, as in the human relations
movement. An integration of the two and the work environment was considered more helpful in
the realization of organizational and personal goals.
The behavioural theory proposes that administrators should draw their knowledge and
experience from the various subjects in the social sciences, such as psychology, philosophy,
economics, anthropology, sociology and a host of others. This will enable them to facilitate the
job performance of the workers. Based on the three-dimensional concept of administration
consisting of the men, the job and the social setting, the school administrator should ensure that
there is equal attention to human welfare elements, achievement of set educational objectives
and provision of the necessary tools and safe environment in working towards the achievement
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of school goals. The principals by their training are expected to have learned some psychology,
philosophy, sociology and the like necessary for a more effective performance of their duties.
This theory is important to the present study because it provides the basis for examining the
relationship between principal’s qualification and their performance.
Herzberg’s two-factor Theory
The two-factor theory of satisfiers and dissatisfiers was developed by Herzberg and his
research associates in 1957. They conducted a research on a group of 200 accountants and
engineers, as higher level professionals, who worked in different companies in Pittsburgh in the
United States of America in which they sought to examine conditions that made them satisfied
and dissatisfied with their work. The two-factor theory proposed that one set of factors consists
of the satisfiers or motivators are concerned with the content of the job. The other set of factors
are the hygiene factors or dissatisfiers.
The motivators when present in the work situation lead to strong motivation, satisfaction,
good job performance, and positive attitudes because they are related to the nature of the work,
the content of the job itself and satisfy the employee’s need for growth and development in the
work place for self-actualization. These motivators include: nature of the work itself,
achievement, recognition, advancement, and responsibility. They are seen to be effective in
motivating the individual to superior performance and effort.
Nature of work itself relates to the meaningful nature of the work which gives pleasure
and spurs one to stay busy on the job to do meaningful and challenging work without possible
threats while deriving essential benefits comparable to other professions. The nature of work
itself refers to the doing of the work and the type of work. The job can be repetitive or changing,
creative or monotonous, easy or difficult. The jobs that are motivating and satisfying are those
that provide skills, variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. The nature
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of the job when challenging and interesting is a possible predictor of overall performance of an
individual. Therefore, variety and flexibility in principals’ task roles are important factors in their
performance in the management of secondary education.
Recognition relates to commendations received from stake holders for work done. This
includes praise for valued opinion in PTA meetings and conferences, as well as being used as a
point of reference for outstanding performance. Recognition is a fundamental source of self
conforming belongingness identity.
Responsibility relates to the freedom of exercising job roles without restrictions and
matched with the necessary authority to discharge it properly. This includes presiding over staff
meeting, supervising various sections of the school for proper accountability and improvement of
teaching and learning, as well as being the custodian of essential records of the school and being
a PTA officer.
Achievement relates to feeling of accomplishments on the job. This includes students
doing well in examinations, staff making some social and economic progress, improvement in
infrastructure, cordial school-community relations, and wining laurels in competitions.
Advancement relates to promotion from one grade level to the other, opportunities for personal
growth and professional development on the job such as attaining further education, attending
national and international conference for value re-orientation and attitudinal change.
Advancement refers to opportunities for professional growth in an organisation. It also
involves actual changes which enhance position or status at work. Many employees tend to
experience job satisfaction and subsequent higher performance if they perceive career
advancement to be a real possibility in an organisation.
The other set of factors consists of dissatisfiers or the hygiene factors which are
concerned with the context of the job. Among the hygiene factors are supervision, interpersonal
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relations with superior and peers, physical working conditions, organizational policies and
administrative practices, salary, job security, and all other elements that are extrinsic to the job
such as personal life, and status. It is believed that improvement in the hygiene factors will serve
to remove the impediments to motivation but does not directly result in motivation. This is due
to the fact that these factors are all related to the context or environment of the job. When these
factors deteriorate beyond a level that is tolerable for the employee, job dissatisfaction ensues.
Herzberg believed that when hygiene factors of a particular job situation are undesirable,
organisation members will become dissatisfied. Making these factors more desirable for
example, by increasing salary will rarely motivate people to do a better job, but it will keep them
from becoming dissatisfied. In contrast, when the motivating factors of a particular job situation
are high, employees usually are motivated to do a better job. Therefore, when principals are
motivated by way of recognition in their achievements, making their job challenging, and
providing opportunities for advancement in their job, they will perform better in the management
of secondary schools. This was verified in this study.
However, the validity of the motivators in Herzberg’s two-factor theory to cause job
satisfaction and subsequent higher performance has been questioned as satisfaction may or may
not be directly related to job performance. This is because Herzberg’s work paid little attention
towards testing the motivational factors and performance implications of the two-factor theory.
Besides, it was also noted that Herzberg’s dual factor theory was based on a sample of
professional level accountants and engineers. Hence critics are of the view that it is not possible
to say that the findings of this limited sample can be applied equally to other occupational groups
such as principals as used in this study. The limited scope of the respondents does not justify
any generalization that will be applicable to different technologies, environments and
backgrounds. Although most studies in motivation showed that when the employees are
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professionals or of managerial level, the theory is applicable, but when they are of lower level or
manual workers the findings are less supportive of the theory. This present study could provide
the opportunity to verify the theory since managerial level employees who have low personality
that is, principals are involved. The relationship between the demographic and personality
variables, the theories and performance is presented in fig. 3 below.
Human RelationsTheory
Situational/ContingencyTheory
LeadershipStyles
Principals’Performancein Different TaskAreas
Herzberg’sTwo-FactorTheory
Demographic Factors (Experience,knowledge, age, gender, and marital status
Behavioural Theory
QualificationMotivators)
Fig. 3 Schematic representation of theoretical framework
The relationship between the theories used in the study, namely Behavioural science,
Situational/Contingency, Human Relations, and Herzberg’s two-factor theories and the
independent variables (demographic and personality), and dependent variable, principals’
performance is shown in fig. 3. Principals’ performance could be enhanced by the influence of
the demographic (age, experience, qualification, gender, and marital status), and personality
factors (leadership styles and motivators). These factors are indentified by these theories to
enhance performance. For instance, the human relations theory identified motivators and
leadership styles, the Herzberg’s two-factor theory recognized motivators, the
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Situational/Contingency theory identified demographic factors and leadership styles while the
behavioural science theory identified qualification as a demographic factor. Premised on these
propositions, the theories are relevant to this study having identified the independent variables,
demographic and personality factors, which may relate with the dependent variable, principals’
performance as examined in this study.
Review of related empirical studies
This section reviewed some empirical studies that are related to the study in the order:
demographic factors, leadership styles, and motivation studies relative to performance.
Studies Related to Demographic variables and performance
A study on Relationship between organizational factors and administrative effectiveness
of University academic managers in Imo and Rivers State of Nigeria, was carried out by Njoku
(2004). The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between organizational
factors and administrative effectiveness of University managers in Imo and Rivers State. The
study adopted the corelational survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study was 2400 teaching staff in Universities in Imo and
Rivers State. The sample of the study was 450 teaching staff obtained from a population through
a proportionate stratified random sampling technique. A researcher developed questionnaire with
a reliability coefficient of 0.83 was the instrument for data collection. The data were analyzed
with means, standard deviations and a 2-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results
showed that in a continuum of factors such as age, centralization of authority, formalization of
rules, years of administrative experience and mode of assumption to their position, only age and
years of administrative experience had a significant relationship with their administrative
effectiveness. The findings also revealed that since age and experience grow together,
administrative effectiveness was actually higher as age and experience increase and was above
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the overall average. Academic managers who were older in age were more effective in
administration than the younger ones with similar years of experience. This may have been
attributed to the fact that the older managers are more experienced in administration since they
may have been in administrative position for a long time. It was also revealed that administrative
effectiveness usually decreased with increase in years of administrative experience. The reason
according to him may be that as academic managers get older they tend to become obsolete in
administration as management and administration are dynamic fields which change
continuously. They lose vigor and desire to research or to develop themselves professionally and
rather than settle on the routine rudiments of administration. This study relates with the present
study in the design, and since both examined the influence of age on administrative performance
but differs in the statistical tool for data analysis.
Another study on Principals Personal Attributes and their Administrative Effectiveness of
Public and Private Secondary Schools in Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out by Onyiri (2007).
The purpose of the study was to ascertain the personal attributes of Principals in public and
private secondary schools which enhance their administrative effectiveness. The descriptive
survey research design was adopted for the study. Five research questions and five hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study was 245 principals of public secondary schools. A
sample of 180 Principals randomly selected from a population was used for the study. The
instrument for data collection was a 32-item questionnaire titled Principals Personal Attributes
Rating Scale’ (PPARS). The reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using test-retest
method was 0.75. Percentage, means, and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient
were the tools used to analyze the data. The results revealed that Private School Principals are
more effective in administration due to close supervision by proprietors than their counterparts in
Public Secondary Schools irrespective of their personal attributes like age, experience,
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qualification and forthrightness. It was also revealed that although, Principals of public
secondary schools were also effective in administration, lack of supervision limited their level of
performance. It was concluded that if given the same responsibilities all things being equal, both
Principals will bring forth similar results irrespective of their personal attributes. This study has
relationship with the present study since both investigated the relationship between personal
attributes and administrative performance. However, this study differed from the present study in
focus since it was a comparison of administrative effectiveness of private and public secondary
schools. Also, this study is narrower in scope and area relative to the present study.
A study on demographic variables and conflict resolution options of secondary principals
in Cross River State, Nigeria was conducted by Okon (2008). The purpose of the study was to
investigate the influence of demographic variables on conflict resolution options of secondary of
secondary school principals. The study adopted the descriptive research design. Four research
questions were posed and four hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
The population of the study which served as the sample was 260 principals of government
owned secondary schools. No sampling procedure was involved since the population was a
manageable size sample. Instrument for data collection was the conflict resolution option
questionnaire (PCROQ) made up of two parts- A and B. Part A sought personal data of the
principals, while part B with five clusters sought information on different conflict resolution
options of the principals. The overall reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using
crombach alpha was 0.88. Data collected were analyzed using means, and standard deviations to
answer the research questions, while the hypothesis was tested with One Way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA). The findings revealed that no significant influence exists between
demographic variables and principals conflict resolution options. It was also found that there was
a wide use of compromise and collaboration conflict resolution options by principals. This study
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is related to the present study since it considered demographic variables, data analysis tools but
differs in design, and scope.
A study on relationships between principals’ demographic characteristics and
organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in Kogi State, Nigeria was conducted by
Okwor (2012). The purpose of the study was to determine whether relationship exists between
principals’ demographic characteristics and organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in
Kogi State. The design of the study was correlational survey. The study was guided by five
research questions and five hypotheses. The population of the study comprised all 250 principals
and 3977 teachers of public secondary schools in Kogi State. The sample of the study was 100
principals and 800 teachers, eight per school, who rated their principals. The sample was
purposively selected and represented 40% of the population of teachers and principals in the
state. Data were collected using Principals’ Demographic Characteristics Questionnaire (PDCQ)
for principals as respondents, and Principals’ Organizational Effectiveness Questionnaire
(POEQ) for teachers as respondents. The data collected were analyzed using means, standard
deviations, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Multiple Regression. The
results showed that principals regularly meet with teachers and students to discuss school
activities, and disseminate information to staff and students; that principals in the discharge of
their duties applied the rules without minding who were involved, and that they used disciplinary
measures to create an atmosphere of commitment and dedication to duty. The results further
revealed that of all the demographic variables (Age, Qualification and experience as vice
principal), only experience as a vice principal has significant relationship with principals’ overall
organizational effectiveness. This study is related to the present study in the design, respondents
and data analysis tools but differs in the area of the study and scope.
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A study on Gender differences in marital dysfunction, occupational maladjustment and
performance among clerical workers was carried out by Anyanwu (2009). The purpose of the
study was to investigate the relationship among gender, occupational maladjustment and
performance among clerical workers in Enugu State. The design of the study was the corelational
survey. Four research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The population of the
study was 401 secretaries and accounting officers in the administrative cadre. A sample of 274
respondents was drawn from population from nine out of 13 ministries and six out of 16 extra
ministerial departments using random and purposive sampling techniques. The instruments for
data collection were a four-point scale questionnaire titled “Dyadic/Occupation Adjustment
Scale” with items on relationship domain of Moos and Insil’s (1971) work environment scale,
and Supervisors rating scale on staff performance. The instruments were trial tested and internal
consistency coefficient of 0.80 and 0.79 were got for the Dyadic/Occupation Adjustment Scale
and Supervisors rating scale on staff performance using cronbach alpha method. The results
showed that gender has a low inverse relationship with both occupational maladjustment (-.145)
and performance (-.254). That is, as gender varies, occupational maladjustment increases or
decreases. Gender also varies as marital dysfunction increases or decreases. However, the
relationship was weak. The result on gender differences in the extent of marital dysfunction,
occupational maladjustment and performance of clerical workers showed that while the males
adjusted better maritally, the females adjusted better occupationally. Although their mean score
showed that both males and females adjusted martially and occupationally, and performed
highly, the males performed better. The difference may have accounted for the low negative
relationship among gender, occupational maladjustment and performance. Gender tends to
predict performance better than occupational maladjustment. This study is related to the present
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study in design, and both examined the relationship between gender and performance but
differed in focus, population, sample and sampling technique.
A study on Principals personal characteristics and administration of secondary schools in
Rivers State, Nigeria was carried out by Aguh (2003). The purpose of the study was to
investigate principals’ personal characteristics and administration of secondary schools. The
focus was to ascertain the extent to which personal factors of the principals such as gender, age,
qualification and experience could influence their administration. The descriptive survey was the
design of the study. Five research questions and five hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised of 245 principals in the state. A sample of 120 principals
randomly selected from population. Data were gathered from the sampled respondents through a
Likert- type rating Scale titled “Principal Personal Characteristics Questionnaire (PPCQ). The
reliability of the instrument determined using cronbach alpha was 0.76. Means and standard
deviations were used to answer the research questions while t-test and One-Way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) were used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 probability level. The results
showed that there was no significant difference between male and female principals in their
administration of secondary schools in Rivers State. The result further indicated that female
principals tend to be very strict than male principals in demanding attendance and devotion to
duty on the part of teachers to demystify the general notion that they are the weaker sex. In
essence, they try to overdo things in order to boost their ego but ends up being unpopular with
their subordinates. It was also found that female principals were less committed to their job than
the male principals in the school since most of them as mothers and housewives are duty bound
to care for their husbands, children and take care of the house chores. Therefore, they are left
with little or no time to follow up official matters outside office hours. This makes it impossible
for the female principals to attend to their official work very regularly and punctually so that
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they feel no qualms about being stringent in the discipline of staff. Similarly, it was found that
the male principals also do not make time allowance for staff attendance since other business
commitments outside the school unrelated to their official assignment always keep them out
hence they are not also too committed like their female counterparts in the discipline of staff.
The study further revealed that there was no significant influence of years of working experience
and educational qualification on principal’s administration of secondary schools. The number of
years of working experience as a principal had nothing to do with the principal’s administration
of secondary school because the principal must have acquired all the techniques of good
principalship during the training period as a student of education in the higher institution and
when he/she worked under some principals. Educational qualification was not a significant factor
in the principals’ administration of schools. Principals without postgraduate qualifications
performed as highly as those with postgraduate qualifications in the administration of secondary
schools. This study is related to the present study since both of them examined the relationship
between personal characteristics of principals and administrative performance. They differed in
design, population, sample and sampling technique and tools for data analysis.
A study on Gender factors and the administrative performance of principals of secondary
schools in Rivers State, Nigeria was conducted by Wagbara (2004). The purpose of the study
was to determine the influence of gender factors and the administrative performance of
principals of secondary schools. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Four research
questions and four hypotheses were posed and tested at 5% level of significance. The population
of the study was of 245 Vice-principals of public secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of
105 Vice Principals drawn from a population using simple random sampling technique was used
as respondents. A 40-item questionnaire titled “gender factors and administrative performance of
principals of secondary schools in Rivers State” with a reliability co-efficient of 0.75 obtained on
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trial testing was the instrument used for data collection in the study. The research questions were
answered with the use of simple percentage while the hypotheses were tested using the t-test.
The findings revealed among others that male and female principals differed significantly in the
discharge of their supervisory roles while male and female principals did not significantly differ
in their administrative capabilities in the management of secondary schools in Rivers State. The
relationship of the study to the present one is that both examined gender variables but they
differed in design, population, sample size and tools for data analysis.
A study on some challenges facing principals in school management in Bayelsa State was
conducted by Agoh (2000). The study focused on the challenges of Secondary School Principals
and their perception of the challenges of school management in relation to gender. The study
adopted a corelational survey design. Four research questions were posed and four hypotheses
tested at alpha level of 0.05. The population of the study comprised of all 148 principals of
government owned secondary schools in the State. A sample of 95 principals was drawn from
the population using simple random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection was
a structured 35-item questionnaire with two sections. Section A sought personal data of the
principals while section B consist of five clusters of managerial challenges such as funding,
indiscipline among students, attitude of teachers, poor facilities, and parental attitudes. The
reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using Cronbach Alpha section B were 0.78,
0.65, 0.73, 0.69 and 0.77 respectively. Means and standard deviation were used to answer the
research questions while t-test was to test the hypotheses. The results showed that poor school
facilities, funding and students’ indiscipline pose serious challenge to principals in school
management. It was also revealed that male and female principals did not differ in the way they
perceive the challenges in school management. It concluded that principals face the same kind
of problems irrespective of their genders. Both principals face the same challenges due to their
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official position. The study related to the present study since both of them investigated gender
variable but differed in focus as the study focused on challenges of management rather than
performance which is the concern of the present study.
Another study on Sex difference of principals and their effectiveness in school-
community relations as perceived by teachers in Osun State, Nigeria was conducted by Olaleye
(2001). The purpose of the study was to determine the influence of gender differences of
principals in their effectiveness in school-community relations. The research study was based on
stereo-typical assumption that female principals do not have what it takes to perform their job
effectively unlike their male counterparts particularly in school management. The study adopted
the descriptive survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised of all principals and teachers in public secondary schools in
Osun State. A sample of one thousand (1000) teachers made up of 500 male teachers and 500
female assessed the principals. The teacher observation questionnaire (TOQ) with a reliability
coefficient of 0.78 established using cronbach alpha was used to assess the level of principals’
performance in the establishment of school-community relations. The research findings revealed
that the gender of the principals had no impact on their ability to establish good community
relations. Both female and male principals perform equally well and employed similar leadership
behaviour in this regard. The relationship between the study and the present one is that both
examined the influence of gender variable on principals’ job performance but differed in the
design, and areas of principals’ job performance examined. The study of Olaleye focused on
only one aspect of principals’ job areas while the present study examined the relationship of
gender and other variables and critical task areas of principals’ performance in the management
of secondary education.
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A comparative assessment of leadership styles of male and female principals in Enugu
State Secondary Schools were carried out by Ikediugwu (1996). The purpose of the study was to
compare the leadership styles of male and females principals in Enugu State Secondary Schools;
to find out whether male principals are more democratic or more laissez-faire than female
principals. The study adopted descriptive research design. Three research questions and three
hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study consisted of all secondary school
teachers in Enugu State. Six hundred and eighty-six teachers in Enugu State Secondary Schools
were sampled through stratified random sampling technique. The instrument for data collection
was questionnaire with a reliability coefficient of 0.67. Means, standard deviation and 2 by 2
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were statistical tools for data analysis. The findings revealed
that both male and female principals were all autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire and that
location was a strong factor in secondary school administration in Enugu State while gender was
not. The study like the present study examined gender as a variable. It differs from the present
study by focusing on leadership styles not job performance. It also differed from the present
study in the design, sample and sampling technique and data analysis tools used.
Another study on an examination of gender’s influence on teachers’ productivity in
secondary school teachers in Delta State, Nigeria was carried out by Akiri and Ugborugbo
(2008). The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of gender on the productivity of
teachers. The study was a descriptive survey that employed an ex-post-facto design. Five
research questions guided the study. The population of the study was 11,499 teachers who are
employees of Delta State Post Primary Education Board as at 2004/2005 school year. A sample
of 979 teachers made up of (460) males and (519) females was drawn from the population using
stratified random sampling technique which involved multi level sampling procedure. The
instruments for data collection were two questionnaire namely: Teachers Effectiveness
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Questionnaire 1 (TEQ1) with 22-items to evaluate the teaching effectiveness of teachers; and
Teachers Effectiveness Questionnaire 11 (TEQ11) also with 22-tems for students to evaluate
teachers classroom effectiveness. Percentages, t-test, z-test and single factor analysis of variance
(ANOVA) were used to analyze the data. The result showed that the performance of teachers
was significantly influenced by location with weighted means of 72.10, 70.92, and 70.35 for
urban, semi-urban and rural schools respectively. The results further revealed that there was
significant difference in the mean productivity of male and female teachers. The male teachers
were generally more productive than their female counterparts in rural areas, while the female
perform best in urban schools than their male teachers. It was recommended that school
administrators should consider gender when posting teachers to various locations. Efforts should
be made as much as possible to post female teachers to urban and semi-urban schools. More
male teachers be retained in rural schools and attractive incentives should be used to achieve
this. Furthermore, in-service training aimed at enhancing job performance should be organized
regularly, especially for female teachers in the first five years of employment. Efforts should also
be made to retain experienced female teachers in secondary schools. Finally, more males should
be encouraged to teach in secondary schools. The study is related to the present study which
examined gender variables but differed in focus, design and some aspects of data analysis. The
study focused on productivity of teachers while the present study focused on performance of
principals.
Another study on relationship between teacher’s demographic variables and classroom
management in Imo State, Nigeria was conducted by Ezeh (1997). The purpose of the study was
to ascertain the relationship between teacher’s demographic variables and classroom
management in Imo State. The corelational survey was the design for the study. Four research
questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population comprised of all 6,784 teachers
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in government owned secondary schools in Rivers State. A sample of 450 teachers drawn from
the population using stratified random sampling technique was used for the study. The Teachers
Classroom Management Questionnaire (TCMQ) with reliability coefficient of 0.67 was used in
collecting the data. The findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between some
demographic variables and classroom management. The findings showed that there was a slight
variation between male teachers and their female counterparts in classroom management.
Specifically, male teachers have better classroom management skills than the females teachers.
The higher the academic level of the teachers, the more effective they were in classroom
management and control. Experienced teachers managed their students better than
inexperienced teachers in the classroom. The study has relationship with the present study as
both examined demographic variables but differed in focus, instruments for data collection and
the subjects. The study focused on classroom management of teachers rather than performance
of principals as in the present study.
A study on the influence of gender, leadership styles and administrative effectiveness of
principals in Cross River State, Nigeria was carried out by Uko (2002). The purpose of the study
was to examine the influence of gender and leadership styles on administrative effectiveness of
principals in secondary schools. The design of the study was the descriptive survey. Three
research questions guided the study. The population of the study comprised of all teachers,
principals and vice principals of public secondary schools in Cross River state. A sample of
1000 teachers and 200 principals and Vice-Principals were randomly selected as respondents
from 100 secondary schools in Cross River State. Two instruments namely principals’
leadership style Questionnaire (PLSQ); and principals performance effective Questionnaire
(PPEQ). The reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using cronbach alpha method
were 0.78 and 0.65 respectively. Using Chi-square to analyze the data on the influence of
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gender on principals’ leadership styles, it was found that women scored low on human relations
because they were seen to be more officious in their relationship with people including staff,
student and visitors. Men on the other hand, were seen to be able to camouflage their emotional
problems to the extent that they could easily handle difficult situations. The findings revealed
that men are better school administrators. This study relates to the present study since both
examined gender variables but differed on the statistical tools used for data analysis.
A study on the influence of demographic variables and school climate on principals’ job
performance in public secondary schools in South-East, Nigeria was conducted by Okpe (2010).
The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of demographic variables and school
climate on principals’ job performance in public secondary schools. The study adopted ex-post
factor research design. Four research questions and five null hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised all the principals in public secondary schools in South East,
Nigeria. The sample consisted of 298 principals randomly drawn from public secondary schools
in South-East Nigeria. Three research instruments were developed and used by the researcher
for data collection. The instruments are: Demographic Data of Principals Questionnaire (DDPQ)
which sought the personal data of the principals; The School Climate Descriptive Questionnaire
(SCDQ) with 25-items which sought information on school climate; and the Principals Job
Performance Description Questionnaire (PJPDQ) with 62 items. The reliability coeffients of the
instruments determined using crombach alpha are: 0.96 for SCDQ, and 0.97 for PJPDQ. The
data obtained were analyzed using mean, standard deviation, ANOVA, and multiple regression.
The major findings of the study are professional qualification, experience and gender
significantly influenced principals’ job performance; Professional qualification significantly
influenced principals’ job performance; School climate significantly influenced principals’
performance. It was concluded that the appointment of principals should strictly be based on
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required professional qualifications and that principals’ should encourage and support positive
school climate. The study relates to the present study since both are interested in the relationship
between demographic variables and principals’ performance, but differed in terms of area of the
study and research design. The study was carried out in South-East, Nigeria using ex-post facto
design while the present study was carried out in South-South, Nigeria, using a correlational
survey design.
A study on effect of principals’ preparation programmes on principals’ behaviour was
carried out by Halili (2008). The purpose of was to determine the effects of principal’s
preparation programmes on Principals’ functions in public secondary schools inTurkey.
Specifically, the study focused on the effects of in-service training programme on principals
administrative practices as perceived by teachers who have worked with a principal before and
after the reform effort in the same School. The study adopted the ex post facto design. Three
research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was 500
principals who participated in the training programme. The sample for the study selected using
purposive sampling technique was 100 principals and 240 teachers who served as respondents.
The instrument for data gathering was a 24-item questionnaire title “Dimensions of
Administrative Practices of Principals” (DAPP). The instrument had a reliability coefficient of
0.84 determined using cronbach alpha method. Means, standard deviations, and t-test were used
as statistical tools for data analysis. The findings showed that the training programme had a
considerable influence on principals’ administrative practices on a number of dimensions. On
account of this finding, it was recommended that teachers due for promotion to principalship
should undergo a preparatory training programme to enhance their administrative skills. The
study differed from the present study in terms of focus, design, area of the study, population and
sample.
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A study on the relationship between the professional qualifications of the teachers and
academic performers of their teachers was carried out in Burewala city of Pakistan by Khalid
(2008). The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between the professional
qualification of teachers and students academic performance at secondary school level. A
descriptive research design was adopted for the study. Three research questions guided the study.
The population of the study comprised of all male and female students of matriculation of the
years 2004 and 2005 and all male and female teachers who taught the matriculation students.
The sample of the study was 167 respondents comprised of eighty students and eighty-seven
teachers from five schools in Burewala city was drawn using table of random numbers. A
questionnaire which elicited basic information about teachers’ academic and professional
qualifications for teachers, and students results scores for 2004/2005 session were the instrument
for data collection. Arithmetic mean, percentage and matrix correlation were used to analyze the
data. It was found that the performance of students taught by untrained teachers with BA/B.Sc
qualifications was better than the students taught by trained teachers with professional
qualifications like B.Ed and M.Ed. On account of these findings, it was recommended that
professional qualification should not always be a basis of emphasis in the promotion and
appointment of teachers to position of principalship in secondary schools. This is so because
without professional qualification as revealed by the study students achieved better academic
results than their counterparts taught by teachers with professional qualifications. The study has
relationship with the present study since both examined the influence of professional
qualifications on performance. The study focused on the influence of professional qualification
of teachers on students’ achievement but the present study focused on the relationship between
professional qualification and principals’ performance.
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Another study on the relationship between years spent in education and productivity in
South-South, Nigeria was carried out by Ebong (2003). The purpose of the study is to find out
the relationship between years spent in education and workers productivity in both the private
and public education sector in South-south, Nigeria. The study adopted the corelational survey
design. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population of
comprised of all employees in the private and public education sector in South-South, Nigeria.
The sample of the study was 1000 employees randomly selected. The instruments for data
collection were questionnaire and oral interview. Mean, standard deviation and Pearson product
moment correlation were statistical tools for data analysis. The findings showed that individuals
with higher degrees achieved set goals because they understood the job description as experts.
People exposed to many years of professional training or education engaged in and enhance
productivity in their different responsibilities. They are punctual to work, execute duties, achieve
set goals and have alternative solutions in crisis situations. The study is related to the present
study since both examined the relationship between professional qualification and workers
productivity or performance but they differed in design, population, sample and sampling
technique.
Another study on the role of principals’ professional qualification on principals’
instructional leadership and effect on teachers’ job performance was carried out by Chika and
Ebeke (2007). The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between professional
qualification, principals’ instructional leadership and teachers’ job performance in government
owned Secondary Schools in Asaba metropolis of Delta State. The corelational survey design
was adopted for the study. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised of all principals and teachers in public secondary schools in
the state. A sample of twenty (20) principals and two hundred and forty (240) teachers were
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randomly selected from the population. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire
titled “instructional leadership Questionnaire of principals” (ILQP). The reliability coefficient of
0.84 was determined using cronbach alpha. The research questions were analyzed with mean
and standard deviation, while the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 significant level using the
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. The results indicated that principals with
professional qualifications such as N.C.E, B.Ed and M.Ed performed better in instructional
leadership than those without professional qualifications such as BA/B.Sc. Professional
qualifications also had significant relationship with principals’ instructional leadership. The
study revealed that the professional qualification of principals is the most important school-
related factor influencing their instructional leadeship. It was recommended that appointment of
teachers to principalship position should be based on professional qualification. The study
relates to the present study since both examined the relationship between professional
qualification and principals’ performance. However, they differed in terms of scope and
statistical tools for data analysis.
A study on professional development and administrative effectiveness of principals in
secondary schools in Ikwerre and Emuoha Local Government Areas of Rivers State was
conducted by Okendu (2009). The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of
professional qualification on administrative effectiveness of principals in secondary schools. The
study adopted a descriptive survey research. Three research questions and three null hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study was 52 principals of government owned
secondary schools, which comprised of 24 principals for both junior and senior secondary
schools in Ikwerre and 28 junior and senior secondary schools principals from Emuoha Local
Government Area. A sample of 42 principals from the population was drawn using random
sampling technique. A 25-item structured questionnaire was the instrument for collecting data.
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The respondents were required to react to statements on aspects of professional development,
instructional supervision, interpersonal relations with teachers and decision making. Frequency
and percentage were used to answer the research questions and Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant. The results
indicated that principals’ instructional development has a significant relationship with
supervision of instruction of teachers, and the schools organizational development has a
significant relationship the decision making of principals in the school, while personal
growth/development has no significant relationship with principals’ inter-personal relations with
the teachers. The study has relationship with the present study since both examined the
relationship between professional qualification and principals’ performance though not in the
same task areas. They differed in the, design, statistical tools used for data analysis of the
hypotheses. While the study used Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, the present
study used multiple regression and associated t-test.
Another study on principals’ personal variables as determinants of administrative
effectiveness and efficiency was conducted by Adenuga (2008). The purpose of the study was to
determine the combined and individual contributions of the personal variables of sex, age
teaching experience and qualification to the variance of principals’ administrative effectiveness
and efficiency in secondary schools in Ogun State, Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive
corelational survey design. Five research questions guided the study. The population of the
study comprised of all principals in government owned secondary schools in Ogun State. A
sample of 300 principals randomly selected from four divisions of the state was used for the
study. The Leaders Personal Variable Questionnaire (LPVQ) made up of 10-items that sought
the demographic information of the respondents and Personal Effectiveness Scale (PES)
consisting 50 items that sought information on the effectiveness and efficiency of personnel were
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used to collect data for the study. The instruments were duly validated and trial tested and
yielded reliability coefficients of 0.76 and 0.85 for (LPVQ and PES) respectively using
Cronbach Alpha method. The Multiple Regression and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were
used to analyze the data. Findings from the study revealed a low, positive correlation (R=0.20)
exists between the four predictor variables (age, gender, experience and qualification) and
principals’ administrative effectiveness. The regression analysis was not significant at 0.05 level
as shown by the ANOVA test (F=1.527, p>0.05). The R2 value of 0.04 showed that the 4
variables when combined accounted for only 4% of the variance observed in principal’s
effectiveness. Other factors not included in the study accounted for the other variance (96%).
Hence the four predictor variables jointly and insignificantly contributed 4% of the variance in
principal’s personal effectiveness. This result according to Adenuga might be as a result of the
fact that for anybody to be the head of a school, he/she must have been matured both in age and
in qualification coupled with his experience in life. The gender of the principal might not have a
well pronounced influence(s) on his achievement most especially in this contemporary world
when women have been known to achieve excellence in different field of callings. It was
recommended that principals’ personal variables of experience and qualification should be
considered in appointing teachers to position of authorities in schools. This study relates to the
present study since both are interested in demographic variables as predictors of principals’
administrative performance but differed in the area of the study and instruments used for data
gathering. In the present study, the relationship between these variables, other variables like
leadership styles and motivation and performance was examined.
Another study on the influence of experience on principals’ effectiveness in government
secondary schools in Abia State was conducted by Ibian (2005). The purpose of the study was to
investigate the influence of experience on principals’ administrative effectiveness in Abia State
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government Secondary schools. The study adopted a descriptive research design. Four research
questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised all
principals and teachers in government secondary schools in Abia State. A sample of 30
principals and 600 teachers (20 from each school) was drawn from the population. Data were
gathered with a questionnaire titled “Principals’ Job Evaluation Questionnaire” (PJEQ). The
reliability coefficient of the instrument determined using cronbach alpha was 0.89. The data
were analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Fishers Least Square difference
and independent t-test statistic. The results of the study indicated that experience has significant
influence on principals’ effectiveness. The study is related to the present study because both are
interested in how experience relates to different aspects of principals’ job. They differed in the
instrument used for data gathering. It is expected that since the study used different statistical
tools for data analysis, the results may differ from the findings of the present study.
A study on the relationship between principals’ demographic variables and the academic
achievement of secondary students in Rivers State was carried out by Okpalugo (2008). The
purpose of the study was to ascertain the relationship between principals’ demographic variables
and students’ achievement in secondary schools. The study adopted a corelational survey design.
Five research questions were posed and five hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 level
of significance. . The demographic variables adopted in the study are gender, age, experience,
qualification and marital status. The Senior School Certificate Examination SSCE results of
12,656 students in English, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry and Economics from 2002 – 2006
were used. A validated 45-item self-designed instrument titled Principals demographic variable
questionnaire (PDVQ) with reliability co-efficient of 0.72 was used to collect data. Data
collected were analyzed with the lamder correlation co-efficient and z-test. The findings of the
study revealed that there was a significant relationship between principals’ age, gender,
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experience, qualification, and marital status with student’s academic achievement. Specifically,
schools administered by married principals with higher qualifications had the best results. The
study relates to the present study in design, and since both are interested in demographic
variables and performance. However, the present study will examine other variables such as
leadership styles and motivation.
Another study on the effect of sex and marital/parental status on performance evaluations
and attributions was carried out by Michael and Russel (2003). The purpose of the study was to
determine the effect of sex and marital status on performance evaluation and attributions in order
to explore some of the issues and potential problems concerning women’s performance in their
employment. An ex post facto design was adopted for the study. Four research questions guided
the study. A population of 1785 students was used for the study. A sample of 320 male and
female undergraduates drawn from the population provided performance evaluation and
attributions for a poor–performing stimulus employee depicted as male or female and as single
or married. The cohort sampling technique was used to select the sample. The instrument for
data collection was a self-structured questionnaire titled – performance evaluation and attribution
questionnaire (PEAQ). A reliability coefficient of 0.63 using cronbach alpha was established.
Means and standard deviations were used to answer the research question. The findings showed
that married women were ascribed more favorable personality traits than single women. The
researchers interpreted their findings in terms of social values that individuals hold with respect
to employment and marital status. Being employed is positively evaluated because it is perceived
as a factor contributing to an individual’s sense of life satisfaction and positive mental health.
Likewise, Married women were viewed more favorably than singles because marriage is often
seen as a highly valued or desirable characteristic as well as a necessary state for an individual’s
development. Single women were perceived as having a pervasive negative stereotype. That is,
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they were perceived as irresponsible, immature, less adjusted, unstable and incomplete. This
study relates to the present study since both examined gender and marital status relative to
performance but differs in design, focus and tools for data analysis.
Studies Related to Leadership styles and performance
A study on leadership behaviour of secondary school principals in Ondo Local
Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria was carried out by Adeboyeje (1997). The purpose of the
study was to identify the dimensions of leadership behavior of secondary school principals in
relation to ideographic variables like age, gender, experience, educational qualification and type
of school. The study adopted the corelational survey design. Two research questions and three
hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study was 53 principals of government
secondary schools in Ondo LGA. A sample of 36 secondary schools principals was drawn from
the population using purposive sampling technique on a criterion basis of principals who have
served in their school for at least three years with five teachers from each school who have spent
not less than two years in their current school as respondents. A study adopted the 36-item
leader behaviour descriptive questionnaire form-twelve (LBDQ-12) developed by the Ohio State
University Personnel Research Board with twelve subscales as instrument for data collection.
The twelve subscales were representation, reconciliation, tolerance of uncertainty,
persuasiveness, initiation of structure, tolerance of freedom, role assumption, consideration,
production emphasis, predictive accuracy, integration, and superior orientation. The instrument
was not pretested by the researcher as previous studies in Nigeria had validated and established
the reliability of the instrument. Frequency and percentage were used to answer the research
questions while the hypotheses were answered using correlation coefficient. The results showed
a negative correlation co-efficient. The findings revealed that there were no significant
relationship between the dimensions of principals’ leadership behavior and gender, experience,
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school type and qualification; while age significantly related to the principals leadership role.
The findings of his study were not interesting and were attributed to the prevailing conditions of
service and on the way the teachers saw their principals’ behavior. Majority of the school
teachers were influenced by the prevailing unfavorable conditions of service in Ondo State
namely teachers’ salaries falling in arrears and lack of adequate school physical facilities, etc.
Under such demoralizing conditions of service, it is likely that a majority of the teachers saw
their principal as too business like or system oriented and not showing much interest in their
welfare and as such rated their principals’ leadership behavior the way they did. The study
relates to the present study in design, but differs in area, instruments for data collection and focus
as the study not relate leadership to performance, one of the purposes of the present study.
Another study on the influence of head teachers’ leadership styles on students
performance in public secondary schools in Taita District, Kenya was conducted by Truman
(2007). The purpose of the study was to investigate the Influence of head teachers' leadership
Styles on students performance in public secondary schools. The study was necessitated by the
poor performance of students in Kenya Council Schools Examinations over the years. The study
attempted to establish whether there was a relationship between leadership styles and
demographic variables such as gender, professional and academic qualifications, professional
experience, category of school, age and academic performance of students. The study adopted
ex-post facto research design. Five research questions were formulated to guide the study. The
population of the study comprised of all head teachers and teachers in the 20 primary schools in
Kenya City Council. A sample of 20 head teachers and 117 teachers was drawn from population
using random sampling technique. A 36-item researcher leadership style questionnaire was use
for data collection. The reliability coefficient for the instrument determined using cronbach alpha
was 0.68. The findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between head teachers'
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leadership styles and students' performance. The findings further revealed that autocratic
leadership led to high performance. It was also revealed that majority of teachers perceived their
head teachers as being democratic. There was no significant relationship between teachers'
gender, age, and academic qualification and their perception of their head teachers' leadership
styles. It was also found that there was no significant relationship between gender, age, academic
qualifications, teaching experience of head teachers and students academic performance.
Findings also revealed that there was no significant difference in head teachers' leadership styles
in various categories of schools. The study relates to the present since leadership styles of school
administrator were examined. However the differs from the present study as dependent variable
in the study was in the dimension of students achievement while in the present study it is
principals performance.
Another study on democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools:
implications for quality assurance in teacher preparation was carried out by Nwankwo, Loyce
and Obiorah (2011). The purpose of the study was to ascertain the processes of using democratic
leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools as well as determining how to improve
the quality of students and teachers to be able to handle disciplinary problems through
democratic leadership. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Two research questions
and two hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised 288 respondents
made up of 107 lecturers in faculty of education, Ebonyi State University and 181 lecturers from
Ebonyi State College of Education. The instrument for data collection was a researcher-
developed questionnaire structured into three sections. Section ‘A’ was on the background
information of the respondents; section ‘B’ elicited information on utilization of democratic
leadership style in handling disciplinary problems while section ‘C’ was on ways to improve the
quality of students-teachers through democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems.
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The instrument was validated by experts and the reliability coefficient obtained using Pearson
Product Moment Coefficient were 0.5 and 0.45 for sections B and C. Data were analyzed using
descriptive statistics like means, percentages for the research question while z-test was used to
answer the hypotheses. The results showed democratic leadership style as the most effective of
all other styles of leadership as the principals in handling disciplinary problems in schools. It was
also found that consultation with significant others and collaboration are among the processes of
using democratic leadership in handling disciplinary problems in schools. This study relates to
the present study since both examined leadership styles. However, they differed in focus, design
and statistical tools use in testing the hypotheses.
A study on the influence of principals’ leadership styles on teachers and students in
Nigerian secondary school was carried out in Delta State, Nigeria by Nakpodia (2010). The
purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of principals’ leadership styles on teachers
and students of Secondary Schools. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study.
Five research questions were posed and two hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of
significant level. The population of the comprised of all principals, teachers and students in
government owned secondary schools in Ndokwa East Local Government Area of in Delta State.
A sample of 368 respondents comprised of 12 principals, 130 teachers, and 226 students drawn
from the population using simple random sampling technique. Three types of questionnaire for
teachers, students and principals adapted from Ajayi’s leadership opinionnaire instrument were
used to collect relevant data. The instruments designated for the teacher were the Leadership
Style for Teachers (LSQT) of 30- items and Relationship Questionnaire Form for Teachers
(RQFT) of 24-items. The students’ questionnaire was Leadership Style for Students (LSQS) of
12-items, and Relationship Questionnaire Form for Students (RQFS) of 30-items, and
Relationship Questionnaire Form for principals (RQFP) of 20-items. The teachers and students
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were requested to rate the leadership styles of the principals in terms of the statements contained
in the questionnaire. The independent t-test was used to analyze the data. The result of the study
showed that the dominant leadership style indentified by both teachers and students was the
democratic-idiographic leadership style; the prevalent principal-staff and principal-student
relationship indentified by both the teachers and the students was formal relationship; there was
no significant difference between leadership style of experienced and less experienced
principals. There was a significant difference between leadership styles of principals with
degrees and professional educational qualifications and those without degrees and professional
educational qualification. The autocratic-self leadership style of the principal can also lead to
cordial principal-staff and principal-student relationship. The study relates to the present study
since both examined leaderships styles of principals. However, the study did not examine
performance which is the dependent variable in the present study.
Another study on the correlation of the perceived leadership style of middle school
principals to teacher job satisfaction and efficacy was carried out in East Tennessee by Jack
(2012). The study was carried out on the presumption that middle school principals could
possibly impact on teachers’ effectiveness in the classroom through the relationship of the
teacher- perceived leadership style of the principal to teacher job satisfaction and efficacy. The
study adopted a bivariate corelational design. Two research questions and five hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study was 860 public middle school teachers in East
Tennessee school district. The sample consisted of 142 certified teachers from 8 public middle
selected from the population using a simple random sampling technique. Two instruments were
used for data collection. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) of 45-items
measured the transformational, transactional or passive avoidant leadership style of the principal
as perceived by the teachers, while the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) was used to measure the
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level of job satisfaction experienced by each teacher responding. The reliability coefficient for
(MLQ) and (JSS) are 0.70 and 0.91 respectively. Means and Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient were used to analyzed the data. Findings from this study suggest that the
middle school teachers’ perceptions of their principal’s leadership did not have a statistically
significant relationship to teacher job satisfaction. It was further revealed that the middle school
teachers’ perceptions of their principal’s leadership style had a statistically significant
relationship to teacher efficacy. Based on the findings, it was recommended that leadership style
training be organized for principals desiring to indirectly influence academic achievement by
influencing teacher job satisfaction and efficacy within their schools. A new insight from the
study suggests that principals should find ways to lead beyond teacher perceptions to address the
needs of teachers in order to promote and encourage higher levels of teacher job satisfaction.
The relationship of this study with the present study is that both examined leadership styles of
the principal. They differ in the scope, focus, and area of the study.
A study on the influence of principals’ leadership styles on secondary school teachers’
job satisfaction was carried out by Omeke and Onah (2012). The purpose of the study was to
examine the influence of principals’ leadership styles on secondary school teachers’ job
satisfaction in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State, Nigeria. The design of the study was a
descriptive survey design. Three research questions were posed and one null hypothesis was
formulated and tested. The population of the study comprised of all teachers in the twenty- eight
government owned secondary schools in Nsukka Education Zone. Using a stratified random
sampling technique, a total of 280 teachers (10 per school) was drawn from the population. The
instrument for data collection was a four-point type questionnaire of 30-items with a reliability
coefficient of 0.54. Data collected were analyzed using mean and standard deviation while t-test
was used to test the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results revealed that there
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was significant difference in the mean rating of the leadership style of the principals on the job
satisfaction of male and female teachers. It was also revealed that principals adopted three
leadership styles in their administration namely; autocratic, laissez faire and democratic
according to their dominance. Teachers irrespective of gender agreed that only democratic
leadership enhances their job satisfaction. The study relates to the present study since both
examined leaderships styles of principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the
study differs in focus, design and sampling technique with the present study.
A study on principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job performance in senior
secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria was carried out by Adeyemi (2010). The purpose of
the study was to investigate the influence principals’ leadership styles and teachers’ job
performance in senior secondary schools. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Four
research questions were posed and four hypotheses formulated and tested in the study. The
population of the study was 7460 teachers and principals of all 281 government owned
secondary schools in Ondo State. A sample of 2040 respondents from the population comprised
of 240 principals and 1800 teachers was drawn through a stratified random sampling technique.
The instruments for data collection were the Principals’ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLSQ),
and the Teachers’ Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ), with reliability coefficients of 0.72
and 0.67 respectively. The data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages,
correlation matrix and the t-test. It was found that the democratic leadership style was the
commonly used leadership style among principals of senior secondary schools in the state.
Teachers’ job performance was also found to be at a moderate level in schools having principals
with democratic leadership tendencies such as open communication, shared decision-making,
delegation of duties, support and trust, working with teams, empathy, focus on improved human
relations, and teaching and learning. Teachers’ job performance was found to be better in
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schools having principals using autocratic leadership style than schools using laissez-faire and
democratic leadership styles. It was recommended that school principals should imbibe a mixture
of autocratic and democratic styles of leadership in their school administration in order to
enhance better job performance among teachers. The use of laissez-faire style should be
discouraged among school principals as it could not bring a better job performance among
teachers. The study relates to the present study since both examined leaderships styles of
principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the study differs in focus and
sampling technique with the present study.
Another study on the influence of principals’ leadership style and organizational climate
on teachers’ morale in secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria was conducted by Ebuka
(2009). The study adopted the expost facto design. Six research questions and four hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study was 367 principals and 11, 402 teachers in 367
public secondary schools in Delta State. A sample of 72 principals and 2,506 teachers was
drawn from the population using simple random sampling technique. The instruments for data
collection were multifactor leadership questionnaire (MFLQ) with 26-items; organizational
climates description questionnaire (OCDQ) with 25-items; and Purdue Teachers Opinionnaire
(PTO) with 32-items. The reliability coefficients of these instruments determined using
crombach alpha were 0.84, 0.83, and 0.88 respectively. Data collected were analyzed using
percentages, means, standard deviations, and stepwise multiple regression. It was found out that
leadership styles of principal, gender, and organizational climate jointly influenced teachers’
morale in secondary schools; while organizational climate and gender had no significant
influence on teachers’ morale. The study relates to the present study since both examined
leaderships styles of principals and used similar tools in data analysis. However, the study differs
in focus, design and sampling technique with the present study.
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Another study on principals’ leadership strategies and the attainment of educational
objectives in Public Secondary Schools in Akwa-Ibom State was conducted by Okorie (2010).
The purpose of the study was to examine leadership strategies adopted by the principal in the
attainment of educational objectives in public secondary schools. The study adopted the
descriptive research design. Five research questions and five hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised of all teachers in the 234 public secondary schools in public
secondary schools in Akwa-Ibom State. A sample of 350 teachers purposively sampled from the
population was used for the study. The principals’ leadership strategies Questionnaire (PLSQ)
with a reliability coefficient of 0.78 was used to gather data for the study. Means and standard
deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses
at 0.05 level of probability. The results showed principals’ motivational strategies ranking
highest among others leadership strategies adopted in the attainment of school goals. The
findings identified verbal commendation of teachers, presentation of gift items, provision of
residential quarters to staff, and delegation of duties to teachers as motivational strategies which
enhanced principals’ effectiveness in the attainment of educational objectives in Public
Secondary Schools. The study also revealed a strong correlation between principal’s supervision
strategies and attainment of educational goals. Students who are taught under the strict
supervision of the principal have better achievement and self improvement in the society thus
leading to a generation of responsible adults in the society. This study relates to the present study
since both examined the leadership styles as they relate to principals’ performance but differed in
the research design and statistical tools for data analysis.
Another study on leadership styles of principals and job performance of staff in
secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria was carried out by Duze, (2012). The purpose of the
study was to examine the leadership styles of principals and the effect on job performance of
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teachers and supportive staff in senior secondary schools. The study design was descriptive
survey. Three research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. The study population
comprised all principals, teachers, and support staff in 358 senior secondary schools in Delta
State. A sample of 1777 respondents comprised of 120 principals, 1,254 teachers, and 403
supportive staff from 120 schools was selected through the simple random sampling technique.
The instruments for data collection were the Principals‟ Leadership Style Questionnaire (PLSQ),
Teachers‟ Job Performance Questionnaire (TJPQ) and Supportive Staff Job Performance
Questionnaire (SSJPQ). Each was in two parts – A and B. Part A elicited demographic
information such as the name of the school, location, year of establishment, number of teachers,
and number of students, number of years spent in the school, rank of the staff/principal, years of
experience, and qualification. Part B of PLSQ had three sections which elicited information on
types of leadership, effective utilization, and performance of supportive staff. Part B of PLSQ
in addition to requesting information on what leadership style was being used by the principal in
the school and how effective a school principal was in utilizing the adopted leadership style in
the school also elicited information on teachers’ competencies. Part B of SSJPQ, besides
eliciting information on what leadership style was being used by the principal in the school and
how effective principals utilize such adopted leadership style in the school also elicited
information on principals’ regularity and functionality in school affairs. Reliability coefficient of
0.87, 0,89, and 0.83 were obtained for PLSQ, TJPQ, and SSJPQ respectively using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation from data collected on two set of test.
Frequency counts, percentages were used to analyze the research questions, while one-
way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression statistics were used to test the null
hypotheses at the 0.05 alpha level. The results showed that there was a significant relationship
between principals‟ leadership styles and the job performance of teachers and support staff in
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secondary schools in Delta State, Nigeria. It was also revealed that a significant relationship
exists between democratic leadership style and staff job performance, and that the democratic
leadership style was up ahead of laissez-faire, and laissez-faire ahead of autocratic as having a
more significant positive relationship with staff job performance. On account of these findings, it
was recommended that principals of secondary schools should adopt the democratic leadership
style in their school administration in order to enhance job performance among teachers and
supportive staff which will in turn boost the desired productivity of students and staff. The use of
the autocratic leadership style by secondary school principals should be discouraged since it
resulted in the lowest level of job performance for all staff in the study. This study relates to the
present study since both examined leadership styles, but differed in the focus, design and
instruments for data collection.
A study on the relationship between leadership styles of principals and organizational
climate of secondary Schools in Anambra State, Nigeria was conducted by Nwaeze (2003). The
purpose of the study was to examine the on the relationship between leadership styles of the
principals and organizational climate of secondary schools. The design of the study was
corelational survey. Four research questions and four hypotheses guided the study. The
population of the study comprised of all principals and teachers in public secondary schools in
Anambra State. The sample of the study was 110 principals and 1660 teachers drawn from the
population in the five education zone of Anambra State. The sample was selected using the
stratified proportionate sampling technique. The instruments for data collection were
Organizational Climate Questionnaire (OCQ), and Principals leadership styles questionnaire
(PLSQ) of 25-items with five subscales in which the respondents (teachers) were expected to
indicate how their principals exhibited the listed behaviours relative to democratic, autocratic,
laissez-faire, initiating structure and consideration. The overall reliability coefficient of 0.87 and
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0.65 respectively was established for the instruments using cronbach alpha method. Descriptive
statistics such as percentages, means, standard deviation, were used to answer the research
questions. The hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient.
The results revealed that the various leadership styles have significant relationship with
organizational climate. The findings also showed that the democratic style of leadership
correlated significantly with production emphasis, thrust and intimacy consideration, in all five
zones. The overall evidence in the study suggested that democratic leadership style behaviour
and initiating structure have positive correlation with organizational climate. The relationship of
this study with the present study is that both examined leadership styles of the principal but
differed in focus. The study focused on organizational climate while the present study focused on
performance.
Another study on the attributes of principals’ leadership styles and capacities in
secondary schools was carried out in Malaysia by Shaman (2006). The purpose of the study was
to examine the relationship of teacher’s perception of the leadership style and capacities of their
principals to the leadership qualities of empathy, decision making, time management, conflict
resolution and comfort. A descriptive research design was adopted for the study. Three research
questions and three hypotheses guided the study. The population of the study comprised of all
798 principals and teachers. A sample of three hundred school (300) teachers as respondents
was drawn from the population using stratified random sampling technique. A Self- developed
questionnaire on leadership style and capacities with a reliability index of 0.76 was used to
collect data. The findings showed that the principals were perceived to exhibit both democratic
and autocratic leadership styles with Moderate leadership capacities and qualities. However,
there was a strong positive correlation between perception of teachers on leadership style and
capacities and qualities of principals. The relationship of this study with the present study is that
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both examined leadership styles of the principal relative to performance. The results of the
present study could vary since they differ in scope, design and area of the study. The present
study will examine other variables such as demographic factors and motivation.
Studies Related to Motivation and Performance
A study on motivational factors as correlate of Librarians’ job satisfaction in Nigerian
University Libraries was conducted by Ekere (2010). The purpose of the study was to determine
the relationship between motivational factors and Librarians job satisfaction in University
libraries in Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Seven research questions
were posed and five hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The
population of the study was 685 librarians comprised of 456 librarians from 25 Federal
Universities and 229 librarians from 26 state Universities. A sample of 453 respondents
representing 80% of the population was drawn using random sampling technique. The
instrument for data collection was the Librarians Motivational Factors Questionnaire. It was
adapted from the Minnestota Satisfaction Questionnaire (1977) to reflect local conditions and job
peculiarity of Librarians in Nigeria, The instrument was divided into three sections Section ‘A’
sought background information of the subjects with respect to gender, age, and years of working
experience. Section ‘B’ contains items designed to find the level of motivation, and section ‘C’
was on how satisfied the subjects are with the various job variables under study. The reliability
coefficient determined using Spearman Brown formula was 0.99 for section B, and 0.98 for
section C. Simple percentage, means, Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient, Analysis
of Variance, and t-test were used to analyze the data. The findings showed that all the factors,
namely, work itself, achievement, recognition, responsibility and advancement were perceived
by the librarians as motivational factors. The results also revealed that age and years of working
experience had significant influence on Librarians’ job satisfaction. Gender had no significant
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influence on Librarians’ job satisfaction in university libraries in Nigeria. It was recommended
that the identified motivators (job satisfiers) should be re-directed by university Library
management to effectively impact on the lives of Librarians. The study has relationship with the
present study since both examined motivational factors, and used similar statistical tools for data
analysis. But differs in design, sampling technique, and focus, while this study was on job
satisfaction, the present study was on performance.
Another study on Motivational factors and principals’ job performance in secondary
education in Ondo State was carried out by Kolawole and Fashina, (2009). The purpose of the
study was to examine the influence of motivational factors as catalyst in propelling, encouraging
and stimulating principals as character moulders of students who are Nigerian future leaders. The
study adopted a descriptive research design. Five research questions and five hypotheses were
posed to guide the study. All 150 principals of government owned secondary schools in Ondo
West education zone comprised the population of the study. A sample of 110 principals was
drawn from the population using convenience sampling technique. A research instrument titled
‘Motivational Factors and Principals Job performance in secondary schools was designed to
measure the level of motivation in the area of job itself, promotion, prospects, recognition for
achievement, supervisory styles, wages and salary, interpersonal relation with co-workers,
quality of work done and knowledge of the job. The reliability coefficient of the instrument
obtained using split-half method was 0.93. The data were analyzed using a two-way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of probability, and pair wise comparison
done by a Scheffe Post Hoc Test. The results showed that the motivational variables were found
to impact significantly on job performance of principals of secondary schools. The study relates
with the present study since both examined motivational factors on principals’ performance in
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public secondary schools. They differed in design of the study, specific motivational items,
instruments for data collection and statistical tools for data analysis.
A study on Teachers motivation and job satisfaction in schools of Nursing in South-East
Zone of Nigeria was conducted by Ejike (2011). The purpose of the study was to examine the
relationship between teacher motivation and job satisfaction in schools of Nursing in South-East
Zone of Nigeria. The study adopted the expost facto design. Eight research questions were
posed and six hypotheses formulated and tested at 0.05 level of probability. The population of
the study was 158 teachers in Schools of nursing in South-East zone of Nigeria. The sample was
the 158 teachers and no sampling technique was involved as the population was a manageable
size. Two instruments were used for data collection namely Teachers motivational pattern
questionnaire (TMPQ) which sought question items on performance orientation, mastery
orientation, and avoidance orientation; Teachers job satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ). The
reliability coefficients of the instruments determined using crombach alpha were 0.93, 0.83 and
0.91 for TMPQ clusters; and 0.93 for TJSQ. Data were analyzed using means, standard deviation
and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). It was revealed that teachers in schools of nursing in
South-East, Nigeria have different motivational patterns; motivational patterns of teachers in
schools of nursing significantly relate with job satisfaction; while gender, educational
qualification, years of working experience had no significant relationship with patterns of
motivation and job satisfaction. This study relates to the present one since both examined
motivational factors on employee performance. However, this study differs from the present
study in sample and instrument for data collection and respondents.
A study on staff motivation as a tool for effective secondary school administration in
Aguata Education Zone of Anambra State, Nigeria was conducted by Oragui (2011). The study
was carried out on the presumption that teachers in secondary schools no longer manifest
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expected desirable attitudes, behaviour and competencies and that poor motivation has
contributed to these poor work attitudes. The purpose of the study was to examine staff
motivation as a tool for effective secondary school administration. The study adopted the
descriptive survey design. Two research questions and two null hypotheses guided the study.
The population of the study comprised of all 791 teachers in Aguata Education Zone of Anambra
State. A sample of 400 teachers was drawn from the population using simple random sampling
technique. A Staff Motivational Questionnaire (SMQ) of 24-items was use for data collection. It
had two sections A and B. Section A is for personal data of respondents, while section B with
two clusters 1 and 2 which contains question items that sought information on innovative
motivational strategies and motivational measures for staff respectively. A reliability coefficient
of 0.86 and 0.91 for cluster 1 and 2 was determined using Cronbach Alpha from data collected in
a trial test. Data were analyzed using means, standard deviation and t-test. The findings
revealed that rural and urban teachers in secondary schools were aware of the strategies that
would enhance the motivation of teachers towards better performance. These strategies include
regular payment of salaries, opportunity for advancement in the teaching profession etc.
Measures indicated for enhancement of staff motivation were communication between staff and
schools administrators, good working environment, recognition of staff for the work they do, and
paying staff salaries on regular basis. The study is related to the present study since it
investigated the impact of motivation on employee performance. However, the results may vary
since they differ in design, scope, and area of the study.
Another study on the influence of motivation on job satisfaction of secondary school
teachers in Lokoja education zone of Kogi State was carried out by Okolo, Haruna and Oguche,
(2013). The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of motivation on job
satisfaction of teachers. The study adopted ex-post facto research design. Four research
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questions and two null hypotheses guided the study. From a population of 849 teachers, a sample
of 400 teachers (200 males and 200 females) was selected through purposive sampling
technique. The instrument used for data collection was a 20-item questionnaire. Mean and
standard deviation were used in answering the four research questions while t-test statistic was
used in testing the two null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed,
among others, that teachers need both intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors to attain job
satisfaction. There is no significant difference between the mean response of male and female
secondary school teachers on the extent to which motivation influences teachers’ job satisfaction.
The study relates with the present study since both examined motivational factors of employees
in public secondary schools. They differed in sampling technique, specific motivational items,
instrument for data collection, statistical tools for data analysis and area of study.
A study on influence of motivation on students’ academic performance in Essan West
Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria was conducted by Oriahi, (2009). The purpose of
the study was to investigate the influence of motivation on students’ academic performance. The
study employed the descriptive survey design. Four research questions and four hypotheses
guided the study. The population of the study comprised of 4,460 made up of all senior and
junior secondary school students, teachers, principals from 169 public secondary schools in
Essan West Local Government Area of Edo State. A sample of 720 respondents was drawn from
the population using random sampling technique. The Secondary School Students Questionnaire
(SSSQ), the Secondary School Teachers Questionnaire (SST), and interview conducted on target
group of educationist, psychologists, parents, and other public figures were the instruments for
data collection. The reliability coefficient based on split-half method was 0.76. Simple
percentage was used to answer the research questions while t-statistic was used to test the
hypothesis at 0.05 level of significant. The findings showed that motivation significantly
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influenced students’ academic performance. It was also revealed that teachers, principals, school
organizations, parents, and home environment have great role to play in the motivation of
students for an improved performance. The study relates with the present study since both
examined motivational factors in public secondary schools. They differed in focus, sampling
technique, specific motivational items, instrument for data collection, and statistical tools for
data analysis.
Summary of Literature Review
The literature review for this study focused on three sub-heading: Conceptual
framework, theoretical framework, and review of empirical studies. Secondary education is a
six-year form of education which children receive after primary school education and before
tertiary education. It is aimed at preparing individuals for useful living within the society and
preparation for higher education. Secondary education serves as a link between primary and
tertiary level education. The Principal is the administrative head who is accountable to the
Schools Management Board of the ministry of education and is responsible for the management
of secondary schools. The effective performance of the duties in the task areas of management
largely determines the growth and development of secondary schools in Nigeria.
Principals’ performance referred to how well or frequently they execute their
responsibilities in areas such as instructional supervision, communication, decision-making,
provision of incentive to teachers and students, financial management, plant management,
human resource development, public relations, conflict management/resolution, and adherence to
statutory rules.
In Nigeria demographic factors such as age, qualification, gender and experience have
been considered in appointing teachers to principalship position with the belief that individual
difference based on these factors would influence performance. It has also been observed that
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personality factors such as principals leadership styles and motivation may influence principals
in the management of secondary schools. The conceptual framework of the study is premised on
the assumption that demographic and personality variables relate with principals performance in
the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
The Situational theory states that certain forces in the administrator, subordinates and
the situation determines an administrators choice of a particular leadership style. Hence
principals’ performance could vary depending on the task since no leadership style will suit all
situations. Therefore, this theory becomes relevant to the study for it provided the basis to
determine among others the relationship between principals’ leadership styles and performance
in the different task areas of management of secondary schools. On the other hand, the
Contingency theory proposes that the performance of a leader is dependent on the interaction of
leadership styles and factors like leader-member relations, the task structure and leaders position
power. Accordingly, good leader-member relations, simplified task structure and high position
power give rise to high effectiveness of principals in secondary school management. However,
given the low position power of principals in Nigerian secondary schools, the effect of the
interaction of leadership style and other factors on performance in different task areas is not
known. This theory becomes relevant to the present study by providing the basis to determine
how the factors of leader-member relation, task-structure and the low position power of
principals relative to their leadership styles affect performance in different task areas.
The human relations theory proposes that performance of workers in pursuit of
organizational goals can be enhanced when they are treated humanely by giving recognizance to
their personal values and encouraging their sense of achievement. This theory apart from being
accepted as the basis of democratic management and supportive of collaborative decision-
making, also recognizes the role of motivators in performance. The relevance of this theory to
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the present study is that it provides the basis to examine the relationship between leadership
styles, motivational factors and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of
secondary schools.
The behavioural science theory, on the other hand, proposes that effectiveness in
performance is achieved through an understanding of the worker, the job and the working
environment. This three-dimensional approach to enhancing performance in school management
can only strive when principals use the knowledge and experience obtained from their training in
different subjects like philosophy, sociology and psychology to give optimal attention to human
welfare, educational objectives and provision of enviable working environment for a more
effective performance of their duties. This theory provides the basis for examining the
relationship between principals’ qualifications, experience, age, gender, marital status and
performance in the management of secondary schools.
Herzberg’s two-factor theory proposes that certain factors called motivators activate
individuals to job satisfaction and subsequent higher performance. They include: the nature of
the work, recognition, responsibility, achievement, and advancement. Principals are motivated
to higher performance by due recognition of their achievement, making their job challenging,
and providing opportunities for advancement in their job. This theory provides the basis to
validate the capacity of the motivators to cause job satisfaction and subsequent higher
performance. The study, is therefore anchored on these theories.
The review of empirical studies revealed that although studies have been done relating
demographic and personality variables to performance in the achievement of educational goals in
secondary schools, no study to the knowledge of the researcher related these variables to
principals’ performance in the critical task areas of management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria. The literature reviewed brought to the fore the presumed connection between
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demographic and personality variables and performance which is limited by empirical evidence.
The present study, therefore, is an attempt to determine the relationship between demographic
and personality variables and principals performance in the task areas of management of
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter presents the general procedure used in the study. This includes the design
of the study, area of the study, population of the study, sample and sampling technique,
instruments for data collection, validation of the instruments, reliability of the instruments,
method of data collection, and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The design of the study was correlational survey. The correlational survey design
according to Howell (2007), examines the degree, patterns and strength of relationship between
two or more variables being studied rather than explore causal relationship between them. Thus,
the correlational design provides clues for the proper understanding of patterns of relationships
among variables in the study. Therefore, the correlational survey design becomes imperative
since this study is a multivariate analysis of the relationship among demographic and personality
variables and principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-
South, Nigeria.
Area of the Study
This study was carried out in the South-South zone of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. It
was limited to all government owned Secondary Schools in the six states which make up South-
South, Nigeria, namely Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross Rivers, Delta, Edo and Rivers States. Each
of these states have three senatorial zones which give a total of eighteen senatorial zones in
South-South, Nigeria. They incclude Akwa Ibom North-East, Akwa Ibom North-West, and
Akwa Ibom South for Akwa Ibom State; Bayelsa East, Bayelsa Central, and Bayelsa West for
Bayelsa State; Cross River North, Cross River Central, and Cross River South for Cross River
State; Delta Central, Delta North, and Delta South for Delta State; Edo Central, Edo North, and
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Edo South for Edo State; and Rivers East, Rivers South East, and Rivers West for Rivers State.
The zone is located in the south of the southern part of Nigeria. It lies between longitude 4˚ N
and 8˚ N and Latitude 4˚ E and 10˚ E. It is generally a lowland area of about 0-30m above sea
level for Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and Edo states; and a lowland of about 20-50m for Akwa-Ibom
and Cross River states. South-South zone is bounded by Bight of Bonny (Atlantic Ocean) and
Gulf of Guinea in the South, Lagos state in the South-West, Ondo state in the North West and
shares a boundary with Kogi and Benue in the North. In the Eastern part, it is bounded by Imo,
Abia, Ebonyi and Cameroon.
The South-South region of Nigeria according to Tekena (2011) provides the economic
mainstay of the economy – oil. In addition to oil and gas, the region has key resources like
timber, palm trees, raffia, limestone, quartzite, silica, lignite, tar sand, silver nitrate, Barite, glass
sand, and gravel which are of utmost importance to the industrial sector for investment
opportunities in tourism and agriculture. The occupation of the people is predominantly farming,
fishing, carving, lumbering, weaving, hunting and trading.
The major ethnic groups in South-South Nigeria are: Annang, Oron, and Ibibio in Akwa-
Ibom; Ijaw, Nembe Ogbia, Epie-Atisa in Bayelsa State; Ehagham, Ogoja, and Efik in Cross
River State; Itsekiri, Isoko, Ukwuani, and Urhorobo in Delta State; Esan and Bini in Edo State;
Kalabari, ogoni, and Ikwerre in Rivers State. There are about 250 dialects spoken by these
ethnic groups.
The effects of many decades of the exploitation and exploration of oil in the fragile Niger
Delta communities of South-South Nigeria have been enormous. Local indigenous people have
seen little improvement in their standard of living while suffering serious damage in the natural
environment. Since then, local indigenous communities agitation against commercial oil
refineries and pipeline companies in the region have increased in frequency and militancy.
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The secondary schools in the area have similarities and differences in terms of education
programmes, social amenities, infrastructural development and school management hence the
choice of the area for the study
Population of the Study
The population of this study is 1,356 principals of government owned secondary schools
in South-South, Nigeria. This population is made up of 234 for Akwa-Ibom State, 148 for
Bayelsa State, 248 for Cross River State, 244 for Delta State, 237 for Edo State, and 245 for
Rivers State. The total number of teachers in the public schools 29,820. This number consisted
of 5,489 for Akwa-Ibom State, 2,893 for Bayelsa State, 5,430 for Cross River State, 5,388 for
Delta State, 4,081 for Edo State, and 6,539 for Rivers State. The population of principals and
teachers was obtained from the ministries of education of the six states of South-South, Nigeria.
The summary is attached as Appendix A on page 278 (Ministry of Education, South-South States
of Nigeria, 2012).
Sample and Sampling Technique
A sample of 310 principals of government owned Secondary Schools in South-South,
Nigeria was used for this study. This sample size was determined using the Taro Yamen’s
formular shown in Appendix B on page 279. The Taro Yemen formular was used to ensure that a
manageable sample was obtained from the population. A proportionate stratified random
sampling technique was used to select the number of principals for each state. This was done by
dividing the population of principals in each state by the total population of principals in South-
South Nigeria then multiplying the result by the sample size obtained using the Taro Yamen’s
formular. To ensure fair representation, a disproportionate stratified random sampling technique
was used to select equal number of principals for each senatorial zone of each of the six states.
This was done by dividing the number of schools per state by three since there are three
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senatorial zones in each state. Then the disproportionate stratified random sampling technique
was used to select six teachers three each of male and female as respondents to provide
information about the principals in each school. This gave a total of 1,860 teachers for all the 18
senatorial zones in South-South, Nigeria. The list of the sampled schools per senatorial zone
obtained from the Ministry of Education of their respective states is attached as Appendix C on
pages 281-286.
Instruments for data Collection
The research instruments used for data collection were the Principals’ Motivational
Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ), Principals’ Leadership Styles Questionnaire (PLSQ), Principals’
Performance Scale (PPS), and Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS). These are attached as
Appendices E, F, G, & H respectively on pages 288 to 296.
The Principals’ Motivational Factors Questionnaire (PMFQ) had two sections A & B (see
Appendix E on p.288-290). Section A seeks to elicit the demographic data of the principals.
This included information on age, gender, years of working experience, professional
qualifications and marital status of the principals. Section B consisted of the Principals’
Motivational Factors. It was adapted from the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
which was developed in 1977 at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States of
America in order to reflect local condition peculiar to principalship in Nigeria. The Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire had three sections A, B, and C for personal information of
respondents, motivational items, and job satisfaction variables respectively. Principals’
Motivational Factors Questionnaire incorporated only sections A and B of the original
instrument to suit the study. Principals’ motivational factors consisted of the following clusters:
Nature of work itself which relates to the ability to stay busy on the job; recognition which
relates to commendations from work done; responsibility which relates to freedom of exercising
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job roles; achievement which relates to feeling of accomplishments; and advancement which
relates to opportunities for growth and personal development. It was a 27-item instrument with a
4-point rating scale attached where respondents were requested to check the applicable responses
categorized into Strongly Agree (SA); Agree (A); Disagree (D); and Strongly Disagree (SD).
The principals responded to the questionnaire.
The Principals’ Leadership Styles Questionnaire (PLSQ) had two sections A and B (see
Appendix F on p.291-292). Section A seek for personal information of the respondents, while
section B seek responses on Principals leadership styles. The items are based on openness,
concerns for teachers, students and the schools. The 15-item instrument was developed by the
researcher and has 4-point rating scale categorized into Strongly Agree (SA); Agree (A);
Disagree (D); and Strongly Disagree (SD). Teachers who responded to the questionnaire were
required to indicate the extent of agreement on their principals’ demonstration of the listed
behaviours.
The Principals’ Performance Scale (PPS) was a 45-item scale on measures of principals’
performance in the management of secondary schools (see Appendix G on p.293-295). It was
used by teachers to rate the principals on nine managerial clusters of items arranged in relation to
the administrative task areas of principals to elicit the required information on their performance.
These clusters include: instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of
incentives to teachers and students, human resources development, public relations, financial
management, adherence to statutory provisions, and conflict management and resolution. It was
an adapted form of the Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale (PIMRS) developed by
Dr. Philip Hallinger in 1984 at Stanford University, United State of America. It was designed
to provide a profile of principals’ performance in specific job practices
and behaviours. It has 10 clusters and 50 items. It used a 5-point type of rating scale of
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Almost Always, Frequently, Sometimes, Seldom, and Almost Never. Instead of the 5-point
scale, Principals’ Performance Scale had a 4-point rating scale of Very Frequently; Frequently;
Occasionally; and Never. The response pattern was modified to give a clearer of meaning for
performance as how frequently principals carry out their duties in the task areas. Besides, the 5-
point scale was reduced to 4-point scale as (Sometimes and Seldom) in the original
instrument were considered to mean occasionally as used in principals performance scale. The
tenth cluster in the original instrument (framing the school goals) was expunged since it was not
a task area of the principals in the study area but of the federal government. Some items were
recast to make Principals’ Performance Scale more meaningful to the raters, and relevant to
principalship in Nigeria. For instance, the cluster (supervise and evaluate instruction) was recast
and used as instructional supervision. Item 13 in the original instrument which reads (conduct
informal observations in classroom on a regular basis) was recast as-conducts unscheduled
informal visits to classrooms, and used as item 3 in principals performance scale. Item 14 in the
original instrument that reads (point out specific strengths in teacher’s instructional practices in
post-observation feedback in conference or written evaluations) was recast as-points out specific
strengths and weaknesses in teachers instructional practices, and used as item 4 in principals
performance scale. Also, item 7 in the original instrument which reads (discuss the school’s
academic goals with teachers at faculty meetings) was recast as- discusses the school’s goals and
mission with teachers at meetings, and used as item 6 in principals performance scale. Item 36 in
the original instrument which reads (Reinforce superior performance in staff meeting,
newsletters, and/or memos) was recast as-rewards teachers who perform well, and used as item
16 in principals performance scale. Item 40 in the original instrument which reads (create
professional growth opportunities for teachers) was recast as- encourages teachers to attend
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available professional development programmes like seminars or workshops, and used as item
23 in principals performance scale.
The Plant Observation Rating Scale (PORS) was a researcher developed instrument (see
Appendix H on p.296-300). It had 12 clusters of items of school plant and the raters were
expected to indicate the availability or non-availability of the items, and the adequacy of the
facilities using the following scale: Very High, High, Low, Very Low, and not-available. The
adequacy of facilities is relative to their functionality at the time of observation. A bench mark
that guided the raters to avoid biases and variance in their observation was also developed and
attached as part of the Plant Observation rating Scale. The bench mark give conditions for
classifying plants items as Very High, High, Low, and Very Low as used in the plant observation
scale. For instance using ventilation as criteria, classrooms are rated Very High or High if there
is cross ventilation, otherwise, classrooms are rated Low or Very Low. Plant items like fans and
air conditioners for providing ventilation in classrooms are rated Very or High if they
functional. Otherwise, they are rated Low of very low. Furthermore, classrooms, offices,
libraries, and workshops are rated Very High or High if they are painted, neat and properly
arranged. These items are rated Low or Very Low when they are not painted, dirty and poorly
arranged.
Validation of the Instruments
To ascertain the validity of the instruments, the initial drafts were given to three experts,
two from the department of Educational Administration and Planning, and the other from
Measurement and Evaluation all from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. The experts were
requested to review and critique the various items on the instruments in terms of relevance,
clarity, and appropriateness of language and response patterns as they relate to the study. Their
criticisms, suggestions and modifications were incorporated into the relevant items to give the
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instruments their present structure and content. The suggestions made on the validated
instruments were attached as Appendix I on page 301.
Reliability of the Instruments
To determine the reliability of the instruments, the Principal Motivational Factors
Questionnaire, Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, Principals Performance Scale, and
Plant Observation Rating Scale were trial-tested in 14 government owned secondary schools in
Igbo-Eze South and Nsukka Local Government Areas of Enugu State, South-East, Nigeria.
Fourteen (14) principals responded to the Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire while
forty-two (42) teachers rated the principals, three teachers for each principal using the Principals
Leadership Styles Questionnaire and Principals Performance Scale. Two raters used the Plant
Observation Rating Scale to rate the plant items in the 14 schools. The list of schools used for
trial-testing of the instruments was attached as Appendix J in page 302. Data collected using
these instruments during the trial test were analyzed using Cronbach Alpha method to determine
the internal consistency reliability. This method was considered appropriate because the items in
the instruments were not dichotomously scored. The internal consistency coefficient obtained
for Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire are 0.88 for work-itself, 0.89 for recognition,
0.94 for responsibility, 0.89 for achievement; and 0.91 for advancement with 0.97 as the overall
(see Appendix K on page 303 to 319). Principal’s Leadership Style Questionnaire yielded an
internal consistency reliability of 0.60 (See Appendix L on page 320 to 322). The internal
consistency estimates for Principal’s Performance Scale are 0.67 for supervision, 0.72 for
communication, 0.71 for decision making, 0.72 for incentives, 0.67 for human resource
development, 0.61 for public relations, 0.71 for financial management, 0.72 for legal status, and
0.73 for conflict management and resolution with 0.93 as the overall (see Appendix M on page
323 to 351). An earlier trial testing of the Principal Performance Scale which incorporated some
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negative items that were not in the original instrument gave low reliability indices ranging from
0.2 to 0.3. These reliability coefficients were considered not high enough for the study. An
investigation into the causes revealed that the respondents were confused with the negative items
that were introduced. They were subsequently reversed to the original positive items and a
second trial testing carried which gave the reliability coefficients considered high enough and
used for the study. A Scorer reliability of 0.95 was obtained for Plant Observation Rating Scale
(See Appendix N on page 352-353). These results indicated that the instruments were reliable
and adequate for the study. This is because according to Akuezuilo (1993), if an instrument
yields a reliability coefficient of 0.60 and above, the instrument is considered reliable for the
study.
Method of Data Collection
The instruments were administered on the respondents directly with the help of seven
research assistants who were trained on the modes of observing the plant items and how the
instruments were to be filled. The personal contact ensured a high rate of participation of the
subjects and optimal return of the instruments. The research assistants were trained on rating the
plant items with respect to availability and adequacy. Every available item that is ticked has an
equivalent adequacy rating of Very High or High; and Low or Very Low using the bench mark
on p. 299 as part of appendix H. All non-available items are not assigned adequacy rating.
The completed copies of the instrument were retrieved on the spot from the respondents
on each day of visit except so requested by the respondents then retrieval was deferred to a
suitable date. The researcher and his assistants guided the respondents on how to fill the
instrument as the need arose. The plant observation rating scale was used to rate the availability
and adequacy of items of school plants by the researcher and the assistants.
Method of data Analysis
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Percentage was used to answer research question one. Means and standard deviations
were used to answer research question two and three. Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient was used to answer research questions four to thirteen. The null hypotheses were
tested using multiple regression, and the associated ANOVA and t-tests at 0.05 level of
probability.
The four points response scale used in Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire,
Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, and Principal performance are scored and interpreted
as follows: For Principal Motivational Factors Questionnaire, Strongly Agree (SA) was scored
four points; Agree (A) three points; Disagree (D) two points, and Strongly Disagree (SD) one
point. For Principals Leadership Styles Questionnaire, Strongly Agree (SA) was scored four
points; Agree (A) was scored three points; Disagree (D) two points, and Strongly Disagree (SD)
one point. The negative items (6, 8, 10, 13 and 14) in the Principals Leadership Styles
Questionnaire are scored in the reverse order of Strongly Disagree for four points, Disagree three
points, Agree two points and Strongly Agree one point; For Principal performance Scale, Very
Frequently (VF) was scored four points, Frequently (F) three points, Occasionally (O) scored
two points, and Never (N) scored one point; The five point response scale used in the Plant
Observation Rating Scale were scored and interpreted as follows: Very High (VH) scored five
points; High (H) scored four points. Low (L) scored three points; Very Low (VL) scored two
points and Non-Availability (NA) scored one point.
Using real limits of numbers, 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Strongly Disagree, 1.50 - 2.49
correspond to Disagree, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Agree, and 3.50 - 4.49 correspond to Strongly
Agree for Principal Motivational factors Questionnaire. 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Strongly
Disagree, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Disagree, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Agree, and 3.50 - 4.49
correspond to Strongly Agree for Principal Leadership Style Questionnaire. A limit of
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0.5 - 1.49, and 1.50 - 2.49 for PLSQ indicates Close leadership style while a limit of 2.50 - 3.49,
and 3.50 - 4.49 indicates an Open leadership style. For Principal Performance Scale, 0.5 - 1.49
correspond to Never, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Occasionally, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to
Frequently, and 3.50 - 4.49 correspond to Very Frequently. While 0.5 - 1.49 correspond to Non-
Availability, 1.50 - 2.49 correspond to Very Low, 2.50 - 3.49 correspond to Low, 3.50 - 4.49
correspond to High, and 4.50 - 5.49 correspond to Very High for Plant Observation Rating Scale.
The demographic data of the principals were coded as follows: Gender: male = 1,
female = 2; Educational qualification: Ph.D = 4, M.Ed/M.Sc =3, B.Ed/B.A/B.Sc =2;
Dip/N.C.E=1; Area of specialty: Educational Admin/Planning =3; All Aspects of Education =2;
No Educational Qualification =1; Marital status: Married =4. Single=3, Separated=2, Divorce=1;
Years of working experience as principal, Vice principal, and age were entered directly; Schools
location: Urban = 1, Rural = 2; States were coded in alphabetical order: Akwa Ibom state = 1,
Bayelsa state = 2, Cross River State = 3, Delta State = 4, Edo State = 5, and Rivers State = 6.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
This chapter presents the results of data analysis based on the thirteen research questions
and ten null hypotheses that guided the study.
Research Question 1
What is the demographic (age, gender, educational qualification, working experience and marital
status) profile of principals of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria?
The frequencies and percentage of demographic variables of principals of secondary schools in
South-South Nigeria are presented in table 1-6 below.
Table 1: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ age in South-South, Nigeria.
Category (years) Frequencies Percentage
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56-60
Total
2
7
41
184
76
310
0.60
2.20
13.20
59.30
24.60
100.00
Table 1 revealed that 184 (59.3%) principals were within the age bracket of 51-55years,
76(24.6%,) were within the age bracket of 56-60 years, 41(13.2%) were within the age bracket
of 46-50 years, 7(2.2%) were within the age bracket of 41-45 years, while 2 (.6%) were within
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the age bracket of 36-40 years. A summary of this table revealed that most principals in South-
South, Nigeria were within the age bracket of 51-55 years.
Table 2: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ gender in secondary schools in South-
South Nigeria.
Category Frequencies Percentage
Male
Female
Total
201
109
310
64.80
35.20
100.00
Table 2 revealed that 201 principals (64.8%) were males while 109(35.2%) were females. Most
principals in South-South, Nigeria were Males.
Table 3: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ years of working experience in South-
South Nigeria.
Table 3 showed that 116 (37.4% ) principals have served for a period 6-10 years; 92(29.7% )
principals have served for 11-15 years; 74(23.8% ) principals have served for 1-5 years;
18(5.9%) principals have served for 16-20 years; 4(1.2% ) principals who have served for 21-
25 years; and 3(.9%) principals have served for 26-30 and 31-35 years respectively. In addition,
Category Frequencies Percentage Principal VP Principal (%) VP (%) < 1 - 11 - 3.50
1-5 74 106 23.00 34.20 6-10 116 157 37.40 50.60 11-15 92 27 29.70 7.40 16-20 18 4 5.90 1.20 21-25 4 2 1.20 0.60 26-30 3 7 0.90 2.30 31-35 3 - 0.90 - Total 310 310 100.00 100.00
160
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the table showed that before becoming principals, 157 (50.7%) of them have been Vice
principals for 6-10years; 106(34.2%) have served as Vice principals for 1-5 years; 27(7.4%)
have been Vice principals for 11-15 years, 7(2.3%) have been Vice Principals for 20-30 years,
4(1.2%) have served as Vice Principals for 16-20 years; 2(.6%) of them have served for 21-
25years as Vice Principals, and 11(3.5%) of them have served as Vice principals for less than a
year before being principal. In summary, this table showed that most principals 282 (90.2%) in
South-South Nigeria have a working experience of less than 15 years with only 3 who have
served for 31-35 years. Majority of them 274 (88.3%) were vice Principals for less that 11 years
before becoming Principals
Table 4: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ educational qualifications in South-South Nigeria.
Category Frequencies Percentage
Ph.D
M.Sc/ M.A/M.Ed
B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed/B.Sc(Ed)
Dip/NCE
Total
3
93
213
1
310
1
30
68.70
0.30
100.00
Table 4 showed that only 3(1%) of the principals had Ph.D; 93(30%) had second degree such as
M.Sc/M.A/M.Ed; 213(68.7%) have first degree like B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed/B.Sc(Ed.); and only 1(3%)
principal had Diploma or NCE. Most of the principals in South-South, Nigeria had first degree.
Table 5: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ area of specialty in secondary schools in
South-South Nigeria.
Category Frequencies Percentage
Educational Administration /Planning 32 10.30%
Other Aspects of Education 258 83.20%
No Education Qualification 20 6.50%
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Total 310 100.00%
Table 5 showed that 32(10.3%) principals specialized in educational administration and
planning; 258(83.2%) specialized in other aspects of education, while 20(6.5%) specialized in
other areas without any education qualification. This table revealed that most principals in
South-South, Nigeria had a qualification in education, and that 6.5% of them were not
professionally qualified to be principals.
Table 6: Frequencies and percentage of principals’ marital status in South-South, Nigeria. Category Frequencies Percentage
Married
302 97.40%
Single
4 1.30%
Divorce
3 1%
Separated
1 0.30%
Total
310 100.00%
Table 6 showed that 302(97.4%) principals were married; 4(1.3%) were single; 3(1%) were
divorced, while only 1(.3%) was separated. This table showed that most principals in South-
South, Nigeria were married.
Research Question 2
What is the personality (leadership styles and motivation) profile of principals of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
The leadership behaviour of secondary schools principals in South-South Nigeria is presented in
table 7.
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Table 7: Means ratings of principals’ leadership styles in the management of Secondary
Schools in South-South Nigeria.
S/N
Questionnaire items
X
SD
DEC 1 communicates openly to staff about school activities 3.44 .68 A 2 encourages self expression, creativity and interaction in the school 3.31 .68 A 3 showed feeling of concern and respect for staff 3.26 .74 A 4 delegates duties to staff 3.37 .66 A 5 involve teachers in decision making 3.00 .82 A
*6 nags at teachers openly 3.00 1.33 A 7 makes appeal rather than commands staff 3.00 .77 A
*8 imposes task and duties on teachers 2.87 .83 A 9 concedes to high level of staff independence in school activities 2.48 .81 D
*10 wants things done in his/her own way 2.77 .95 A 11 is concerned about staff feelings 3.03 .79 A
12 apportions blames to staff when things go wrong 2.47 .94 D *13 is resistant to change 2.86 .89 A *14 is indifferent about activities in the school 2.95 .89 A 15 showed concern for school goals and staff welfare 3.27 .38 A Grand 3.01 .38 A
*Negative items scored in reverse order - A=Agree, D=Disagree, DEC= Decision
Table 7 showed that items 1-8, 10, 11 and 13 – 15 had high means scores above the bench mark
of 2.50. Item 1 has a mean score of There mean 3.44 and standard deviation of .68. This means
that respondents agree that principals communicate openly to staff about school activities. Item 2
has a mean score of 3.31 and standard deviation of .68. This shows that respondents agree that
principals encourage self expression, creativity and interaction in the schools. Item 3 has a mean
score of 3.26 and standard deviation of 74. This shows that respondents agree that principals
showed feeling of concern and respect for staff. Item 4 has a mean score of 3.37 and standard
deviation of .66. This shows that respondents agree that principals delegates duties to staff. Item
5 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard deviation of .82. This shows that respondents agree that
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principals involve teachers in decision making. Item 6 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard
deviation of 1.33. This shows that respondents agree that principals do not nag at teachers
openly. Item 7 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard deviation of .77. This shows that
respondents agree that principals makes appeal rather than commands staff. Item 8 has a mean
score of 2.87 and standard deviation of .83. This shows that respondents agree that principals do
not impose task and duties on teachers. Item 10 has a mean score of 2.77 and standard deviation
of .95. This shows that respondents agree that principals do not want things done their own way.
Item 11 has a mean score of 3.03 and standard deviation of .79. This shows that respondents
agree that principals are concerned about staff feelings. Item 13 has a mean score of 2.86 and
standard deviation of .89. This shows that respondents agree that principals are not indifferent
about activities in the school. Item 14 has a mean score of 2.95 and standard deviation of .89.
This shows that respondents agree that principals are not indifferent about activities in the
school. Item 15 has a mean score of 3.27 and standard deviation of .38. This shows that
respondents agree that principals show concern for school goals and staff welfares. Item 9 and
12 had low mean scores below the bench mark of 2.50. Item 9 has a mean score of 2.48 and
standard deviation of .81. This shows that respondents disagree that principals concede to high
level of staff independence in school activities. Item 12 has a mean score of 2.47 and standard
deviation of .94. This shows that respondents disagree that principals apportion blames to staff
when things go wrong in the school system. The grand mean score and standard deviation were
3.01 and .38 respectively. This indicates openness and democratic tendencies of principals in the
management of secondary in South-South, Nigeria.
The motivation profile of secondary schools principals’ in South-South Nigeria was
presented in tables 8-12.
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Table 8: Means ratings on ‘nature of work itself’ as Motivating factor for Principals’
performance in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria.
S/N Questionnaire items (work itself) X SD DEC As a School principal, 1 The work I am doing is meaningful 3.81 .40 SA 2 The work I am doing is interesting 3.57 .51 SA 3 The job I am doing require my initiatives 3.59 .50 SA 4 My job is not threatened 2.77 .94 A 5 I derive pleasure in my job 3.48 .56 A 6 The job I am doing is challenging 3.42 .57 A
Cluster 3.44 .31 A SA= Strongly Agreed, A=Agree, DEC= Decision
Table 8 showed that all the items from 1 to 6 had high mean scores. Item 1 has a mean score of
3.81 and standard deviation of .40. This means that the work of the principal is meaningful. Item
2 has a mean score of 3.57 and standard deviation of .51. This means that the work of the
principal is doing is interesting. Item 3 has a mean score of 3.59 and standard deviation of .50.
This means that the job principal is doing requires their initiatives. Item 4 has a mean score of
2.77 and standard deviation of .94. This shows that the job of the principal is not threatened. Item
5 has a mean score of 3.48 and standard deviation of .56. This shows that the principals derive
pleasure in their job. Item 6 has a mean score of 3.42 and standard deviation of .57. This shows
that the job principals are doing is challenging. The cluster mean and standard deviation were
3.44 and .31 respectively. This indicates that all the items under nature of work motivated
principals in their job. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that nature of work
itself is seen as a motivating factor for principals’ performance in the management of secondary
education in South-South Nigeria.
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Table 9: Means ratings on ‘recognition’ as a motivating factor for Principals’ performance in
the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria S/N Questionnaire items (recognition) X
SD DEC
As a School principal,
7 My opinion is highly valued at PTA meetings 3.25 .58 A
8 There is meaningful recognition of successfully accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board
2.97 .71 A
9 I am always commended by PTA and Schools Board when I do my job well 2.84 .75 A
10 My views are sought for in decision making 2.73 .82 A
11 I am often used as a point of reference for successful accomplishment of task
2.72 .83 A
Cluster 2.90 .51 A
Table 9 revealed that items 7 to 11 had high mean scores. Item 7 has a mean score of 3.25 and
standard deviation of .58. This shows that principals’ opinion are highly valued at PTA meetings.
Item 8 has a mean score of 2.97 and standard deviation of .71. This shows that there is
meaningful recognition of successfully accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board. Item 9
has a mean score of 2.84 and standard deviation of .75. This shows that principals are always
commended by PTA and Schools Board when they do their job well. Item 10 has a mean score
of 2.73 and standard deviation of .82. This shows that when principals’ views are sought for in
decision making. Item 11 has a mean score of 2.72 and standard deviation of .83. This shows
that principals are often used as a point of reference for successful accomplishment of task. The
cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.90 and .51 respectively. This indicates that all the
items under recognition motivated principals in the discharge of their duties. The cluster mean
and standard deviation indicated that recognition was seen as a motivation factor for principals’
performance in the management of secondary education in South-South Nigeria.
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Table 10: Means ratings on ‘responsibility’ as a motivating factor for Principals’ performance
in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria
S/N Questionnaire items (responsibility) X SA DEC As a School principal,
12 I am not redundant on the job 3.55 .54 SA 13 I preside over Staff meetings 3.73 .47 SA 14 I participate in the supervision of instruction in my school 3.57 .52 SA 15 I supervise various sections of the school 3.57 .53 SA 16 I nominate my staff to participate in available conferences/workshops 3.35 .59 A 17 I am the custodian of all important records of my school 3.47 .58 A 18 I am an officer of the PTA 3.43 .65 A
Cluster 3.52 .32 SA SA= Strongly Agreed, A=Agree, DEC= Decision
Table 10 showed all the items from 12 to 18 had high mean scores. Item 12 has a mean score of
3.55 and standard deviation of .54. This means that principals are not redundant on the job and
makes them perform well. Item 13 has a mean score of 3.73and standard deviation of .47. This
means that principals preside over Staff meetings. Item 14 has a mean score of 3.57and standard
deviation of .52. This means that principals participate in the supervision of instruction in their
school. Item 15 has a mean score of 3.57and standard deviation of .53. This means that
principals supervise various sections of their schools. Item 16 has a mean score of 3.35 and
standard deviation of .59. This shows that principals nominate their staff to participate in
available conferences/workshops. Item 17 has a mean score of 3.47and standard deviation of .58.
This shows that principals are custodian of all important records of their schools. Item 18 has a
mean score of 3.47and standard deviation of .65. This shows that principals are officers of the
PTA. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 3.52 and .32 respectively. This indicates
that all the items under responsibility motivated principals in their jobs. The cluster mean and
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standard deviation indicated that ‘responsibility’ was strongly seen as a motivating factor for
principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-South, Nigeria.
Table 11: Means ratings on ‘achievement’ as Motivational factor for Principals’ performance
in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria S/N Questionnaire items (achievement) X SD DEC
As a School principal,
19 My students are doing well 3.27 .50 A
20 My staff are making some socio-economic progress 3.17 .50 A
21 There is improvement in infrastructure in my school 2.55 .96 A
22 School-Community relationship is cordial 3.14 .60 A
Cluster 3.03 .42 A
A=Agree, DEC= Decision
The table revealed that items 19 to 22 had high mean scores. Item 19 has a mean score of
3.27and standard deviation of .50. This shows that in the principals’ opinion, their students are
doing well. Item 20 has a mean score of 3.17and standard deviation of .50. This shows that staff
were making some socio-economic progress. Item 21 has a mean score of 2.55 and standard
deviation of .96. This shows that in the opinion of the principals there is improvement in
infrastructure in their schools. Item 22 has a mean score of 3.14 and standard deviation of .60.
This shows that in the principals’ opinion, school-community relationship is cordial. The cluster
mean and standard deviation were 3.03 and .42 respectively. Therefore, all the items under
achievement were seen as motivators. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that
‘achievement’ was a motivating factor for principals’ performance in the management of
secondary education in South-South Nigeria.
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Table 12: Means ratings on ‘advancement’ as a Motivating factor for Principals’ performance
in the management of Secondary Schools in South-South Nigeria
S/N Questionnaire items (advancement) X SD DEC
As a School principal,
23 I have acquired further education and training since becoming principal 2.62 .94 A
24 I have acquired management experience on the job 3.45 2.32 A
25 There is support for professional growth 2.42 .88 D
26 There is possibility of self actualization 3.21 .52 A
27 There is opportunity for promotion 3.26 .56 A
Cluster 2.99 .62 A
A=Agree, D=Disagree, DEC= Decision
Table 12 showed all the items from 23 to 26, and 27 had high mean scores. Item 23 has a mean
score of 2.62 and standard deviation of .94. This shows that in the principals’ opinion, they have
acquired further education and training since becoming principal. Item 24 has a mean score of
3.45 and standard deviation of 2.32. This shows that principals have acquired management
experience on the job. Item 26 has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of .52. This
shows that there is possibility of self actualization. Item 27 has a mean score of 3.26 and
standard deviation of .56. This shows that there is opportunity for promotion. Item 25 has a low
mean score of 2.42 and standard deviation of .88. This shows that there was no support for
professional growth. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.99 and .62 respectively.
All the items under advancement were motivational factors except item 25 which was not a
motivator. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that ‘advancement’ was seen as a
motivator for principals’ performance in the management of secondary education in South-South
Nigeria.
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Research Question 3
What are the principals’ mean performance scores in the task areas of management (instructional
supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives, financial management,
public relations, human resource development, adherence to statutory provisions, conflict
management and resolution, and plant management,) of secondary schools in the South-South,
Nigeria?
The results of data analysis relating to the research question were presented in tables 13 to 33.
Table 13: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
instructional supervision
S/N Questionnaire items (instructional supervision) X SD DEC My Principal 1 inspects teachers’ notes of lesson to see if they are properly
written 2.77 .97 F
2 examines students note books during class visits 2.43 .93 O 3 conducts unscheduled informal visits to classrooms 2.71 .89 F 4 points out specific strengths and weaknesses in teacher's
instructional practices 2.57 .88 F
5 assigns teachers to classes according to their qualifications 3.00 .95 F Cluster 2.69 .63 F F= Frequently, O=Occasionally, DEC= Decision
From the data on table 13, the mean responses on principals’ performance in instructional
supervision in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria, ranged from 2.43 to 3.00. Items 1, 3,
4, and 5 had high mean scores. Item 1 has a mean score of 2.71 and standard deviation of .97.
This shows that in the opinion of the respondents, principals frequently inspect teachers’ notes
of lesson to see if they are properly written. Item 3 has a mean score of 2.77 and standard
deviation of .89. This shows that principals frequently conduct unscheduled informal visits to
172
classrooms. Item 4 has a mean score of 2.57 and standard deviation of .88. This shows that in
the opinion of the respondents, principals’ frequently points out specific strengths and
weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices. Item 5 has a mean score of 3.00 and standard
deviation of .95. This shows that principals’ frequently assign teachers to classes according to
their qualifications. Item 2 has low mean score of 2.43 and a standard deviation of .93. This
shows that principals’ occasionally examine students note books during class visits. The cluster
mean of 2.69 and standard deviation of .63 shows that Principals frequently supervised
instruction in schools. This indicated that principals’ performance in instructional supervision in
secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 14: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
communication
S/N Questionnaire items (communication) X SD DEC My Principal 6 discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at
meetings 3.01 .85 F
7 informs staff and students about School rules and guidelines to enable them adjust properly
3.08 .82 F
8 encourages teachers to discuss their problems with him/her 2.55 .96 F 9 mentions the school's goals or mission in fora with students
(e.g., in assemblies) 2.78 .87 F
10 sends out information about students to parents and guardians. 2.69 .89 F Cluster 2.82 .61 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision
Data in table 14 revealed that all the items from 6 – 10 had high mean scores. Item 6 has a mean
score of 3.01 and standard deviation of .85. This shows that respondents were of the opinion
that, principals frequently discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at meetings.
Item 7 has a mean score of 3.08 and standard deviation of .82. It shows that the respondents were
of the opinion that principals frequently inform staff and students about School rules and
guidelines to enable them adjust properly. Item 8 has a mean score of 2.55 and standard
deviation of .96. It shows that respondents are of the view that principals frequently encourage
173
teachers to discuss their problems with them. Item 9 has a mean score of 2.78 and standard
deviation of .87. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently
mentions the school's goals or mission in fora with students like morning assemblies. Item 10 has
a mean score of 2.69 and standard deviation of .89. It shows that the respondents were of the
opinion that, principals frequently send out information about students to parents and guardians.
The cluster mean of 2.82 and standard deviation of .61 shows that Principals frequently
communicate school matters to students, and teachers for their guidance. This indicated that
principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-
South Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 15: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
decision making
S/N Questionnaire items (decision making) X SD DEC My Principal
11 involves teachers in decision making process in the school 2.70 .94 F 12 ensures that PTA meetings are held to discuss salient issues of
school improvement 2.48 1.00 O
13 takes decision based on available resources 2.75 .85 F 14 considers school programmes in taking decisions 2.97 .82 F 15 involve students representatives in taking decisions concerning
them 2.25 .95 O
Cluster 2.63 .62 F F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision
Data in table 15 revealed that items 11, 13, and 14 had high mean ratings. Item 11 has a mean
score of 2.70 and standard deviation of .94. It shows that respondents were of the view that in the
management of secondary schools, principals frequently involved teachers in decision making
process. Item 13 has a mean score of 2.75 and standard deviation of .85. It showed that the
respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently took decision based on available
resources. Item 14 has a mean score of 2.97 and standard deviation of .82. It shows that the
respondents were of the opinion that, principals frequently considered school programmes in
taking decisions. Items 12 and 15 had low mean score. Item 12 has a mean score of 2.48 and
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standard deviation of 1.00. It showed that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals
occasionally ensured that PTA meetings were held to discuss salient issues of school
improvement. Item 15 has a mean score of 2.25 and standard deviation of .95. It showed that the
respondents were of the view that, principals occasionally involved students’ representatives in
taking decisions concerning them. The cluster mean of 2.63 and standard deviation of .62
showed that principals frequently make decisions in the management of secondary schools. This
indicated that principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary
schools in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 16: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the
provision of incentives to teachers and students
S/N Questionnaire items (provision of incentives) X SD DEC My Principal
16 rewards teachers who perform well 2.40 1.01 O 17 rewards students with outstanding performance 2.27 .95 O 18 showed love and care to staff and students 2.82 .94 F 19 recognizes teacher’s personal value 2.77 .89 F 20 ensures that the learning environment is safe from hazards 3.00 .90 F
Cluster 2.65 .68 F F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision
The data in table 16 showed that the mean responses of the principals’ performance in the
provision of incentives to teachers and students in secondary schools in South- South Nigeria
ranged from 2.27 to 3.00. Items 18, 19, and 20 had high mean scores. Item 18 has a mean score
of 2.82 and standard deviation of .94. It shows that the respondents shared the view that
principals frequently showed love and care to staff and students. Item 19 has a mean score of
2.77 and standard deviation of .89. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that,
principals frequently recognized teacher’s personal value. Item 20 has a mean score of 3.00 and
standard deviation of .90. It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals
frequently ensured that the learning environment was safe from hazards. Items 16 and 17 had
low mean scores. Item 16 has a mean score of 2.40 and standard deviation of 1.01. It showed that
175
the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally rewarded teachers who perform
well. Item 17 has a mean score of 2.27 and standard deviation of .95. It shows that the
respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally rewarded students with outstanding
performance. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.65 and .68 respectively. The
cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that principals frequently provided incentives to
teachers and students in the secondary schools. This showed that principals’ performance in the
provision of incentives to teachers and students in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was
to a high extent.
Table 17: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
human resource development
S/N Questionnaire items (human resource development) X SD DEC My Principal
21 organizes programmes for staff improvement 2.08 .99 O 22 showed interest in teachers in-service training 2.30 1.00 O 23 encourages teachers to attend available professional
development programmes like seminars or workshops
2.60
.96
F 24 builds a sense of teamwork to nurture an earnest effort to help
each staff member achieve his or her potential 2.49 .96 O
25 sets aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities
2.64
1.00
F
Cluster 2.42 .74 O F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision
Data in table 17 showed that items 23 and 25 had high mean scores. Item 23 has a mean score of
2.60 and standard deviation of .96. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that,
principals frequently encouraged teachers to attend available professional development
programmes like seminars or workshops. Item 25 has a mean score of 2.64 and standard
deviation of .1.00. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals frequently set
aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities.
Items 21, 22, and 24 had low mean scores. Item 21 has a mean score of 2.08 and standard
deviation of .99. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally
176
organized programmes for staff improvement. Item 22 has a mean score of 2.30 and standard
deviation of 1.00. It shows that the respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally
showed interest in teachers in-service training. Item 24 has a mean score of 2.49 and standard
deviation of .96. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals occasionally built
a sense of teamwork to nurture earnest effort to help staff member achieve their potentials. The
cluster mean of 2.42 and standard deviations.74 indicated that principals occasionally
encouraged human resource development. This showed that principals’ performance in human
resource development in secondary schools in South-South Nigeria was to a low extent.
Table 18: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
public relations
S/N Questionnaire items (public relations) X SD DEC My Principal
26 organizes extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders in attendance
1.95 .93 O
27 keeps the community adequately informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance
2.44 .96 O
28 helps in the establishment of PTA groups and working co-operatively with them
2.44 .98 O
29 liaise with the schools board in finding solution to school problems 2.81 .96 F 30 allows the public to use school facilities 1.92 .97 O
Cluster 2.31 .64 O F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision
Data in table 18 revealed that only item 29 had a high mean score of 2.81 with standard deviation
of .96. The data revealed that respondents were of the view that in the management of secondary
education, principals’ frequently liaised with the schools board in finding solutions to school
problems. The rest items from 26 to 30 had low mean scores. Item 26 has a mean score of 1.95
and standard deviation of .93. It showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals
occasionally organized extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders
in attendance. Item 27 has a mean score of 2.44 and standard deviation of .96. It shows that the
respondents were of the opinion that, principals occasionally kept the community adequately
177
informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance. Item 28 has a mean score of
2.44 and standard deviation of .98. It shows that the respondents shared the view that, principals
occasionally helped in the establishment of PTA groups to work co-operatively with them. Item
30 has a mean score of 1.92 and standard deviation of .97. It shows that the respondents shared
the view that, principals occasionally and allowed the public to use school facilities. The cluster
mean of 2.31 and standard deviation of.64 showed that principals occasionally related with the
public in managing secondary schools. This showed that principals performance in public
relations in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria was to a low extent.
Table 19: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in the financial management
S/N Questionnaire items (financial management) X SD DEC My Principal
31 prepares realistic budget 2.32 .98 O 32 explores sources of revenue generation to provide some
essential needs of the school 2.29 .98 O
33 Keeps proper accounts of disbursement of school funds 2.75 1.03 F 34 prioritizes financial allocation according to needs 2.64 .96 F 35 works within the confines of school budget 2.74 .94 F
Cluster 2.55 .77 F F= Frequently, O= Occasionally, DEC= Decision
The data in table 19 showed that the mean responses on the principals’ performance in financial
management ranged from 2.29 to 2.75. Items 33, 34, and 35 had high mean scores. Item 33 has a
mean score of 2.75 and standard deviation of 1.03. It showed that the respondents shared the
view that principals frequently kept proper accounts of disbursement of school funds. Item 34
has a mean score of 2.64 and standard deviation of .96. It showed that the respondents shared the
view that principals frequently prioritized financial allocation according to needs in the
management of secondary schools. Item 35 has a mean score of 2.74 and standard deviation of
.94. It showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals worked within the confines of
school budget. Items 31 and 32 had low mean scores. Item 31 has a mean score of 2.32 and
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standard deviation of .98. The data revealed that principals occasionally prepared realistic
budget. Item 32 has a mean score of 2.29 and standard deviation of .98. It shows that the
respondents shared the view that, principals occasionally explored sources of revenue generation
to provide some essential needs of the school. The cluster mean and standard deviation were
2.55 and .77 respectively. The cluster mean and standard deviation indicated that principals’
frequently managed financial resources. This showed that principals’ performance in financial
management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 20: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals’ performance in
adhering to legal status
S/N Questionnaire items (adhering to legal status) X SD D My Principal
36 emphasizes proper understanding of the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents in educational matters
2.91 .86 F
37 maintains the confidentiality of official matters 3.15 .87 F 38 ensures mutual understanding through obedience and preservation of
school rules and regulations 3.14 .77 F
39 ensures strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are clearly defined
2.96 .86 F
40 makes school rules and regulations available to teacher and students to regulate their conduct
2.98 .92 F
Cluster 3.03 .61 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision
Data in table 20 showed that all the items from 36-40 had high mean scores. Item 36 has a mean
score of 2.91 and standard deviation of .86. The respondents were of the opinion that in the
management of secondary schools, principals frequently emphasized the proper understanding of
the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers’ actions in dealing with students and
parents in educational matters. Item 37 has a mean score of 3.15 and standard deviation of .87. It
showed that the respondents shared the view that, principals frequently maintained
confidentiality of official matters. Item 38 has a mean score of 3.14 and standard deviation of
.77. It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals frequently ensured mutual
179
understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations. Item 39 has a
mean score of 2.96 and standard deviation of .86. It showed that the respondents shared the view
that, principals frequently ensured strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and
limitations were clearly defined. Item 40 has a mean score of 2.98 and standard deviation of .92.
It showed that the respondents shared the view that principals frequently made school rules and
regulations available to teachers and students to regulate their conduct. The cluster mean of 3.03
and standard deviations of.61 indicated that principals’ performance in adhering to legal status in
the management of secondary education in South-South Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 21: Mean ratings of teachers’ responses on the extent of principals performance in
conflict management and resolution
S/N Questionnaire items (Conflict mgt. & Resolution) X
SD
DEC
My Principal 41 does not take side with any party in a dispute in the school 2.71 1.06 F 42 creates cordial relationship with and among teachers 3.13 .84 F 43 ensures proper school organization to define staff roles to avoid a
clash 3.05 .82 F
44 treats everybody equally 2.85 1.00 F 45 fosters strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to
serve as a deterrent to others 2.82 .88 F
Cluster 2.91 .65 F F= Frequently, DEC= Decision
Data in table 21 showed that all the items from 41 to 45 had high mean scores. Item 41 has a
mean score of 2.71 and standard deviation of .1.00. These indicated that respondents were of the
view that principals did not frequently take side with any party in a dispute in the school. Item 42
has a mean score of 3.13 and standard deviation of .84. It showed that the respondents shared the
view that, principals frequently created cordial relationships with and among teachers. Item 43
has a mean score of 3.05 and standard deviation of .82. It showed that the respondents were of
the opinion that principals frequently ensured proper school organization to define staff roles to
avoid a clash. Item 44 has a mean score of 2.85 and standard deviation of 1.00. It showed that the
respondents shared the view that, principals frequently treated everybody equally. Item 45 has a
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mean score of 2.82 and standard deviation of .88. It showed that the respondents shared the view
that, principals frequently fostered strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to
serve as a deterrent to others. The cluster mean of 2.91 and standard deviations.65 indicated that
principals frequently manage and resolved conflict situations. This showed that principals’
performance in conflict management and resolution in secondary education in South-South
Nigeria was to a high extent.
Table 22: Mean ratings of plant management (classrooms) of principals
S/N Classroom items X SD DEC
1 Students locker & Seats
3.64 .83 H
2 Teacher Seat & table 1.75 1.0 VL 3 Windows/doors
4.21 .60 H
4 Fan
1.82 1.29 VL
5 Air Conditioner
1.00 .06 NA
6 Wall Chalkboard
2.23 1.40 NA
7 Wood Chalkboard
2.37 1.50 L
8 White Chalkboard
1.34 1.02 NA
9 Natural Lighting
4.16 .67 H
10 Electricity
2.11 1.34 VL
11 Solar Lighting
1.00 .06 NA
12 Aesthetics 3.48 .72 L Cluster 2.43 .33 VL
H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, NA- Not Available
Data in table 22 showed the mean ratings of the state of classroom items in secondary schools.
Of the 12 classroom items observed, only items 1, 3 and 9, that is students’ locker and seats
(3.64), windows/doors (4.21), and natural ventilation (4.16) had high mean scores above the
bench mark of 3.50. These items were available and highly adequate. Wooden chalkboard and
aesthetics had low means of 2.37, and 3.48 respectively. These items were available but less
adequate. Teachers seat and table, fans, and electricity had mean scores of 1.75, 1.82 and 2.11
respectively. They were available but were very less adequate. Air conditioners, wall and white
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chalkboard, and solar lighting had mean ratings of 1.00, 2.23, 1.34, and 1.00 respectively. These
items were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.43 and 0.33
respectively. These indicated that classrooms items in the schools were available but were very
less adequate.
Table 23: Mean ratings of plant management (staffrooms) of principals
S/N Staffrooms items X SD DEC 13 Teachers seat & table 4.20 .771 H
14 Windows/doors
4.25 .58 H
15 Fan
2.51 1.48 L
16 Air Conditioner
1.06 .42 NA
17 Natural
4.24 .61 H
18 Electricity
2.67 1.45 L
19 Solar
1.03 .27 NA
20 Space 3.82 .75 H 21 Filling cabinets 1.90 1.09 VL 22 Aesthetics 3.57 .68 H Cluster 2.92 .45 L
H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, NA- Not Available, Dec= Decision
Data in table 23 showed the mean ratings of the state of staffrooms items in secondary schools.
Of the 10 staffroom items observed, only items 13, 14, 17, 20 and 22, that is teachers’ seat &
table (4.20), windows/doors (4.25), natural lighting (4.24), office space (3.82), and aesthetics
(3.57) had high mean scores above the bench mark of (3.50). These items were available and
highly adequate. It was also revealed that fans and office electricity had low means of 2.51, and
2.67 respectively. These items were available but were less adequate. Filling cabinets had very
low mean score of 1.90. They were available but very less adequate; while office air conditioner
and solar light were not available with mean ratings of 1.06 and 1.03 respectively. The cluster
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mean and standard deviation were 2.92 and 0.45respectively. These indicated that Staffrooms
items were less adequate.
Table 24: Mean ratings of plant management (laboratories) of principals
S/N Laboratory items X SD DEC 23 Equipment 3.25 .96 L
24 Benches/Tables 3.28 .99 L 25 Stools 3.13 1.02 L 26 Windows/doors
3.90 1.05 H
27 Fan
1.67 1.19 VL
28 Air Conditioner
1.03 .27 NA
29 Natural lighting
3.80 1.05 H
30 Electricity
2.26 1.34 VL
31 Solar
1.01 .13 NA
32 Space 3.37 1.00 L 33 Aesthetics 3.22 .93 L Cluster mean & Cluster SD 2.72 .67 L
H= High, L=Low, VL= Very Low, NA=Not Available, Dec= Decision
Table 24 revealed that of the 11 laboratory items observed, only items 26 and 29, that is,
windows/doors (3.90), and natural lighting (3.80) had high mean scores above the bench mark of
(3.50). They were available and highly adequate. Laboratory equipment, Benches/tables, stools,
laboratory space, and aesthetics had low means scores of 3.25, 3.28, 3.13, 3.37 and 3.22
respectively. These items were available but less adequate. Laboratory fans, and electricity had
very low mean scores of 1.67, and 2.26 respectively. They were available but were very less
adequate. Air conditioner and solar light had mean scores of 1.03, and 1.01 respectively. They
were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 2.72 and .67 respectively.
These indicated that laboratories items available but were less adequate.
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Table 25: Mean ratings of plant management (workshop) of principals
S/N Workshop items X SD DEC 34 Equipment 1.34 .90 NA 35 Benches/Tables 1.36 .95 NA 36 Stools 1.35 .91 NA 37 Windows/doors
1.41 1.06 NA 38 Fan
1.23 .79 NA 39 Air Conditioner 1.01 .17 NA 40 Natural lighting
1.42 1.08 NA 41 Electricity 1.31 .88 NA 42 Solar 1.01 .24 NA 43 Space 1.37 .98 NA 44 Aesthetics 1.34 .92 NA Cluster 1.29 .79 NA
NA= Not Available, DEC= Decision
Table 25 revealed that all the workshop items observed had means and standard deviation
ranging from 1.01 to 1.42 and .17 to 1.08 respectively. The cluster mean and standard deviation
were 1.29 and .79 respectively. These indicated that workshops items were not available in
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
Table 26: Mean ratings of plant management (toilets facilities) of principals
S/N Toilets items X SD DEC 45 Water System
Pit hole Bucket Bush
2.32 1.56 VL 46 1.63 1.16 VL 47 1.00 .17 NA 48 1.72 .87 VL Cluster 1.67 .27 VL
VL= Very Low, Not Available, DEC= Decision
Table 26 showed 4 observed toilet items. Item 45 (Water system) has a mean score of 2.32 and
standard deviation of 1.56. This item was available but was very less adequate. Item 46 (Pit
hole) has a mean score of 1.63 and standard deviation of 1.16. This item also available but was
very less adequate. Item 48 (bush) has a mean score of 1.67 and standard deviation of .27. The
item was also available but very less adequate. Item 47 (Bucket toilet system) with mean of 1.00
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and standard deviation of 0.87 was not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were
1.67 and .27 respectively. These indicated that the toilets items in schools were very less
adequate.
Table 27: Mean ratings of plant management (water supply facilities) of principals
S/N Water supply items X SD DEC 49 Pipe borne 1.38 1.04 NA 50 Borehole 2.41 1.58 VL 51 Mono Pump 1.68 1.29 VL 52 Well 1.25 .77 NA 53 Spring 1.00 .00 NA 54 Tanker Supply 1.05 .34 NA 55 Lake/River 1.10 .42 NA 56 Student supply 1.29 .71 NA 57 Buying 2.12 .92 VL Cluster 1.51 .31 VL
VL= Very Low, Not Available, DEC= Decision
Table 27 showed 9 observed water supply facility items in secondary schools. Item 49 (Pipe
borne) has a mean score of 1.38 and standard deviation of 1.04. This item was not available. Item
50 (Bore hole) has a mean score of 2.41 and standard deviation of 1.58. This item was available
but very less adequate. Item 51 (Mono Pump) has a mean score of 1.68 and standard deviation of
1.29. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 52 (Well) has a mean score of 1.25
and standard deviation of .77. This item was not available. Item 53 (Spring) has a mean score of
1.00 and standard deviation of .00. This item was not available. Item 54 (Tank Supply) has a
mean score of 1.05 and standard deviation of .34. This item was not available. Item 55
(Lake/River) has a mean score of 1.10 and standard deviation of .42. This item was not available.
Item 56 (Students supply) has a mean score of 1.29 and standard deviation of .71. This item was
also not available. Item 57 (Buying) has a mean score of 2.12 and standard deviation of .92. This
item was available but very less adequate. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.51
185
and .31. These indicated that water supply facilities as observed were available but very less
adequate.
Table 28: Mean ratings of plant management (playground) of principals
S/N playground items X SD DEC
58
59
60
61
Foot ball pitch
Other field events pitch
Track events pitch
Aesthetics
3.70
2.45
2.51
3.21
.84
1.19
1.21
.88
H
VL
L
L
Cluster 3.00 .79 L
H= High, L- Low, VL- Very Low, Dec= Decision
Table 28 showed four observed playground items. Item 58 ( Foot ball pitch) had a high mean
score and standard deviation of 3.70 and 0.84 respectively. This item was available and highly
adequate. Item 59 (Other field events pitch) has a mean score of 2.45 and standard deviation
1.19. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 60 (Track events pitch) has a mean
score of 2.51 and standard deviation of 1.21. This item was available but less adequate. Item 61
(Aesthetics) has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of .88. This item was available but
less adequate. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 3.00 and 0.79 respectively. These
indicated that playgrounds items as observed were available but less adequate.
Table 29: Mean ratings of plant management (electricity) of principals
S/N Electricity items X SD DEC
62
63
64
Solar
Public Power Supply
Generator
1.00
2.76
1.43
.11
1.50
.84
NA
L
NA
Cluster 1.74 .52 VL
L=Low, VL=Very Low, NA= Not Available, Dec= Decision
Table 29 showed that of the three modes of electricity supply items observed, Only Public Power
Supply with mean score of 2.96 and standard deviation of 1.50 was available but less adequate.
186
Solar lighting and Generator with means score of 1.00 and 1.43, and standard deviations of 0.11
and 0.84 respectively were not available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.74 and
0.52. These indicated that electricity in secondary schools as observed was very less adequate.
Table 30: Mean ratings of plant management (compound) of principals
S/N Compound items X SD DEC 65 66 67 68
Trees Flowers Grasses Aesthetics
3.64 3.25 3.62 3.51
.94
.98
.83
.71
H L H H
Cluster 3.50 .66 H H=High, L=Low, DEC= Decision
Table 30 showed that of the 4 observed compound items. Item 65 (trees) has a mean score of
3.64 and standard deviation of .94. This item was available and highly adequate. Item 66
(Flowers) has a mean score of 3.25 and standard deviation of .98. This item was available and
but less adequate. Item 67 (Grasses) has a mean score of 3.62 and standard deviation of .71. This
item was available and highly adequate. Item 68 (Aesthetics) has a mean score of 3.51 and
standard deviation of .71. This item was available and highly adequate. The cluster mean and
standard deviation were 3.50 and 0.66 respectively. These indicated that the compounds in
schools as observed were available and highly adequate.
Table 31: Mean ratings of plant management (fire extinguisher) of principals
S/N Fire extinguisher items X SD DEC
69
70
Industrial
Bucket of sand
1.22
1.04
.79
.25
NA
NA
Cluster 1.13 .43 NA
NA- Not Available, Dec= Decision
Table 31 revealed that none of the fire extinguisher, that is, Industrial and Bucket of sand with
mean scores of 1.22 and 1.04, and standard deviations of 0.79 and 0.43 respectively was
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available. The cluster mean and standard deviation were 1.13 and .43. These indicated that fire
extinguishers were not available in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
Table 32: Mean ratings of plant management (medical facilities) of principals
S/N Medical Facilities items X SD DEC 71 72 73 74
First Aid Box Attendants Drugs Others (Beds)
1.68 1.57 1.52 1.13
1.17 1.03 .95 .59
VL VL VL NA
Cluster 1.73 .81 VL VL=Very Low, NA=Not Available, Dec= Decision
Table 32 showed four observed medical facility items. Item 71 (First Aid Box) has a mean score
of 1.68 and standard deviation of 1.17. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 72
(Attendants) has a mean score of 1.57 and standard deviation of 1.03. This item was available
but very less adequate. Item 73 (Drugs) has a mean score of 1.68 and standard deviation of
1.17. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 74 (Beds) has a mean score of 1.13
and standard deviation of .59. This item was not available. The cluster mean and standard
deviation of 1.73 and 0.81 respectively indicated that medical facilities in secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria were very less adequate.
Table 33: Mean ratings of plant management (library) of principals S/N Library items X SD DEC
75 Books 2.68 1.25 L 76 Shelves 2.63 1.24 L 77 Chairs 2.61 1.24 L 78 Tables 3.22 1.55 L 79 Windows/doors
1.67 1.20 VL
80 Fan 1.00 .00 NA 81 Air Conditioners 3.21 1.52 L 82 Natural Lighting
2.06 1.32 VL
83 Electricity
1.02 .28 NA
84 Solar Lighting 2.79 1.33 L 85 Space 2.78 1.28 L 86 Aesthetics 2.43 .33 VL Cluster 2.33 .94 VL
L=Low, VL= Very Low, NA= Not Available, DEC= Decision
188
Data in table 33 showed 12 observed library items. Item 75 (Books) has a mean score of 2.68
and standard deviation of 1.25. This item was available but less adequate. Item 76 (Shelves) has
a mean score of 2.63 and standard deviation of 1.24. This item was available but less adequate.
Item 77 (Chairs) has a mean score of 2.61 and standard deviation of 1.24. This item was
available but less adequate. Item 78 (Tables) has a mean score of 3.22 and standard deviation of
1.55. This item was available but less adequate. Item 79 (Windows/doors) has a mean score of
1.67 and standard deviation of 1.20. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 80
(Fans) has a mean score of 1.00 and standard deviation of .00. This item was not available. Item
81 (Air conditioners) has a mean score of 3.21 and standard deviation of 1.52. This item was
available but less adequate. Item 82 (Natural Lighting) has a mean score of 2.06 and standard
deviation of 1.32. This item was available but very less adequate. Item 83 (Electricity) has a
mean score of 1.02 and standard deviation of .28. This item was not available. Item 84 (Solar
lighting) has a mean score of 2.79 and standard deviation of 1.33. This item was available but
less adequate. Item 85 (Space) has a mean score of 2.78 and standard deviation of 1.28. This
item was available but less adequate. Item 86 (Aesthetics) has a mean score of 2.43 and standard
deviation of .33. This item was available but very less adequate. The cluster mean and standard
deviation were 2.33 and 0.94 respectively. This indicated that library items in secondary schools
in South-South Nigeria were very less adequate.
Research Question 4
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
189
Table 34: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in instructional supervision.(N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.009 .876
0.000081 0.01
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.022 .705
0.000484 0.05
Educational Qualification
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.019 .737
0.000361 0.04
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.019 .746
0.000361 0.04
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.016 .781
0.000256 0.03
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.073 .202
0.005329 0.53
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.024 .679
0.000576 0.06
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.039
.489 0.001521 0.15
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.143* .012
0.0204 2.04
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.342** .000
0.1169 11.6
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.096
.091 0.009216 0.92
The correlation coefficients between location, leadership styles of principals and performance in
supervision (-.143, and .342 respectively) were substantial, though that of location is negative.
Therefore, principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in
instructional supervision than principals in the rural areas. Location explained 2.04% of the
variance in principals’ performance in instructional supervision. Principals that exhibited a more
open leadership style were more effective in instructional supervision than those that exhibit less
open leadership style. Leadership style accounts for 11.70% of the variance in principals’
performance in instructional supervision. There was no substantial relationship between age (-
.009), gender (-.022), educational qualification (-.019), area of specialty (.737), experience as
Principal (-.016), experience as Vice Principal (-.073), marital status (-.024), state of origin
(.039), motivation (.096) and principals performance in instructional supervision.
190
Research Question 5
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in communication in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria?
Table 35: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in communication. (N = 310)
Variables r2 Percentage Age Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) -.065 .257
0.004225 0.42
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.024
.668 0.000576 0.06
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.071 .213
0.005041 0.5
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.086 .129
0.007396 0.74
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.055 .337
0.003025 0.3
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.017
.770 0.000289 0.03
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.079 .163
0.006241 0.62
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.054
.344 0.002916 0.29
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.130* .022
0.0169 1.69
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.451** .000
0.2034 20.34
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.043
.452 0.001849 0.19
The correlation coefficients between location and leadership styles of principals and performance
(-.130, and .451 respectively) were substantial. However that of location was negative.
Therefore, principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in
communication than principals in the rural areas. Location explained 1.69% of the variance in
principals’ performance in communication. Principals that exhibited an open leadership style
communicate more effectively than principals that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership
style explained 20.34% of the variance in principals’ performance in communication. There was
no substantial relationship between age (-.065), gender (.024), educational qualification (-.017),
191
area of specialty (-.086), experience as Principal (-.055), experience as Vice Principal (.017),
marital status (-.079), state of origin (.054), motivation (.043), and principals performance in
communication.
Research Question 6
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in decision making in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria?
Table 36: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in decision-making.(N = 310)
Variables r2 Percentage Age Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed) .030 .599
0.0009 0.09
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.024 .674
0.00056 0.06
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.134* .018
0.0180 1.80
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.075 .186
0.005625 0.56
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.070 .221
0.0049 0.49
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.064 .258
0.004096 0.4
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.067 .236
0.004489 0.45
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.084 .140
0.007056 0.71
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.045 .429
0.002025 0.2
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.495** .000
0.2450 24.50
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.011
.850 0.000121 0.01
The correlation coefficients between educational qualification and leadership styles of principals
and performance in decision making (-.134, and .495 respectively) were substantial though that
of educational qualification was negative. Therefore, the lower the educational qualification of
principals the more effective they were in decision-making. Educational qualification explains
192
1.80% of the variance in principals’ performance in decision making. Principals that exhibited a
more open leadership style are more effective in decision-making than those that exhibited less
open leadership style. Leadership style accounted for 24.50% of the variance in principals
performance in decision making. There was no substantial relationship between age (.030),
gender (-.024), area of specialty (-.075), experience as Principal (-.070), experience as Vice
Principal (-.064), marital status (-.067), state of origin (-.084), location (-.045), motivation
(.850) and principals’ performance in decision-making.
Research Question 7
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
Table 37: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.030 .602
0.0009 0.09
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.010 .864
0.0001 0.01
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.094 .099
0.008836 0.88
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.133* .019
0.0177 1.77
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.106 .061
0.011236 1.12
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.034 .557
0.001156 0.12
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.030
.602 0.0009 0.09
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.006 .920
0.000036 0.004
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.015
.787 0.000225 0.02
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.602** .000
0.3624 36.24
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.066 .244
0.004356 0.44
193
The correlation coefficients between area of specialty and leadership styles of principals and
performance in provision of incentives (-.133, and .609 respectively) were substantial. However
that of area of specialty is negative. Principals who did not specialize in educational
administration and planning were more effective in providing incentives to teachers and students
than principals that had background in educational administration and planning. Area of
specialty explained 1.77% of the variance in principals’ performance in provision of incentives.
Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective in providing
incentives to teachers and students than those that exhibited less open leadership style.
Leadership style accounted for 36.24% of the variance in principals’ performance in provision of
incentives. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.030), gender (-.010),
educational qualification (-.094), experience as Principal (-.106), experience as Vice Principal
(-.304), marital status (.030), state of origin (-.006), location (.015), motivation (-.066) and
principals’ performance in providing incentives to teachers and students.
Research Question 8
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in human resource development in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
194
Table 38: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in human resource development. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.032 .572
0.001024 0.1
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.027 .637
0.000729 0.07
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.061 .284
0.00372 0.37
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.076 .183
0.005776 0.58
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.042 .464
0.001764 0.18
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.036 .525
0.001296 0.13
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.004 .951
0.000016 0.002
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.072 .205
0.005184 0.52
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.996 0 0
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.562** .000
0.3158 31.58
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.046
.422 0.002116 0.21
The correlation coefficient between leadership styles of principals (.562) and performance in
human resources development was substantial. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership
style are more effective in human resource development than principals that exhibited close
leadership style. Leadership style explained 31.58% of the variance in principals’ performance in
human resources development. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.032),
gender (-.027), educational qualification (-.061), area of specialty (-.076), experience as Principal
(-.042), experience as Vice Principal (-.036), marital status (-.004), state of origin (-.072),
location (.000), motivation (.422), and principals’ performance in human resource development.
195
Research Question 9
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria?
Table 39: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in public relations. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.088 .124
0.007744 0.77
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.001 .991
0.0001 0.01
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.027 .641
0.000729 0.07
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.028 .620
0.000784 0.08
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.032 .573
0.001024 0.1
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.113* .048
0.0128 1.28
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.073 .202
0.005329 0.53
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.126* .027
0.0159 1.59
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.003 .963
0.000009 0.001
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.410** .000
0.1681 16.81
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.079
.163 0.006241 0.62
The correlation coefficients between experience as vice principal, state of origin and leadership
styles of principals, and performance of principals in public relations (-.113, -.126 .410
respectively),are substantial, though that of experience as vice principal and state of origin were
negative. The fewer the years served as vice principal, the more effective the principals were in
public relations. Experience as Vice Principal explained 1.28% of the variance in principal
performance in public relations. State of origin was also related to principals’ performance in
public relations. State of origin explained 1.60% of the variance in principals’ performance in
public relations. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style are more effective in
196
public relations than those that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership style accounted for
16.81% of the variance in principals’ performance in public relations. There was no substantial
relationship between age (-.088), gender (-.001), educational qualification (-.027), area of
specialty (-.028), experience as principal (-.032), marital status (-.073), location (-.003),
motivation (.079), and principals’ performance in public relations.
Research Question 10
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
Table 40: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality
variables and performance in financial management. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.021
.716 0.000441 0.04
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.030
.593 0.0009 0.09
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.085 .136
0.007225 0.72
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.105 .066
0.011025 1.1
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.168** .003
0.0282 2.82
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.068 .233
0.004624 0.46
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.011 .844
0.000121 0.01
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.136** .017
0.0185 1.85
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.089
.118 0.007921 0.79
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.303** .000
0.0918 9.18
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.022
.695 0.000484 0.05
The correlation coefficients between experience as principal, state of origin and leadership styles
of principals, and performance in financial management (-.168, -.136 and .303 respectively) were
substantial. However, that of experience as principal and state of origin were negative. The
197
fewer the years of service, the more effective the principal were in financial management.
Experience as principal accounted for 2.82% of the variance in principals’ performance in
financial management. State of origin was also related to principals’ performance in financial
management. It explained 1.85% of the variance in principals’ performance in financial
management. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective in
financial management than those that exhibited less open leadership style. Leadership style
accounted for 9.18% of the variance in principals’ performance in financial management. There
was no substantial relationship between age (.021), gender (.030), educational qualification (-
.085), area of specialty (-.105), experience as vice principal (-.068), marital status (-.011),
location (.089), motivation (.022), and principals’ performance in financial management.
Research Question 11
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria?
198
Table 41: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables
and performance in adherence to legal status. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.003 .959
0.000009 0.001
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.007 .900
0.000049 0.01
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.018 .750
0.000324 0.03
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.063 .271
0.003969 0.4
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.054 .345
0.002916 0.3
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.040
.483 0.0016 0.16
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.035 .535
0.001225 0.12
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.033 .560
0.001089 0.11
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.023 .684
0.000529 0.05
3Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.401** .000
0.1608 16.08
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.036
.527 0.001296 0.13
The correlation coefficient between leadership styles of principals and their adherence to legal
status (.401) was substantial. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective
in adherence to legal status than principals that exhibited close leadership style. Leadership style
accounted for 16.08% of the variance in principals’ performance in adherence to legal status.
There was no substantial relationship between age (-.003), gender (-.007), educational
qualification (-.018), area of specialty (-.063), experience as principal (-.054), experience as vice
principal (.040), marital status -.035), state of origin (-.033), location (-.023), motivation (.036),
and principals performance in adherence to legal status.
199
Research Question 12
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria?
Table 42: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in Conflict Management and Resolution. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.087 128
0.007569 0.76
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.021
.716 0.000441 0.04
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.001
.986 0.000001 0.0001
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.077 .175
0.005929 0.59
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.137** .016
0.0188 1.88
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.046
.423 0.002116 0.21
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.016 .777
0.000256 0.03
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.031 .583
0.000961 0.1
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.005
.927 0.000025 0.003
Leadership Style
Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.567** .000
0.3215 32.15
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.007 .906
0.0000 0
The correlation coefficients between experience and leadership styles and principals performance
in conflict management and resolution (-.137 and .567 respectively) were substantial. However,
that of experience as principal was negative. Therefore, the fewer the years of experience the
more effective the principal were in conflict management and resolution. Experience explains
1.88% of the variance in principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution.
Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style are more effective in school conflict
management and resolution than those that exhibited less open leadership style. Leadership style
200
accounted for 32.15% of the variance in principals’ performance in conflict management and
resolution. There was no substantial relationship between age (-.087), gender (.021), educational
qualification (.001), area of specialty (-.077), experience as vice principal (.046), marital status
(-.016), state of origin (-.031), location (.005), motivation (-.007), and principals’ performance in
conflict management and resolution.
Research Question 13
What are the correlation coefficients between demographic and personality variables and
principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria?
Table 43: Correlation Coefficients between principals’ demographic and personality variables and performance in plant management. (N = 310)
Variables
r2 Percentage
Age Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.007
.896 0.000047 0.01
Gender Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.027
.637 0.000729 0.07
Educational Qualification Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.167** .003
0.0279 2.79
Area of Specialty Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.100
.079 0.01 1
Experience as Principal Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.028 .620
0.000784 0.08
Experience as VP Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.034
.548 0.001156 0.12
Marital Status Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.060 .289
0.0036 0.36
State Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.056
.322 0.003136 0.31
Location Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.163** .004
0.0266 2.66
Leadership Style Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
-.063 .272
0.003969 0.4
Motivation Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed)
.001
.990 0.000001 0.0001
The correlation coefficients between educational qualification and location, and principals
performance in plant management (.167 and -.163 respectively) were substantial, though that of
location was negative. Therefore, the higher the educational qualification of the principals the
201
more effective they were in school plant management. Educational qualification explained
2.79% of the variance in principals’ performance in plant management. Principals in the rural
areas were less effective in school plant management than principals in the urban areas.
Location accounted for 2.66% of the variance in principals’ performance in plant management.
There is no substantial relationship between age (.007), gender (.027), area of specialty (.100),
experience as principal (-.028), experience as vice principal (.034), marital status (-.060), state of
origin (.056), leadership styles (-.063), motivation (.001), and principals’ performance in school
plant management. The summary of correlations between demographic and personality factors
and principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools is shown in
fig. 4.
.
P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
Experience of principal
Educational qualification
Leadership style
Area of specialty
Experience as Vice principal
LocationInstructional supervision
Communication
Plant mgt.
Fin. mgt
Decision making
Public relations
Human Resource Dev.
Conflict mgt. & Resolution
Adherence to legal statusState
Provision of incentives
Fig. 4: summarized findings of (tables 34-43) on correlations between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
202
Hypothesis (Ho1)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals’ performance
in instructional supervision in the management of secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
Table 44: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Instructional Supervision
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 120.996 11 11.00 5.277 .000
Residual 621.120 298 2.084
Total 742.116 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 44 showed that F-value of 5.277 is significant at 0.000. This indicated that the
demographic and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’
performance in instructional supervision. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear
relationship between demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in
instructional supervision was rejected.
Table 45: Model Summary for Instructional Supervision
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.404a .163 .132 1.44371
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.163. This indicates that 16.3% of the variance in
instructional supervision is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 16.3% of
the variance in instructional supervision is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
203
Table 46: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on instructional supervision
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
B Std. Error Beta (Constant) 6.176 2.333 2.647 .009 Age -.002 .027 -.005 -.086 .932 Gender -.215 .182 -.065 -1.178 .240 Educational Qualification .001 .180 .000 .003 .997 Area of Specialty -.058 .215 -.015 -.269 .788 Experience as Principal -.007 .261 -.024 -.414 .679 Experience as VP -.028 .017 -.084 .-.481 .140 Marital Status -.058 .261 -.057 -.1.016 .310 State -.002 .050 .059 1.066 .287 Location -.507 .173 -.164 -2.924 .004** Leadership Style .173 .027 .347 6.441 .000** Motivation .019 .011 .093 1.699 .090*
. (** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in instructional supervision, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 46.
The t-values were age (-.086, P < 0.932), Gender (-1.178, P < 0.240), Academic qualification
(0.003, P < 0.997), Area of specialty (-.269, P < 0.788), Experience as principal
(-.414, P < 0.679), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.481, P <0.140), Marital status
(-1.016, P < 0.310), State of origin (1.066, P < 0.287), Location (-2.924, P < 0.004), leadership
style (6.441, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.699, P < 0.090). Out of the variables, only location
and leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’
performance in instructional supervision. Principals whose schools were located in the rural
areas were less effective in instructional supervision than their counterparts in the urban areas.
Principals who exhibited open leadership style were more effective in instructional supervision
than those who exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between motivation of
principals and their performance in instructional supervision tended towards significance
(P < 0.09).
204
Hypothesis (Ho2)
There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality variables, and
principals’ performance in communication in the managesment of secondary schools in the
South-South, Nigeria.
Table 47: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Communication.
Model
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 177.568 11 16.143 9.025 .000
Residual 533.000 298 1.789
Total 710.568 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 47 showed that F-value of 9.025 was significant at 0.000. It indicated that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
communication. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between
demographic and personality variables and principals’ performance in communication was
rejected.
Table 48: Model Summary for Communication
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.500a .250 .222 1.33738
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.250. This indicates that 25% of the variance in
communication is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 25% of the variance
in communication is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
205
Table 49: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Communication
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 7.161 2.162 3.313 .001 Age -.021 .025 -.045 -.826 .409 Gender -.057 .169 -.018 -.338 .735 Educational Qualification -.072 .167 -.023 -.431 .667 Area of Specialty -.278 .199 -.075 - 1.393 .165 Experience as Principal -.002 .016 -.006 -.105 .916 Experience as VP .003 .017 -.011 .205 .839 Marital Status -.472 .242 -.104 -1.950 .052* State .066 .046 .075 1. 425 .155 Location -.406 .161 -.134 -2.527 .012** Leadership Style .223 .025 .457 8.966 .000** Motivation .013 .010 .067 1.293 .197
(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in communication, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 49. The
t-values were age (-.826,P< 0. 409), Gender (-.338, P < 0.735), Educational qualification
(-.431, P < 0.667), Area of specialty (-.1.393, P < 0.165), Experience as principal
(-.105, P < 0.916), Experience as Vice-principal (0.205, P<0.839), Marital status
(-1.950, P < 0.052), State of origin (1.425, P < 0.155), Location (-2.527, P < 0.012), leadership
style (8.966, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.293, P < 0.197). Out of the demographic and
personality variables, only location and leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05)
with and predicted principals’ performance in communication. Principals whose schools were
located in the rural areas were less effective in communication than those in the urban areas.
Principals who exhibited open leadership style were more effective in communication than those
who exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between marital status of principals and
their performance in communication tended towards significance (P < 0.052).
206
Hypothesis (Ho3)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’ performance in
decision making in the management of secondary schools in the South-South, Nigeria.
Table 50: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Decision-Making.
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 216.100 11 19.645 10.879 .000
Residual 538.107 298 1.806
Total 754.207 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 50 showed that F-value of 10.879 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
decision-making. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between
demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in decision-making was
rejected.
Table 51: Model Summary for Decision making
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square Std. Error of the
Estimate .535a .287 .260 1.34377
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.287. This indicates that 28.7% of the variance in
decision making is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 28.7% of the
variance in decision making is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
207
Table 52: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Decision Making
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 4.107 2.172 1.891 .060 Age .038 .025 .080 1.511 .132 Gender -.125 .170 -.038 -.736 .463 Educational Qualification -.266 .167 -.084 -1.592 .112 Area of Specialty -.053 .200 -.014 -.263 .793 Experience as Principal -.010 .016 -.034 -.643 .521 Experience as VP -.027 .017 -.084 -1.589 .113 Marital Status -.618 .243 -132 -2.543 .012** State -.057 .047 -.063 -1.227 .221 Location -.203 .161 -.065 -1.258 .209 Leadership Style .250 .025 .497 9.993 .000** Motivation 5.65E-
005 .010 .000 .005 .996
(** Sig. at P < 0.05 )
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in decision making, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 52. The
t-values were age (1.511, P< 0. 132), Gender (-.736, P < 0.463), Educational qualification
(-1.592, P < 0.112), Area of specialty (-.263, P < 0.793), Experience as principal
(-.643, P < 0.521), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.589, P < 0.113), Marital status
(-2.543, P < 0.12), State of origin (-1.227, P < 0.221), Location (-1.258, P < 0.209), leadership
style (9.993, P < 0.000) and motivation (.005, P < 0.996). Out of the demographic and
personality variables, only marital status and leadership style had significant relationship
(P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in decision-making. Principals who are not
married were more effective in decision-making than the principals who were married. Principals
that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in decision-making than those that
exhibited close leadership style.
208
Hypothesis (Ho4)
There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality variables, and
principals’ performance in provision of incentives in the management of secondary schools in
the South-South, Nigeria.
Table 53: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Provision of Incentives to Teachers and
students.
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression 385.519 11 35.047 16.816 .000
Residual 621.094 298 2.084
Total 1006.613 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 53 showed that F-value of 16.816 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
provision of incentives to teachers and students. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant
linear relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in
provision of incentives to teachers and students was rejected.
Table 54: Model Summary for provision of incentives
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.619a .383 .360 1.44368
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.383. This indicates that 38.3% of the variance in
provision of incentives to teachers and students is caused by variations in the predictor variables.
Therefore, 38.3% of the variance in provision of incentives is predicted by demographic and
personality variables.
209
Table 55: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Provision of Incentives
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) -.261 2.333 -.112 .911 Age .016 .027 .029 .591 .555 Gender -.001 .182 .000 -.007 .994 Educational Qualification -.056 .180 -.015 -.309 .757 Area of Specialty -.378 .215 -.086 -1.758 .080* Experience as Principal -.021 .017 -.062 -1.247 .213 Experience as VP -.023 .019 -.060 -1.220 .223 Marital Status -.134 .261 -.025 -.512 .609 State .059 .050 .056 1.171 .243 Location .038 .173 .011 .219 .826 Leadership Style .347 .027 .596 12.900 .000** Motivation -.015 .011 -.064 -1.361 .175
(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students, the t-values of each variable
were presented in table 55. The t-values were age (.591, P< 0. 555), Gender (-.7007, P < 0.994),
Educational qualification (-.309, P < 0.757), Area of specialty (-1.758, P < 0.080), Experience as
principal (-1.247, P < 0.213), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.220, P < 0.223), Marital status
(-.512 P, < 0.609), State of origin (1.171, P < 0.243), Location (.219, P < 0.826), leadership style
(12.900, P < 0.000) and motivation (-1.361, P < 0.175). Out of the demographic and personality
variables, leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’
performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. Principals that exhibited open
leadership style were more effective in provision of incentives to teachers and students than
those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between area of specialty of
principals’ and their performance in the provision of incentives to teachers and students tended
towards significance (P < 0.080).
210
Hypothesis (Ho5)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’ performance in
human resource development in the management of secondary schools in the South-South,
Nigeria.
Table 56: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Human Resource Development.
Model
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression 363.195 11 33.018 13.103 .000 Residual 750.943 298 2.520 Total 1114.138 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Year of experience as Principal, Year of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 56 showed that F-value of 13.103 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals are significantly related to principals’ performance in
human resources development. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship
between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in human resources
development was rejected.
Table 57: Model Summary for human resource development
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.571a .326 .301 1.58743
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.326. This indicates that 32.6% of the variance in
human resource development is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 32.6%
of the variance in human resource development is predicted by demographic and personality
variables.
211
Table 58: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Human Resources
Development
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
B Std. Error Beta (Constant) -2.057 2.566 -.802 .423 Age .001 .030 .002 .044 .965 Gender -.119 .200 -.030 -.592 .554 Educational Qualification -.069 .198 -.018 -.348 .728 Area of Specialty -.151 .237 -.032 -.637 .524 Experience as Principal .005 .018 .015 .289 .773 Experience as VP -.008 .020 -.020 -.395 .693 Marital Status -.389 .287 -.068 -1.354 .177 State -.036 .056 -.032 -.652 .515 Location -.055 .191 -.014 -.288 .773 Leadership Style .345 .030 .564 11.667 .000** Motivation .011 .012 .043 .871 .384
(** Sig. at P < 0.05)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in human resources development, the t-values of each variable were presented in
table 58. The t-values were age (.044,P<0. 965), Gender (-.592, P < 0.554), Educational
qualification (-.348, P < 0.728), Area of specialty (-.637, P < 0.524), Experience as principal
(.289,P < 0.773), Experience as Vice-principal (-.395, P < 0.693), Marital status
(-1.354, P < 0.177), State of origin (-.652, P < 0.515), Location (-.288, P < 0.773), leadership
style (11.667, P < 0.000) and motivation (.871, P < 0.384). Out of the demographic and
personality variables, only leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and
predicted principals’ performance in human resources development. Principals that exhibited
open leadership style were more effective in human resources development than those that
exhibited close leadership style.
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Hypothesis (Ho6)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals performance in
public relations in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
Table 59: Analysis of Variance of Regression in Public Relations.
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
Regression 190.799 11 17.345 7.135 .000
Residual 724.434 298 2.431
Total 915.233 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Year of experience as Principal, Year of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 59 showed that F-value of 7.135 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
public relations. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship between
demographic and personality factors and principals performance in public relations was rejected.
Table 60: Model Summary for public relations
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.457a .208 .179 1.55916
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.208. This indicates that 20.8% of the variance in
public relations is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 20.8% of the
variance in public relations is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
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Table 61: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Public Relations
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 4.748 2.520 1.884 .061 Age -.023 .029 -.044 -.792 .429 Gender -.110 .197 -.031 -.558 .577 Educational Qualification -.027 .194 -.008 -.137 .891 Area of Specialty .043 .232 .010 .186 .853 Experience as Principal .001 .018 .004 .076 .939 Experience as VP -.033 .020 -.091 -1.641 .102 Marital Status -.635 .282 -.123 -2.251 .025** State -.100 .054 -.100 -1.854 .065* Location -.113 .187 -.033 -.605 .545 Leadership Style .228 .029 .410 7.838 .000** Motivation .014 .012 .062 1.171 .243
(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in Public relations, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 61. The
t-values were age (-.792, P< 0. 429), Gender (-.558, P < 0.577), Educational qualification
(-.137, P < 0.891), Area of specialty (.186, P < 0.853), Experience as principal (.076, P < 0.939),
Experience as Vice-principal (-1.641, P < 0.102), Marital status (-2.251,P < 0.025), Location
(-.605, P < 0.545), leadership style (7.838, P < 0.000) and motivation (1.171, P < 0.243). Out of
the demographic and personality variables, only marital status and leadership style had
significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in public relations.
Principals who were not married were more effective in public relations than principals who
were married. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in public
relations than those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between state of origin
and principals’ performance in public relations tended towards significance (P < 0.065).
214
Hypothesis (Ho7)
There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality variables, and
principals’ performance in financial management in the management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria.
Table 62: Analysis of Variance of Regression in Financial Management.
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 191.927 11 17.448 4.860 .000
Residual 1069.751 298 3.590
Total 1261.678 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 62 showed that F-value of 4.860 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
financial management. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship
between demographic and personality factors, and principals performance in financial
management was rejected.
Table 63: Model Summary for financial management
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.390a .152 .121 1.89467
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.152. This indicates that 15.2% of the variance in
financial management is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 15.2% of the
variance in financial management is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
215
Table 64: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Financial Management
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.291 3.062 .748 .455 Age .068 .035 .111 1.917 .056* Gender .279 .239 .066 1.168 .244 Educational Qualification -.070 .236 -.017 -.299 .765 Area of Specialty -.327 .282 -.066 -1.160 .247 Experience as Principal -.061 .022 -.162 -2.773 .006** Experience as VP -.041 .024 -.096 -1.680 .094* Marital Status -.321 .343 -.053 -.937 .349 State -.100 .066 -.085 -1.520 .130 Location .317 .227 .079 1.394 .164 Leadership Style .186 .035 .285 5.264 .000** Motivation .003 .015 .013 .231 .817
(** Sig. at P < 0.05; * Sig. at P < 0.1)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in Financial Management, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 64.
The t-values were age (1.917, P< 0. 056), Gender (1.168, P < 0.244), Educational qualification
(-.299, P < 0.765), Area of specialty (-1.160, P < 0.247), Experience as principal
(-2.773. P < 0.006), Experience as Vice-principal (-1.680, P < 0.094), Marital status
(-.937, P < 0.349), State of origin (-1.520, P < 0.130), Location (1.394, P < 0.164), leadership
style (5.264, P < 0.000) and motivation (.231, P < 0.817). Out of the demographic and
personality variables, only experience as principals and leadership style had significant
relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in financial management. The
fewer the years of working experience, the more effective the principals managed, their financial
resources. Principals that exhibited open leadership style were more effective in financial
management than those that exhibited close leadership style. The relationship between age of
principals (P < 0.056), and experience as vice principals (P < 0.094), and their performance in
financial management tended towards significance.
216
Hypothesis (Ho8)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly predict principals’ performance in
adherence to legal status in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
Table 65: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Adherence to Legal Status
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 114.482 11 10.407 5.707 .000
Residual 543.467 298 1.824
Total 657.948 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 65 showed that F-value of 5.707 was significant at 0.000. It showed that there was a
significant relationship between demographic and personality variables of principals and their
performance in adherence to legal status. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear
relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals performance in
adherence to legal status was rejected.
Table 66: Model Summary for adherence to legal status
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.417a .174 .144 1.35045
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.174. This indicates that 17.4% of the variance in
adherence to legal status is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 17.4% of
the variance in adherence to legal status is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
217
Table 67: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Adherence to Legal
Status
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 6.828 2.183 3.128 .002 Age .013 .025 .030 .528 .598 Gender -.032 .171 -.010 -.187 .852 Educational Qualification .090 .168 .030 .537 .592 Area of Specialty -.182 .201 -.051 -.903 .367 Experience as Principal -.002 .016 -.008 -146 .884 Experience as VP .014 .017 .045 .798 .426 Marital Status -.374 .244 -.085 -1.532 .127 State -.008 .047 -.010 -.176 .860 Location -.058 .162 -.020 -.360 .719 Leadership Style .192 .025 .408 7.626 .000** Motivation .009 .010 .045 .837 .403
(** Sig. at P < 0.05)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to principals’ performance in
adherence to legal status, the t-values of each variable were presented in table 67. The t-values
were age (.528, P < 0.598), Gender (-.187, P < 0.852), Educational qualification
(.537,P < 0.592), Area of specialty (-.903, P < 0.367), Experience as principal (-.146, P < 0.884),
Experience as Vice-principal (.798, P < 0.426), Marital status (-1.532, P < 0.127), State of origin
(-.176, P < 0.860), Location (-.360, P < 0.719), leadership style (7.626, P < 0.000) and
motivation (.837, P < 0.403). Out of the demographic and personality variables, only leadership
style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in
adherence to legal status. Principals that exhibited a more open leadership style were more
effective in adherence to legal status than those that exhibited less open leadership style.
218
Hypothesis (Ho9)
Demographic and personality variables do not significantly relate with principals performance in
conflict management and resolution in the management of secondary schools in the South-South,
Nigeria.
Table 68: Analysis of Variance of Regression on Conflict Management and Resolution
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square
F Sig.
Regression 273.695 11 24.881 13.982 .000
Residual 530.285 298 1.779
Total 803.980 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 68 showed that F-value of 13.982 was significant at 0.000. It showed that there was a
significant relationship between demographic and personality variables of principals and their
performance in conflict management and resolution. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no
significant linear relationship between demographic and personality factors and principals
performance in conflict management and resolution was rejected.
Table 69: Model Summary for conflict management and resolution
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.583a .340 .316 1.33397
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.340. This indicates that 34% of the variance in conflict
management and resolution is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 34% of
the variance in conflict management and resolution is predicted by demographic and personality
variables.
219
Table 70: t-Values of the Demographic and Personality Variables on Conflict Management
and Resolution.
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig. B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.960 2.156 1.373 .171 Age -.012 .025 -.025 -.496 .620 Gender .052 .168 .015 .309 .758 Educational Qualification .232 .166 .071 1.394 .164 Area of Specialty -.228 .199 -.058 -1.146 .253 Experience as Principal -.022 .015 -.075 -1.448 .149 Experience as VP .013 .017 .039 .761 .447 Marital Status -.302 .241 -.062 -1.253 .211 State .016 .046 .017 .348 .728 Location .018 .160 .006 .113 .910 Leadership Style .294 .025 .566 11.847 .000** Motivation .001 .010 .006 .122 .903
(** Sig. at P < 0.05)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in Conflict management and resolution, the t-values of each variable were presented
in table 70. The t-values were age (-.496, P < 0. 620), Gender (.309, P < 0.758), Educational
qualification (1.394, P < 0.164), Area of specialty (-1.146, P < 0.253), Experience as principal
(-1.448, P < 0.149), Experience as Vice-principal (.761, P < 0.447), Marital status
(-1.253 P < 0.211), State of origin (.348, P < 0.728), Location (.113, P < 0.910), leadership style
(11.847, P < 0.000) and motivation (.122, P < 0.903). Out of the demographic and personality
variables, only leadership style had significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted
principals’ performance in conflict management and resolution. Principals that exhibited open
leadership style were more effective in conflict management and resolution than those who
exhibited close leadership style.
220
Hypothesis (Ho10)
There are no significant linear relationships between demographic and personality variables, and
principals’ performance in plant management in the management of secondary schools in South-
South, Nigeria.
Table 71: Analysis of Variance of Regression on School Plant Management.
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 19803.691 11 1800.336 1.961 .032
Residual 273533.01 298 917.896
Total 293336.70 309
Predictors: (Constant), Age, Gender, Educational Qualification, Area of Specialty, Years of experience as Principal, Years of experience as Vice Principal, Marital Status, State, Location, Leadership style, and Motivation.
Table 71 showed that F-value of 1.961 was significant at 0.000. It showed that the demographic
and personality variables of principals were significantly related to principals’ performance in
school plant management. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant linear relationship
between demographic and personality factors and principals’ performance in school plant
management was rejected.
Table 72: Model Summary for plant management
Model
R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
.260a .068 .033 30.29680
The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.068. This indicates that 6.8% of the variance in plant
management is caused by variations in the predictor variables. Therefore, 6.8% of the variance in
plant management is predicted by demographic and personality variables.
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Table 73: t-Values of the Demographic and personality Variables School Plant Management
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients
t
Sig.
B Std. Error
Beta
(Constant) 213.101 48.968 4.352 .000 Age .145 .567 .015 .256 .798 Gender -1.999 3.826 -.031 -.522 .602 Educational Qualification 10.421 3.773 .167 2.762 .006** Area of Specialty 3.443 4.516 .046 .762 .446 Experience as Principal -.462 .352 -.080 -1.312 .190 Experience as VP -.016 .390 -.003 -.042 .966 Marital Status -5.742 5.481 -.061 -1.035 .302 State .594 1.053 .033 .564 .573 Location -9.505 3.637 -.154 -2.613 .009** Leadership Style -.467 .564 -.047 -.827 .409 Motivation -.020 .233 -.005 -.088 .930
(** Sig. at P < 0.05)
To determine which of the variables were significantly related to or predicted principals’
performance in school plant management, the t-values of each variable were presented in
table 73. The t-values were age (.256, P < 0. 798), Gender (-.522, P < 0.602), Educational
qualification (2.762, P < 0.006), Area of specialty (.762, P < 0.446), Experience as principal
(-1.312, P < 0.190), Experience as Vice-principal (-.042, P < 0.966), Marital status
(-1.035, P < 0.302), State of origin (.564, P < 0.573), Location (-2.613, P < 0.009), leadership
style (-.827, P < 0.409) and motivation (-.088, P < 0.930). Out of the demographic and
personality variables, only educational qualification of principals and location of the schools had
significant relationship (P < 0.05) with and predicted principals’ performance in school plant
management. The higher the educational qualification the more effective the principals were in
school plant management. Principals whose schools are located in the rural areas were less
effective in school plant management than their counterparts in the urban areas. The summary of
demographic and personality variables that predicted principals’ performance in the task areas of
management of secondary schools is shown in fig. 5.
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Experience of principal
Educational qualification
Leadership style
Location
Marital status
Instructional supervision
Communication
Plant mgt.
Fin. mgt
Decision making
Public relations
Conflict mgt. & Resolution
Adherence to legal status
.
P
E
R
F
O
R
M
A
N
C
E
Provision of incentives
Human Resource Dev.
Fig. 5: Summary of (table 44-73), demographic and personality variables that predicted
principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in
South-South, Nigeria.
Summary of findings
Based on the analysis, the major findings were summarized below.
1. Most principals in South-South, Nigeria were males, married, with first degrees, are
within the age limit of 51-55 years, have served as principals for a period of 10 years or
2. less, and served for 6-10 years as vice principals before becoming principals. They
specialized in different areas of education.
3. Intrinsic factors like nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and
advancement were motivators to principals’ performance in the task area of management
of secondary schools.
4. The principals in South-South, Nigeria, exhibited a more open leadership style.
223
5. Principals’ performance was high in task areas like instructional management,
communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers and students,
financial management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution.
Their performance was low in human resources development, public relations. The state
of observed school plant items like classrooms, staffrooms, laboratories, and playgrounds
were less adequate. Toilets, water, electricity, medical facilities and libraries were very
less adequate. Workshops and fire extinguishers were not available. Only compound
items were highly adequate.
6. Leadership styles had relationship with principals’ performance in instructional
supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers and
students, human resources development, public relations, financial management,
adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution in the management of
secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
7. Leadership style explained 11.70%, 20.34%, 24.50%, 36.24%, 31.58%, 16.81%, 9.18%,
16.08%, and 32.15%, of the total variance in principals’ performance in instructional
supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resources
development, public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, and
conflict management and resolution respectively.
8. Location explained 2.04%, 1.69%, and 2.66%, of the total variance in principals’
performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant management
respectively.
9. Educational qualification explained 1.80%, and 2.79% of the total variance in principals
performance in decision making, and school plant management respectively.
224
10. Experience as principal explained 2.82%, and 1.88% of the total variance in principals
performance in financial management, and conflict management and resolution
respectively.
11. Area of specialty explained 1.77% of the total variance in principals’ performance in
provision of incentives.
12. Experience as vice principal explained 1.28% of the total variance in principals’
performance in public relations.
13. State explained 1.59%, 1.85%, of the total variance in principals’ performance in public
relations and financial management respectively.
14. Demographic and personality factors had joint significant relationship (P<0.05) with
principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary schools.
15. Demographic and personality factors predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%,
20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%, 34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision,
communication, decision making, provision of incentives, human resource development,
public relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management
and resolution, and plant management respectively.
16. Leadership style predicted principals’ performance in all task areas except plant
management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria.
17. Location predicted principals’ performance in Instructional Supervision, communication
and plant management.
18. Marital status predicted principals’ performance in decision making and public relations.
19. Educational qualification predicted principals’ performance in plant management.
20. Experience predicted principals’ performance in financial management.
225
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMEDATIO NS,
LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES AND SU MMARY
In this chapter, the findings of the study based on the purpose that guided the study were
discussed. The conclusions, educational implications, recommendations, limitations of the
study, suggestions for further research and summary of the whole study were also presented.
Discussion of Findings
Discussions were presented in accordance with the research questions posed and
hypotheses formulated for the study.
1. Demographic variables of principals of secondary schools.
2. Personality (Leadership styles and Motivation) variables of principals of secondary
schools.
3. Performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools.
4. Demographic and personality variables as correlates of performance of principals in the
task areas of management of secondary schools.
5. Demographic and personality variables as predictors of principals performance in the task
areas of management of secondary schools.
Demographic variables of principals of secondary schools
The results on demographic variables (age, gender, educational qualification, area of
specialty, experience as principal, experience as Vice principal, marital status, state, and
location) of principals in secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria, showed that most of the
principals are within the age bracket of 51-55 years. This means that most of the principals were
young. The government of South-South, would have been guided by the proposition of Reyes
225
226
(1990), and Feldman (1996) that young principals in their fifties exhibited better management
capabilities than older principals since individuals tend to gradually disengage from active work
with age.
Most principals in the secondary schools were males. Saduwa (2011) pointed out that
although gender has its own advantages and disadvantages for management effectiveness, the
capability of the principal was more important. Most of the principals had served for a period of
not more than 11 years in that capacity. Besides, before most of the principals were appointed
they have served as Vice principals for between six and ten years. The findings of the study
showed that most of the principals were appointed from those who had served as vice principals.
The situation where teachers who served as vice principals were appointed as principals would
enable the principals to be effective having understudied a principal in course of their
professional growth. This was in line with the assertion of Lazear (2000), who noted that the
Peter principle in management theory recommended the selection of persons for superior
positions based on their abilities relevant to the intended position.
Most of the principals in the secondary schools had first degrees rather than higher
degrees. Besides, most of the principals had their qualifications in education related areas other
than specializing in educational administration and planning or non educational areas. This is in
line with different policy presumptions that teachers and principals should be professionally
qualified. Eyike (2001) asserted that specialized training empowers and motivates principals for
better performance. Ellah (2004) noted that professionally qualified principals have the tendency
to succeed more than their non-qualified counterparts in a situation where many things have to
be managed. Therefore, professionally trained principals would perform their roles better than
non-professionals in the management of schools.
227
It was also found that most of the principals were married. Anyanwu (2009) noted that
the traditional virtue of marriage such as love, fidelity and mutual fulfillment imbibed by married
men and women are presumed to transcend to the work place where they exhibit love, mutual
respect, and maturity that enable them handle some complex problems. Thompson (2000) also
noted that the performance of the principals would be influenced by their marital status since
emotional stability that comes with marriage is important in instructional leadership.
Personality (Leadership styles and Motivation) profile of principals of secondary schools
The results showed that principals in South-South, Nigeria exhibited open leadership
style in the management of their schools. This is based on the fact that the principals
communicated openly to staff about school activities, encouraged self expression, creativity and
interaction in the school, showed feeling of concern and respect for staff and delegated duties to
staff. The principals also involved teachers in decision-making, made appeal rather than
command staff, were concerned about staff feeling, as well as showed concern for school goals
and staff welfare. Therefore, it was evidently clear that the principals exhibited more of open
leadership style rather than close leadership style of imposing task and duties on teachers,
wanting things done their own way, being resistant to change and being indifference about
activities in the school.
These findings agreed with the views of Udeh (2000) that people-oriented style or open
leadership style has democratic tendencies and demonstrates respect for every person in the
group. It is characterized by adequate welfare attention, shared responsibilities, and group
member’s involvement in decision making, which encourages individual and group initiatives
and creativity. Adeyemi (2010) noted that the democratic leadership of principals of secondary
schools include open communication, shared decision-making, delegation of duties, support and
trust, working with teams, and empathy, improved human relations, corporation, and teaching
228
and learning. Okorie (2010) also observed that principals leadership behaviors which serve as
antidotes of motivation of teachers to higher performance are: empathy, delegation of duties, oral
commendation, recognition through presentation of gift items and involvement in decision
making.
The findings of this study showed that factors such as nature of work itself, recognition,
responsibility, achievement and advancement are sources of motivation for principals in the
management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria. The results showed that the nature of
the work principals do serve as motivator. This is based on the fact that what they did is
meaningful, interesting, and required their initiatives in carrying their duties effectively.
Besides, the principals’ job was challenging and not threatened and they derived pleasure from
their job. It is pertinent to state that the nature of the principals’ job being challenging and which
required their initiatives made it interesting and a source of pleasure thus, serving as a motivator
to them to carry out their duties effectively. These findings were in line with the assertion of
Osthuizen (2001), that the nature of the job as challenging and interesting was an influential
factor in predicting overall performance.
The findings also showed that the principals opinions were highly valued at PTA
meetings, and successfully accomplished work were also recognized by the appropriate agencies.
When one is recognized ordinarily and used as a reference point for a job well done, it boosts
morale for higher performance. This finding agreed with that of Jones (2004) that the amount of
recognition one gets as a manager increases a sense of identity and respect for those who deserve
it. He concluded that recognition is a fundamental source of self conforming belongingness
identity. When the views of the Principals were not sought in certain issues related to the school
by the school’s Board or PTA, it would undermine confidence thereby diminishing the
possibility of hard work.
229
The responsibilities attached to the principals as the administrative head of the secondary
schools served as a motivator that spurred them to effective performance of their duties. This
was based on the findings that they were not redundant on the job, but were engaged in presiding
over staff meetings, supervising instruction and various sections of the school. The principals
were officers of the Parent Teachers Association who regularly hold meeting to take decisions on
salient issues about the progress of the schools. The principals were also custodians of all
important records of the school who took reasonable care and precaution in handling them. The
principals were also engaged in nominating staff to participate in available conference to
enhance their productivity. Therefore, these responsibilities of the principals were in no small
measure a source of motivation to them. This was in line with the assertion of Tella, Ayeni and
Popoola (2007) that Librarians were motivated for more productivity because of the
responsibilities given them to represent university Librarians at either faculty board meeting or
departmental committee meetings.
It was also found that achievement served as a motivator to principals in the performance
of their duties. This was on the basis that their students were doing well, staff were making some
socio-economic progress, there was improvement in infrastructure and school-community
relationship was cordial. These circumstances made the principals happy and spurred them to
frequently carry out their functions. This agreed with the findings of Ekere (2010) that
achievement ranked very high as a factor which motivated Librarians to higher performance.
The findings of this study also showed that advancement motivated school principals in
the effective performance of their duties. This stemmed from the fact that they had acquired
further education and training since becoming principals, had acquired management committee
experience on the job, with possibility for self actualization, and opportunity for promotion. The
230
results showed that principals in South-South, Nigeria were motivated by their academic
achievement and possibility for professional growth.
Therefore, the factors that motivated principals in the management of secondary schools
were nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and advancement. Okolo, Haruna,
and Oguche (2013) observed that motivation plays a vital role in job satisfaction of teachers and
they perform better when given challenging work, opportunity for growth, recognized, and
provided with their basic needs. The authors explained that motivated staff exhibits more
commitment at their work place. According to Ejike (2011), intrinsic motivating factors like
nature of work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and advancement would spur workers to
high performance. These motivational factors are important to principals’ performance and need
to be sustained in the management of secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria since the main
aim of motivating staff is to get the best out of them. It is assumed that motivated staff will
exhibit commitment at work place. There is the need to encourage principals by adequately
motivating them, so as to get from them the highest level of commitment desired as the
administrative heads of secondary schools. Sinden and Hoy (2008) noted that the principal who
is the chief executive officer of a secondary school needs to be well motivated towards
achievement of educational goals. This is because intrinsically motivated employees will
perform better and therefore be more productive while remaining loyal to their employers and
feel no pressure or need to move to a different firm. Kolawale and Fashina (2004) found that the
motivation variables such as responsibility, a need for personal growth, recognition, achievement
and work itself were significant in the job performance of the principals.
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The extent of principals’ Performance in the task areas of management of secondary
schools
The findings of the study showed that principals’ performance in instructional
supervision in the management of secondary schools was high. This was on the basis that the
principals frequently assigned teachers to classes according to their qualifications, inspected
teachers notes of lessons to see if they were properly written in line with the content of scheme
of work, conducted unscheduled informal visits to classrooms, pointed out specific strengths and
weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices, and occasionally examined students note books
during class visits. These findings agreed with that of Agbo (2013) that principals perform
different instructional supervision roles. Chika and Ebeke (2007) observed that, among many
factors that influence learning and achievement in secondary schools, principals’ instructional
management seem to be the most intervening factor. Haruna (2008) also noted that instructional
supervision is the most important responsibility of a school principal in the management of
secondary schools since all effort in all educational settings are geared towards promoting
effective teaching and learning. The school administrators’ ability to effectively see that aspects
of instructional delivery in the school system are properly carried out is a responsibility that must
be given high premium. Students’ inability to excel in external examinations could be attributed
to uncovered scope of work in the syllabus during the teaching and learning process. Okwor
(2001) observed that a situation where the principal devotes little or no time to instructional
responsibilities, the quality of education offered to the students cannot be effectively and
adequately ascertained and guaranteed. Enyi (2012) underscored the need for principals to ensure
effective supervision of teachers’ lesson plan before delivery to see if they are properly prepared
to enhance teaching and learning.
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Therefore, Supervision of instruction is one of the indispensable task of an effective
administrator in the operation of a good school system. It is the duty of the Principal to see that
meaningful learning is taking place in all the classes and that the teachers are teaching what they
are supposed to teach, and in a manner that the students understand and enjoy their lessons.
The results also showed that principals’ performance in communication in the
management of secondary schools was high. They frequently discussed schools’ goals and
mission with teachers at meetings, informed staff and students about School rules and guidelines
to enable them adjust properly, encouraged teachers to discuss their problems with them,
mentioned the schools’ goals or mission in forum with students like morning assemblies, and
sent out information about students to parents and guardians. These findings agree with that of
Okwor (2012) that principals regularly meet with teachers and students to discuss school
activities, and disseminate information regularly to staff and students. Buttressing these findings,
Hallinger and Heck (2009) noted that principals must foster an environment of open
communication between teachers and principals, teachers and teachers, and teachers and students
for the overall interest of all in the school system. If the principal’s communication style is
unfavorable to teachers working with him, there is the tendency that the teachers would not co-
operate with the principal and performance would be affected.
The findings of the study also showed that the principals’ performance in decision
making in the management of secondary schools was high. This was based on the fact that
principals’ frequently involved teachers in decision making process, took decision based on
available resources, and considered school programmes in taking decisions. Divivedi (1998)
observed that involving subordinates in decision making improves the quality of decision and the
effectiveness of the organisation, which leads to achievement of the organizational goals.
Involving teachers in decisions may lead to job satisfaction. Udoh and Akpa (2007) also
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asserted that where teachers are adequately involved in decision making process, there would be
commitment and adequate support with the principal and the realization of school goals will be
easy. In this regard, apathy and opposition within the school will be minimized. As a
fundamental process in an organisation, Peretomode (2001) observed that decision-making in the
school system which involves subordinates like teachers, is central in the responsibilities of
educational administrators as a way to reduce tension, conflict and misgiving in schools.
The findings also showed that principals rarely involved students’ representatives in
taking decisions concerning them. It is important to note that involvement of students in
decisions relating to them will help reduce the level of indiscipline exhibited by students since
the student representatives will stand to curtail the exuberance of their fellow students. The
results also showed that principals occasionally ensured that PTA meetings were held to discuss
salient issues of school improvement. It is important that principals frequently hold meeting with
parents to partner on some critical issues about the school. Buttressing the importance of
participatory decision making, Oboegbulem and Onwurah (2011) noted that collaborative
decisions with stake holders in schools, like parents, usually improve the quality of decisions
since diverse organizational experience is drawn and this increases the understanding of the
group as well as their commitment to the decisions. Lack of such meetings to share ideas with
stakeholders is detrimental to the health of the school and the performance of the principal will
be affected to some extent. The findings are in agreement with that of Agbo (2013) that
measures of promoting collaborative decision making in the management of schools include:
participation of teachers in decision making, clear channels of communication, and welcoming
and encouraging teachers initiatives and originality.
The findings of the study showed that principals’ performance in provision of incentives
to staff and students was high. The principals frequently showed love and care to staff and
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students, recognized teachers’ personal value, and ensure that the learning environment was safe
from hazards. These findings were in line with the assertion of Mgbodile (2004), who noted that
a basic incentive to staff and students in the school system is a feeling of concern to their welfare
by providing a learning environment that is free from hazards. Although the results showed that
principals occasionally reward staff and students, it is the view of Mgbodile that showing
recognition of efforts for job well done is a basic incentive that is often forgotten but which
matters in motivating individuals to higher performance. Duze (2012) also noted that principals
can encourage effective performance of their teachers and students by identifying their needs and
ensuring their satisfaction. School administrators who reward hard work for staff and students
not only create an atmosphere for competition but also encourage discipline, because honour
goes with discipline and orderliness which is an instrument for maintaining high standards.
The findings also showed that principals’ performance in human resource development
was not impressive. This stemmed from the fact that principals occasionally organized
progammes for staff development, showed interest in teachers’ in-service training, and built a
sense of team work to nurture earnest effort to help each staff member achieve their potentials.
However, the principals frequently encouraged teachers to attend available professional
development programmes like seminars or workshops. They also set aside time at staff meetings
for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities. The findings are not
surprising since it could not have been within the purview of principals to organize programmes
for re-training teachers but rather the responsibility of the government through the ministry of
education. This might have made them indifference about the professional development of
teachers, but only frequently encouraging teachers to attend available ones like seminars and
workshops. The finding that principals frequently set aside time at staff meetings for teachers to
share ideas or information from in-service activities was in line with the assertion of Ikpeba
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(2012) that sharing of information from training with other fellows in staff meetings makes them
have an impact of the training in the same direction for value re-orientation and attitudinal
change in service delivery. Consequently, joint problem solving attitude and spirit is cultivated
for team work which has a direct bearing on instructional improvement.
Any effort made by the principals for the re-training of teachers make their work easier
since they perform some of their duties through the teachers and take responsibility for such
delegated functions. Kabiru (2000) noted that for teachers to be fully equipped for their
professional duties, continuous training in instructional development, teaching skills, and
managerial ethics are needed in order to meet the objectives of education with the advancement
in technology. The National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004)
recommended in-service training as an integrated part of continuing teachers’ education. These
findings disagree with that of Ndako (2012) who found that principals in an effort to improve
their staff encourage them to register for sandwich programmes to update their knowledge in the
teaching profession, periodically recommended to the Schools Management Board some staff for
in-service training, monitored and evaluated professional development of staff among others.
The findings also showed that principals’ performance in public relations is low. This
was based on the fact the principals’ only frequently liaised with the schools board in finding
solutions to school problems. They occasionally organize extra-curricular activities with parents
of students and other stake holders in attendance, kept the community adequately informed of the
specific needs of the school for possible assistance, established PTA groups to work co-
operatively with them as well as allowed the public to use school facilities. These findings were
contrary to the assertion of Worlu (2007) that the public relations function of the principal
demands operating an open door policy for easy accessibility, regularly meeting with stake
holders like Parent Teachers Association (PTA) to discuss salient issues of school improvement
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and inviting the community to important school functions like price giving day, annual sports
competition and end-of-year events. Bander (2008) noted that regularly liaising with the stake
holders will endear the school to the public and attract support and assistance in various ways as
well as promoting public-private partnership in school management. Buttressing this fact,
Idemili (1990) also noted that school principals who are considerate in allowing members of the
public to use some school facilities such as halls and play grounds indirectly establish rapport
and invariably strengthen school public relations. The inherent significance of such positive
school public relations practices is immense to the existence of the school in maintaining cordial
relations between the community and the school.
The findings of the study also indicated that principals’ performance in financial
management was high. This was based on the fact that principals frequently kept proper accounts
of disbursement of school funds, prioritized financial allocation according to needs, and worked
within the confines of school budget. They occasionally prepared realistic budgets, and explored
sources of revenue generation to provide some essential needs of the school. Ndayelechi (2011)
identified means of internally generated funds for secondary schools as PTA development levies,
appeal funds, donations from philanthropic organizations, tuition fees, and proceeds from
agricultural products, concert, and local crafts. These findings confirmed Mgbodile’s (2004)
claim that school administrators are not constrained in financial management, but the inability of
various levels of government to provide funds for the development of the schools. The findings
of this study seemed to be in agreement with Ogbonnaya (2009) who noted that since various
governments cannot adequately fund the educational institutions, the institutions should look for
possible sources of revenue for financing their programmes. They also agreed with Ndayelechi
(2011) who noted that prudent management of funds entails keeping close check on financial
matters; prioritizing financial allocation according to needs; ensuring budgets agree with goals
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and objectives; working within the confines of budget; knowledge of appropriate financial
system and regular reports of progress against budgets figures. However, the findings did not
agree with the views of Ogbonnaya cited in Mgbodile (2004) that financial management is one
of the areas where many practicing school administrators have neither knowledge nor skills and
which has contributed to the failure of many schools programmes.
The findings of this study also indicated that principals’ performance in adhering to
legal status in the management of secondary schools was high. This was based on the
respondents opinion that the principals frequently emphasized on the proper understanding of the
rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents’
in educational matters, maintained confidentiality of official matters and ensured mutual
understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations. The
principals also ensured strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are
clearly defined, and frequently made rules and regulations available to teachers and students to
regulate their conduct in the school against any violation. The adherence to legal provision of
the law as it relates to school management by the principals agreed with the assertions of Ellah
(2004), that knowledge of the legal provisions of principals rights and privileges, roles and codes
of conduct as they relate especially to the rights and obligations of teachers and students is of
great concern not only to the school administrator but to all members of the society who are
directly or indirectly involved in the educational system. Adhering to legal status in the school
system not only enhances good conduct but also promotes discipline and avert all forms of
litigations for breach of rights of persons directly or indirectly related to the school system.
The findings of this study indicated that principals’ performance in conflict management
and resolution was high. This was based on the fact that most of the respondents agreed that the
principals did not frequently take side with any party in a dispute in the school, and frequently
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created cordial relationships with and among teachers, ensured proper school organization to
define staff roles to avoid a clash, treated everybody equally, and fostered strict disciplinary
measures to defaulting staff and students to serve as a deterrent to others. These findings agreed
with that of Nkado (2012) and Idoko (2010) that principals fostered harmony in their schools.
These findings were in agreement with that of Okwor (2012) that principals applied the
rules without minding who were involved and using disciplinary measures to create an
atmosphere of commitment and dedication to duty. The findings also agreed with the assertion of
Ikoya and Akinsende (2009), that school administrators should employ strategies like being
neutral, hearing from feuding parties, knowing the rules and applying them confidently, and
looking at suggested solutions to get to a consensus. The findings disagreed with the contention
of Okontoni and Okontoni (2008) that most school administrators are not knowledgeable in
conflict management.
The performance of principals in school plant management was low. This was based on
the fact that the state of most of the observed plant items was poor. The poor state was due to
wears and tears and lack of maintenance culture in the use of such facilities. These findings were
in agreement with that of Allen (2007) who noted that the state of deplorable facilities in
secondary schools, the unhygienic water system in most schools, called for urgent attention to
ameliorate the conditions. Enyi (2012) noted that for effective performance in the management
of schools, administrators are expected to have a good maintenance programme in the school to
protect the initial capital investment made by government. Bryce (2006) also observed that the
actual role of school administrators in the area of plant management is maintenance. Therefore,
resources available to them should be used to maintain the facilities to enhance their facelift
through repairs or replacements. The poor state of school plant as depicted from the findings
agreed with the assertion of Amadike (2002) on the state of school plant.
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Demographic and personality variables as correlates of principals’ performance in the task
areas of management of secondary schools
The findings showed that there was substantial relationship between some demographic
and personality variables and principals performance in some task areas of management of
secondary schools. Educational qualification related with principals performance in decision
making, and school plant management; Experience as principal related with principals
performance in financial management, and conflict management and resolution; Experience as
vice principal related with principals performance in public relations; Area of specialty related
with principals performance in provision of incentives; State related with principals performance
in public relations and financial management; Location related with principals performance in
instructional supervision, communication and school plant management. Leadership styles
related with principals performance in all task areas except school plant management.
Educational qualification related with principals performance in decision making, and
school plant management. Kalagbor (2004) noted that the professional qualification of the
principal from training exposes him to rational thinking for proper analysis of situations before
taking decisions. The author stated further that qualification is a symbol of one’s intellectual
maturity and experience in decision-making for the best course of action. Principals would have
been exposed to courses during training in school plant management and such knowledge would
have enhanced the status of plant facilities in the schools.
Experience also related with principals performance in financial management and
conflict management and resolution. Okoh (2003) noted that principals experience gained in the
course of their work life enable them source for funds for school improvement as government
alone rarely provide funds for management of schools. In essence, experience enables principals
make reasonable effort to ensure that the schools raise internal funds and not to over rely on
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government for certain administrative matters. Experience also enables principals to handle
complex issues capable of causing rift between staff in the school in order not to escalate.
Experience as vice principal related with principals performance in public relations.
Peretomode (2001) asserted that experience acquired as vice principals while climbing the
seniority ladder enable the principals to develop leadership skills to effectively relate with people
directly or indirectly associated with the school to attract development to the school. Such
experience gives principals extensive repertories to effectively relate with parents, community
and the government in handling the affairs of the schools. Adeboyeje (1997) in a study found
that performance in public relations improved with experience of the principals. According to the
author, as the years pass by, each principal gain greater awareness of the important link between
public relations and the organizational effectiveness.
Location also related with principals performance in instructional supervision,
communication and school plant management. Principals whose schools were located in urban
areas were more effective in instructional supervision, communication and school plant
management. This could be attributed to principals sensitivity of their schools proximity to
government agencies that supervise schools. Ikediugwu (1999) in a study found that location
was a strong factor in secondary school administration.
Area of specialty also related with principals performance in provision of incentives.
Principals who did not specialize in educational administration and planning were more effective
in providing incentives to teachers and students. This could be that the courses in educational
administration and planning did not make the principals more sensitive to the plight of teachers
and students than courses in other areas of specialty of the principals.
There was correlation between leadership style of the principals and performance in the
task areas except school plant management. Okorie (2010) noted that leadership is an essential
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factor that propels the management of all internal and external aspects of an organisation and
attributes largely to the achievement of goals. The leader exerts much influence on how people
interact, communicate and conduct the activities of the organisation through motivation and
delegation of duties. The authors were of the view that principals’ effective leadership enhances
free communication which removes rift among members in the school and promote cooperation
for the achievement of intended goals. Hallinger and Heck (2009) asserted that effective
leadership enables staff to be part of the planning and problem solving process, helps in staff
development, motivates staff who are part of the decision making process, and gives them
personal interest in seeing that the plan succeed. Gurgan (2010) identified leadership
effectiveness as essential to motivate teams and inspire personnel to higher performance.
Thompson (2007) explained that effective leadership correlates with financial management.
Linjuan (2011) found that leadership effectiveness builds a favorable internal reputation, which
in turn generates external intangible assets for the organization. The findings of a positive
correlation between leadership and human resource development agreed with that of Hallinger
and Heck (2009).
The findings of the study also agreed with that of Nwaeze (2003) that democratic
leadership behaviour and initiating structure have positive correlation with organizational
climate. Similarly, the findings of the study corroborated with that of Shaman (2006) on a study
on the attributes of school principals leadership style and capacities for secondary schools. The
results showed a strong positive correlation between perception of teachers on principals’
leadership styles and effectiveness in their duties.
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Demographic and personality variables as predictors of principals’ performance in the
management of secondary schools
The findings of this study showed that the demographic and personality variables (age,
gender, educational qualification, experience, marital status, location, state motivation and
leadership style) jointly had significant relationship with principals’ performance in all the task
areas (instructional supervision, communication, decision-making, provision of incentives,
human resource management, financial management, public relations, adherence to legal status,
conflict management and resolution, and school plant). The findings further showed significant
relationship between some demographic and personality variables with principals performance in
specific tasks areas. For instance, Location of school had significant relationship with principals’
performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant management;
principals whose schools were located in the rural areas are less effective in instructional
supervision, communication and school plant management than their counterparts in the urban
areas. Marital status had significant relationship with principals’ performance in decision
making and public relations, and tended towards significance with communication; Principals
who were not married are more effective in decision-making and public relations than the
principals who were married. Experience as principal had significant relationship with
performance in financial management. The fewer the years of working experience, the more
effective the principals were in the management of financial resources. Educational qualification
had significant relationship with principals’ performance in plant management. The higher the
educational qualification the more effective the principals are in school plant management.
Principals’ area of specialty tended towards significance with performance in provision of
incentives. State as a factor tended towards significance with performance in public relations.
There was no significant relationship between age, gender and motivation with principals’
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performance in any of the task areas. Age and Motivation tended towards significance in with
principals’ performance in financial management and instructional supervision respectively.
There was significant relationship between leadership style and principals’ performance in all
but one task areas.
These finding agreed with that of Okpe (2010), on the influence of demographic
variables and school climate on principals’ job performance in public secondary schools in
South-East, Nigeria. The results showed that educational qualification, experience, and gender
jointly and significantly influence principals’ job performance. They also agreed with that of
Okwor (2012), on the relationship between principals’ demographic characteristics and
organizational effectiveness in secondary schools. The results indicated substantial relationship
between some principals’ demographic characteristics and organizational effectiveness in terms
of communication, decision-making, motivation, and disciplinary measures. The results further
revealed that of all the demographic variables (Age, Qualification and experience as vice
principal), only experience as a vice principal had significant relationship with principals’ overall
organizational effectiveness. The results of this study also agreed with some aspects of the
findings of Okpalugo (2008) that there was a significant relationship principals’ age, gender,
experience, qualification, marital status and students’ achievement. Specifically, schools
administered by married principals with higher qualifications had the best results. The results of
the study did not agree with that of Ibukun (2011) and Ogunsanya (2001) that there was a
significant difference between principals’ age and their administrative effectiveness. The results
disagreed with that of Njoku (2004), age and years of administrative experience had a significant
positive relationship with administrative effectiveness. They disagreed also with the findings of
Anderson and Druva (2003) and Ibian (2005) that work experience of the principals had
significant positive relationship with their job performance. However, the findings also
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disagreed with the findings of earlier studies such as Aguh (2003), Emeh (2004), and Okpe
(2010) that experience did not significantly influence principals’ job performance.
The findings of the study of a significant positive relationship between qualification and
plant management agreed with that of Chike and Ebeke (2007), Okendu (2009) and Okpe
(2010) that significant relationship existed between principals’ educational qualification and
administrative effectiveness in certain areas of management of schools. It can be logically
posited that the superiority attributed to professionally qualified principals over less qualified
ones is that professional training pre-exposes principals to knowledge, skills, attitudes and
sophistications needed for effective and efficient job performance. However, this finding
contradicted the findings of earlier studies. For instance, Akpan (2007), Aguh (2003), and
Ogbaji and Oti (2006) reported that professional qualifications of principals have no significant
influence on their job performance.
The findings of this study also agreed with that of Domina (2005) and with some of the
results of Adenuga (2008), that of the predictor variables (age, gender, experience and
qualification) only age and gender had no substantial relationship with principals’ effectiveness.
Age and gender had negligible influence on principals’ performance effectiveness because
advancement in technology has so exposed individuals in different direction that the influence of
age and gender may not have been substantial. The results were not in agreement with that of
Oredien (2004) and Njoku (2004) which showed a positive relationship between principals’
productivity and age. These findings disagreed with that of Onyiri (2007) on principals’ personal
attributes and administrative effectiveness of public and private secondary schools. The results
show that there was no significant difference in the influence of principals’ age, experience,
qualification, and forthrightness on the administrative effectiveness of private and public
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schools. Their performance only differ due to close supervision of instruction which was higher
in private schools.
The findings of the study showed that married principals were less effective in decision
making and public relations than singles. This might be so as Aguh (2003) observed that
marriage subjects couples to more responsibilities which gives them little time to follow up
official matters or attend to their official work very regularly. These result disagreed with that of
Okpalogu (2008) on the relationship between principals’ demographic variables and academic
achievement. The results showed that schools administered by married principals had the best
results. The results also disagreed with that of Oentoro (2009) that showed a significant
relationship between marital status and principals’ effectiveness in the management of human
and material resources.
The findings of the study also showed that Location had significant relationship with
principals’ performance in instructional supervision, communication and school plant
management. Principals whose schools were located in the urban areas were more effective in
supervision, communication and school plant management. These findings agreed with that of
Akiri and Ugborugbo (2008) that performance of teachers was significantly influenced by
location. Teachers in urban areas performed better than those in semi-urban and rural areas. The
results of their study further revealed that the performance of female teachers was significantly
influenced by location. Female teachers performed best in urban schools and worst in rural
schools.
The findings of this study also revealed that area of specialty had significant relationship
with principals’ performance in provision of incentives to teachers and students. Principals who
did not specialize in educational administration and planning were more effective in providing
incentives to teachers and students.
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The findings of this study revealed that leadership style had significant relationship with
principals’ performance in all the task areas except school plant management. Principals that
exhibited a more open leadership style were more effective than those that exhibited close
leadership styles in instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of
incentives, human resources development, public relations, financial management, adherence to
legal status, and conflict management and resolution. The findings of the study agreed with that
of Ateh-Abang (1997), that the most effective administrators were those that exhibited openness
by communicating more information to their subordinates, being more helpful and sympathetic.
These are features of democratic behaviour which support all social activities and give strength
to the feelings of personal dignity and self-expression, creativity, group interaction and effective
performance.
It further revealed that of all the demographic and personality variables only leadership
style had a significant relationship with all the task areas of principals performance except school
plant management. These findings are not surprising because principals whose relationships with
others are characterized with mutual respect and warmth, with open channels of communication,
articulated goals, and optimizing the use of resources for the achievement of school goals should
perform well. However, the policies of various state governments on the provision of
infrastructural facilities differ and do not fall squarely within the roles of the principal. This
might explain the lack of substantial relationship with plant management. The implication is that
government have failed to provide the needed facilities like classrooms, seats, tables,
laboratories, libraries, and water which the study revealed not available and refurbish the ones in
deplorable condition for effective utilization to meet the competing educational needs of teachers
and learners.
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These findings agreed with those of earlier studies. Nwaeze (2003) reported that
leadership styles had significant relationship with organizational climate. Effective leadership
exerts positive relationships, and the ability to deal with complex issues and manage change.
Kolawole and Fashina (2009) also reported that there was a significant relationship between
principals leadership style and job performance. Studies by Jack (2012), Omeke and Onah
(2012), and Duze (2012) reported that there was significant relationship between principals
leadership style and secondary school teachers job satisfaction. Secondary school teachers
agreed that only democratic leadership exerts a positive influence on their job satisfaction. The
teachers were satisfied with democratic leadership because their opinions, comments and
suggestions were needed for decision-making. It was also observed that the democratic
leadership style was up ahead of laissez-faire, and autocratic as having a more significant
positive relationship with teachers’ job performance. A study by Nwankwo, Loyce and Obiorah
(2011) showed that leadership styles significantly related with principals administrative
effectiveness. Their findings further showed that democratic leadership style is the most
effective of all types of leadership as principals uses case studies and collaborative approach in
finding solutions to discipline problems. The findings further agreed with that of Napodia
(2010) who observed that leadership style significantly influenced principals’ administrative
effectiveness of secondary schools.
However, these findings were contrary to earlier studies. For instance, Truman (2007)
reported that there was no significant difference in influence of head teachers style of
administration on the various categories of school activities. Adegbesan (2013) showed that there
was no significant relationship between the principal’s leadership style and teaching/learning
atmosphere. Sawati, Anwar,and Majoka (2011) also reported that there is no significant
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influence of any particular management style of high school administrators and schools’
academic results.
The findings of this study revealed that motivation had no significant relationship with
principals’ performance in any of the task areas. Motivation only tended towards significance
with principals performance in instructional supervision. The findings agreed with that of
Akanbi (2003) that the relationship existing between intrinsic motivation and employee’
performance were insignificant. The findings also agreed with that of Okolo, Haruna, and
Oguche (2013) that there was no significant difference between the mean responses of male and
female secondary school teachers on the extent to which motivation influences teachers’ job
performance. However, these findings were contrary to earlier studies. For instance, Abdulahi
(2010) and Ekere (2010) reported that motivation had significant relationship with employees
performance. Kolawole and Fashina (2009) showed that motivational variables significantly
influenced the performance effectiveness of principals of secondary schools. Nakabiri (2011)
also reported that there was a significant relationship between employee motivation and
performance.
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Conclusion
The following conclusions were drawn based on the research findings.
The principals in South-South, Nigeria are mostly males, young, married who have first
degrees, and have served as vice principals before their appointment. Therefore, principals are
appointed from the stock of vice principals.
Leadership style impacted positively with principals’ performance in all but one of the
task areas of management of secondary schools. Principals exhibited open leadership styles
which was handy in improving their performance.
Principals were motivated by some intrinsic factors such as nature of work, recognition,
responsibility, achievement and advancement. However, motivation had no significant
substantial relationship with principals performance in any of the task areas, probably because
only intrinsic factors were considered.
Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision, communication, decision
making, provision of incentives to teachers and students, financial management, adherence to
legal status, conflict management and resolution. These task areas are the usual concern of the
principals in their day to day management of their schools. However, they performed poorly in
human resources development, public relations, and school plant management. These are task
areas that traditionally are not regarded by some principals as their responsibilities, but that of
government.
Whereas demographic variables such as experience, educational qualification, location,
experience as vice principal, area of specialty, marital status and state related with principals
performance in some of the task areas of management of secondary schools, only principals
experience, educational qualification, marital status, and school location predicted performance
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in some task areas. Principals age and gender neither related nor predicted performance in any
of the task areas.
Educational implications
The findings of this study have far reaching educational implications to the principals and
the government. The results have provided empirical evidence in respect of demographic and
personality variables and principals performance in the management of secondary schools.
The study revealed that most principals were in the age bracket of 51 to 55 years. The
implication of this is that most of the principals were still young to carry out their duties of
managing the affairs of secondary schools before their retirement.
The findings of the study also revealed that most of the principals were males. Gender
had no substantial relationship with any of the task areas. The implication is that the performance
of principals will not depend on whether the person is a male or female.
Most of the principals were married as revealed by the study. Marital status had
substantial relations with some aspect of management of schools. The implication is that marital
status impacted positively in the performance of principal in the management of schools.
Married principals would perform better than those who were not married. It is an enablement to
extend the responsibility and maturity that comes with marriage to give attention to school
activities and handle complex issues.
This study also found that years of working experience of principals related significantly
with principals’ performance. Experience impacted positively on principals performance in the
discharge of their duties. Principals with more years of working experience would perform better
than those with fewer years of working experience in the management of secondary schools.
This study also found that educational qualification of principals related significantly
with principals’ performance. Educational qualification of the principals is also essential in the
251
consideration of teachers for appointment to principalship position. This is an enablement for the
application of skills acquired during training to specific areas like leadership, instructional
supervision, conflict management, financial management, public relations, and decision making
to enhance their functions. Principals with higher educational qualifications would perform
better than those with lower educational qualifications in the management of secondary schools.
The study found that all the motivational factors namely work itself, recognition,
responsibility, achievement, and advancement were perceived by the principals as factors that
motivated them to higher performance. The presence of these factors in the job situation leads to
feelings of satisfaction and there absence result to decreased effort in carrying job duties.
Motivated principals would perform better than those who are not motivated. If the principals are
well motivated, they become happy and put more efforts on their jobs, and better results are
achieved.
The findings of the study revealed that leadership style had significant and positive
relationship with principals’ performance in all the tasks areas except school plant management.
The leadership behaviours exhibited by the principals from the findings of the study such as
accessibility; communicating openly to staff about school activities; encouraging teachers self
expression, creativity and interaction; showed concern and respect for staff; involving teachers in
decision-making and delegating duties to them enhanced teachers’ co-corporation, and
commitment to duty impacted positively on performance. Leadership styles could greatly
improve performance of principals in the task areas of management of secondary schools.
252
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study and the various implications which have been
highlighted, the following recommendations were made:
1. In the promotion of teachers to principalship cadre, age and gender should not be given
much premium since they had no significant relationship with principals’ performance in
any of the task areas of management of secondary schools.
2. Academic qualification, years of working experience, and marital status of teachers should
be considered during the appointment of principals since these variables had significant
relationship with principals’ performance in different task areas of management.
3. Training and re-training programmes should be given to principals with a view to helping
them adopt more open leadership styles for effectiveness.
4. Professional development and capacity building programmes in public relations, human
resources development, and school plant management should be constantly organized by
the government in collaboration with All Nigerian Conference of Principals of Secondary
Schools (ANCOPSS) for the re-training of principals since principals’ performance was
low in these task areas.
5. Although motivated, effort to improve the level of motivation of principals should be made
by the government through the Ministry of Education on the provision and maintenance of
school facilities and involve them in decision making to enhance their performance since
they represent government and implement the programmes in the schools.
253
Limitations of the Study
The generalizations made with respect to this study are subject to the following
limitations:
1. The questionnaire was prone to faking by teachers and principals and this might have
introduced error in the study.
2. The use of research assistants in the distribution of some of the questionnaire might have
affected the study negatively.
Suggestions for further Study
Based on the findings of the study, the researcher suggests the following for the further
research.
1. This study could be replicated in other zones of Nigeria for the purpose of generalization.
2. This study could be replicated using private secondary school to give room for the
generalization of the results to principals in both private and public schools.
3. This study could be done using head teachers in primary schools.
4. Experimental study could be done on the effect of leadership styles and principals
performance.
Summary of the study
Principals have the responsibility for the management of secondary schools. This
includes the different task areas such as instructional supervision, communication, decision
making, provision of incentives to teachers and students, human resources development, public
relations, financial management, adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution,
and school plant management. Effective Management of these affairs will enhance the
achievement of the aims of secondary education of preparing the individuals for useful living
within the society and for higher education. However, principals’ performance in the
254
management of secondary schools has remained questionable in South-South, Nigeria. This is
due to the deplorable state of the schools evidenced in students’ poor performance and unrest,
dilapidated facilities, teachers’ poor attitude to work, embezzlement of funds, and other illegal
activities perpetrated in the schools which has led to a public outcry. It has been observed that
demographic and personality factors such as leadership style and motivation may influence
principals in their management of secondary schools. The extent to which these variables relate
with principals’ performance in the task areas of management of secondary schools in South-
South Nigeria has not been determined, in spite of their presumed connection with performance.
This study attempted to determine the relationship between demographic and personality
variables and the performance of principals in some task areas of management of secondary
schools in South-South, Nigeria. The review of literature was carried out using three broad
headings, namely, conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and empirical studies. The
conceptual and theoretical framework brought to the fore the presumed connection between
demographic and personality variables and performance which is limited by empirical evidence.
In pursuance of the objectives, the correlational survey design was adopted while thirteen
research questions were posed and ten hypotheses postulated and tested at 0.05 level of
probability. All principals of public secondary schools in South-South, Nigeria, comprised the
population of the study. The sample for the study consisted of 310 principals obtained using Taro
Yamen’s formula. In arriving at this sample, a proportionate stratified random sampling
technique was used to select the number of principals for each state by dividing the population of
principals in each state by the population of the study and multiplying the result by the sample of
the study. To ensure a fair representation, a disproportionate stratified random sampling
technique was used to determine the number of principals per senatorial district by dividing the
255
sample for each state by three since there are three senatorial zones in each state. One thousand
eight-hundred and sixty teachers, six each for the sampled schools rated their principals.
Four instruments were used for data collection namely: the principals’ motivational
factors questionnaire, principals’ leadership style questionnaire, the principals’ performance
scale and the plant observation rating scale. Face validity of the instruments was determined by
experts in educational administration and planning, and Measurement and Evaluation all from
the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. They were expected to give their comments and suggestions
on the construction and content of the instrument bearing in mind the problems being
investigated in the study. Internal consistency reliability of the instruments was determined using
cronbach alpha from data collected from a trail test conducted using 14 government owned
secondary schools in Igbo-Eze South and Nsukka Local Government Areas of Enugu State,
South-East, Nigeria. The respective correlation coefficients obtained were considered high
enough for the study.
Research questions one was analyzed using frequencies and percentages. Means and
standard deviations were used to answer research question two and three, while Pearson Product
Moment Correlation coefficient was used to answer research question four to thirteen. The
hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using multiple regression analysis and
associated ANOVA and t-tests.
The findings showed that most principals in South-South Nigeria were males, married,
with first degrees, specialized in various aspect of education, are within the age bracket of 51-
55 years. They have served as principals and Vice principals for a period of not more than
11years. The factors that motivated principals in the performance of their duties were nature of
work, recognition, responsibility, achievement and prospects for advancement. The principals
exhibited open leadership styles. Principals’ performance was high in instructional supervision,
256
communication, decision-making, provision of incentives to staff and students, financial
management, adherence to legal status, and conflict management and resolution. Their
performance was low in human resources development, public relations and school plant
management.
The findings showed that there was substantial relationship between some demographic
and personality variables with principals performance in some task areas of management of
secondary schools. Leadership styles had relationship with principals’ performance in
instructional supervision, communication, decision making, provision of incentives to teachers
and students, human resources management, public relations, financial management, adherence
to legal status, and conflict management and resolution; educational qualification related with
principals performance in decision making and school plant management; experience related
with principals performance in financial management and conflict management and resolution;
experience as vice principal related with principals performance in public relations; area of
specialty related with principals performance in provision of incentives; Location related with
principals performance in instructional supervision, communication, and school plant
management; state related with principals performance in financial management and public
relations.
The study further showed that demographic and personality factors had joint significant
relationship with principals’ performance in all the task areas of management of secondary
schools. These variables predicted 16.3%, 25%, 28.7%, 38.3%, 32.6%, 20.8%, 15.2%, 17.4%,
34%, and 6.8% of the variance in instructional supervision, communication, decision making,
provision of incentives, human resource development, public relations, financial management,
adherence to legal status, conflict management and resolution, and plant management
respectively. The following variables predicted performance in different task areas. Leadership
257
style predicted in all the task areas except plant management; location in instructional
supervision, communication and plant management; marital status in decision making and public
relations; experience as principals in financial management; and academic qualification in plant
management. Age and gender did not predict principals’ performance in any of the task areas.
Major implications of the findings are: leadership style, experience as principal,
educational qualification, and marital status of the principals imparted positively on
performance; performance of principals would not depend on whether the person is a male or
female; the principals are still young to carry out their duties before retirement.
On account of these findings and implications, it was recommended that: the appointment
of teachers to principalship cadre should not be based on age or gender, because these variables
had no substantial relationship nor predicted principal’ performance in any of the task areas of
management of secondary schools. Educational qualification, years of working experience, and
marital status of teachers should be given premium for appointment of principals since these
variables had significant and substantial relationship with principals’ performance. Training and
re-training programmes should be given to principals with a view to helping them adopt more
open leadership styles for effectiveness. The government through the Post Primary Schools
Management Board and the Association of Principals of Secondary Schools should collaborate
to organize professional development programmes to re-train principals on human resources
development, public relations and school plant management since their performance was low in
these areas. Finally, the government through their agency should continually motivate principals
by providing and maintaining school facilities and involving them in decision-making in major
issues relating to secondary schools since they represent government and implement the
programmes in the schools.
258
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Appendix A
SUMMARY OF POPULATION FOR THE STUDY
Data Survey, 2012: Ministries of Education, South-South of States of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
S/No.
NAME OF STATE
(A)
NO. OF
TEACHERS (B)
NO. OF SEC. SCHOOLS or NO. OF PRINCIPALS
(C)
TOTAL NO. OF TEACHERS &
PRINCIPALS PER STATE (D)
(B + C)
1 Akwa-Ibom 5,489 234 5,723
2 Bayelsa 2,893 148 3,041
3 Cross Rivers 5,430 248 5,678
4 Delta 5,388 244 5,632
5 Edo 4,081 237 4,318
6 Rivers 6,539 245 6,784
TOTAL 29,820* 1,356* 31,176
279
Appendix B
TARO YAMEN’S FORMULAR FOR SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
Formula: n = N__ 1 + N(e)2
Where: n = Desired Sample Size - (?) N = Population of the study- (1,356) e = Level of significance - 0.05 1 = Theoretical constant - 1 Substituting the values in the formula gives us;
n = N__
1 + N(e)2
n = 1,356_ 1 + 1,356 (0.05) 2 = 309
PROPORTION OF SAMPLE FOR EACH STATE
1. Akwa Ibom - 234 x 309 = 53.323 = 53 1356
2. Bayelsa - 148 x 309 = 34.725 = 35 1356
3. Cross Rivers - 248 x 309 = 55.513 = 56 1356
4. Delta - 244 x 309 = 55.601 = 56 1356
5. Edo - 237 x 309 = 54.006 = 54 1356
5. Rivers - 245 x 309 = 55.829 = 56 1356 310*
280
SUMMARY OF SAMPLE FOR THE STUDY
S/No.
NAME OF STATE
(A)
SAMPLED SCHOOLS REPRESENTING PRINCIPALS
(PROPORTIONALLY STRATIFIED) (B)
SAMPLED TEACHERS 6 EACH PER SAMPLED
SCHLS IN EACH STATE (C)
(B x 6) 1 Akwa-Ibom 53 318
2 Bayelsa 35 210
3 Cross Rivers 56 336
4 Delta 56 336
5 Edo 54 324
6 Rivers 56 336
TOTAL 310* 1,860*
281
Appendix C
List of Sampled Secondary Schools used for the Study per Senatorial Zone
AKWA IBOM STATE
Akwa Ibom North-East - SD/007/AK
1. CSS, Nsit Ubium 2. CSS, Ndu Kpoise Nsit Ubium 3. CCSS, Ikot Ekpene 4. CSS, Eka Obong Abak 5. CSCS, Ikot Ukobo Uyo 6. CCSS, Four Town, Uyo 7. Etoi Sec. School, Uyo 8. Uyo High School, Uyo 9. Ikono Ibom Comp. Sec. Schl, Uyo 10. CSCS, Ikot Oku Ikono, Uyo 11. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Asuna 12. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Ikot Nte 13. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Itukhu 14. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Idoro 15. CCSS, Ikot Uneke 16. Ubium CSS, Ikot Okwot 17. CCSS, Ikot-Eyo 18. CSS, Ikot Usen
Akwa Ibom North-West - SD/008/AK
1. State College Ikot Ekpene 2. CSS, Eka Obong Abak 3. Holy Family College, Abak 4. CSS, Ediene, Abak 5. Gov’t. Tech. College, Abak 6. CSS, Nket 7. Comp. High School, Ntak Afagha 8. CSS, Afagha Obo 9. Comp. Sec. School, Odobo Okobo 10. Offort Ukwa Sec. School Obio Offort 11. CSS, Ukana 12. CCSS, Etinan 13. National High School, Etebi 14. CSS, Ikot Abia Idem 15. Comp. Sec. School Nkana 16. CSS, Uso Ekonh 17. CHS, Ekparakara 18. Eastern Middim Sec. School, Ikot Town
Akwa Ibom South - SD/009/AK
1. GSS, Afagha Eket 2. St. Francis Sec, School, Ikot Ataku Eket 3. Girls High School, Ikot Ibiok Eket 4. Nduo Eduo High School Eket 5. Eket Modern High School Ekpene Obo Esit Eket
6. Oniong West Sec.School, Ikot-Edor 7. Community Sec. Commercial School, Odio 8. Qua Iboe Church Senior Science School Odou Eyo 9. Community Sec. Commercial School, Ikot Akpan
Ishiet 10. CDA,Sec.School Ikot Eket 11. Oniong East Community Sec. School, Ikwe 12. CSS, Idiong Iniang 13. Onna Peoples High School, Abat 14. Senior Science College, Uron 15. CSS, Eyo Kam, Uron 16. CSS, Ikot Town 17. CCSS, Okorete 18. CSCS, Ikot Ebere
BAYELSA STATE
Bayelsa East - SD/016/BY
1. CSS, Otuasega 2. CSS, Idema 3. OCCSS, Otakeme 4. CSS, Elebele 5. GSS, Ayama Ogbia 6. CSS, Opume-Ogbia 7. CSS, Emeyal 8. CSS, Minibie Akassa 9. Odinade CSS, Emakalakala-Ogbia 10. CSS, Otuoke/Otuaba 11. CSS, Oruma 12. Mater Dei High School Imiringi
Bayelsa Central - SD/017/BY
1. CSS, Agudama Epie 2. Central Epie CSS, Opolo-Epie 3. CSS, Biogbolo 4. Epie National High School Kpansia 5. CSS, Igbogene 6. St. Jude’s College, Amarata 7. BDGS, Yenagoa 8. CSS, Ikolo 9. CSS, Femgbe 10. Ugo Grammer School, Yenegoa 11. CSS, Okiki 12. CSS, Ayamassa
Bayelsa West - SD/019/BY
1. CSS, Sagbama 2. CSS, Ogbotobo 3. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Afoni 4. GSS, Amassoma 5. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Aleibiri 6. GGSS, Kiama 7. GSS, Udi 8. Kiama Grammer School, Kiama 9. CSS, Norgbene
282
10. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Agoro 11. CSS, Okoroba 12. Comm. Sec. Schl,, Okumbiri
CROSS RIVER STATE
Cross River North - SD/025/CR
1. Basang Sec.Com. School Bayelsa 2. Banliku Com.Sec. School, Sankwala 3. CSS, Bendi 4. CSS, Ketting 5. Bessenge Comp. High School, utanga 6. Utanga Community Sec School, Bagga 7. Comp. High School, Bishiri 8. CSS, Busi 9. GSS, Kukare 10. Bisu Com. Sec. School Bayayam 11. Royal Com. Sec. School Lishikwel 12. Girls Sec. School, Obudu 13. Govt. Sec. School, Obudu 14. CSS, Ubang 15. CSS, Ukpe-Obudu 16. CSS, Ukwel-Obudu 17. CSS, Betukwel 18. CSS, Bebuatsan 19. CSS, Utugwang
Cross River Central - SD/026/CR
1. CSS, Okangha 2. GSS, Akparabong 3. GSS, Yala-Ikom 4. CSS, Yala 5. Army Day Sec School, Afi Barack 6. Enoghi Sec. School Ikom 7. CSS, Okuni 8. CSS, Nde-Ikom 9. Ofu top Comp. Sec. Ikom 10. Velos Sec. Community School, Ikom 11. CSS, Ogurude 12. CSS, Onyenokpon 13. CSS, Adun 14. CSS, Yala-Nkum 15. CSS, Apiapum 16. CSS, Ofodua 17. Abanyom Com. Sec. School, Edor 18. Comp. Sec School, Balep 19. Comp. Sec School, NTA
Cross River South - SD/027/CR
1. NYSC Model High School, Calabar 2. Army Day Sec. School, Calabar 3. West African People’s Institute Calabar 4. St. Patrick’s College, Ikot Ansa 5. Estate Sec. School, Ikot Ansa 6. GSS, Adiabo Calabar
7. GSS, Atu, Calabar 8. Duke Town Sec. School, Calabar 9. NECO Comp. Sec. School, Calabar 10. Govt. Sec School, Henshew Town, Calabar 11. Zenith High School Oti Uzon Ozon Okobo, Calabar 12. Margret Ekpo Sec. School, Calabar 13. CSS, Owai, Calabar 14. GSS, Atuk, Calabar 15. GSS, Nyahasang 16. GSS, Idang 17. GSS, Uwanse 18. GSS, Anaitigha 19. GSS, Atuk
DELTA STATE
Delta Central - SD/028/DT
1. Chude Girls Model School 2. Ukarbe Sec. School Otete, Oghara 3. Ihwighwu Sec. School, Ijonu-Oghara 4. OrodeGrammer School Sapele 5. IdjieGrammer School, Jessey 6. Orefe Sec. School, Ogharafe-Oghara 7. Ethiope Mixed Sec. Schl, Sapele 8. Ziks Sec. School Sapele 9. Mosogar Sec. School 10. Ezefia Grammer School, Amuikpe 11. Okotie-Ebor Grammer School, Ogharafe 12. Ogharafe Sec. School 13. Oreki Sec. School, Ogharafe 14. Boboroku Sec.School, Jessey 15. Uriapele Mixed Sec. School, Sapele 16. Elume Grammer School, Elume, Sapele 17. Ogini Grammer School School Ogharafe 18. Gana Mixed Sec. School, Sapele 19. Uforma Mixed Sec. School, Sapele
Delta North - SD/029/DT 1. Oko Sec. School, Oko 2. Niger Mixed Sec.Schl ,Asaba 3. Abavo Mixed Sec. Schl, Abavo 4. Asaba Mixed Sec. Schl, Asaba 5. Gbenoba Sec Schl., Agbor 6. Osadenis Sec. School, Asaba 7. Emumu Mied Sec. School, Agbor 8. Abavo Girls Sec. School, Abavo 9. Asaba Girls School, Asaba 10. Omumu Mixed Sec Schl, Omumu-Agbor 11. Ihu-Iyase Sec. Schl., Agbor 12. Alidima Sec. Schl., Alidima 13. Ibusa Girls Schl., Ibusa 14. Okpalani Sec. Schl. Okpanam 15. Ugbolu Sec. Schl. Ugbolu 16. Ogbe Sec.School Agbor 17. Agbor Girls High School, Agbor 18. Illah Grammer School, Illah 19. Asaba Grammer Schools, Asaba
283
Delta South - SD/030/DT
1. Army Day Sec. School, Efurun 2. Comp. Sec. School, Ugheli 3. Ogbe Sec. School, Efurum 4. Eradajage Sec. School, Ugolo-Efurum 5. GSS, Kaa 6. CSS, Kpean 7. Opoji Grammer School 8. CSS, Ogbogoro 9. Burutu Grammar Schl., Burutu. 10. Egodor Sec., Schl., Egodor 11. Egura Opoji 12. Bane Comp. Colege 13. Obotebe Sec. Schl., Obotebe 14. Otibio Grammar Schl., Otibio 15. Emo-Eni Grammar Schl.,Ellu 16. Oketa Grammar Schl., Ofagbe 17. Iyede Sec. Comm. Schl, Iyede 18. Odimodi Sec. School, Odimodi 19. Okpalani Sec. Schl. Okpanam
EDO STATE
Edo Central - SD/035/ED
1. Comp. High School, Auchi 2. Army Day Sec. School, Auchi 3. Auchi College 4. Iyekhei Girls Sec. School, Auchi 5. Edo Boys High School 6. Idia College 7. Evabareke Sec. School 8. Uselu Sec. School 9. Ohaze Sec. School Iguaben 10. Baptist High School, Iguaben 11. Ihogbe College, Irua 12. Igekehi Girls School Iguaben 13. Irua Ikpe Grammer School 14. Jatta Grammer School, Iguaben 15. Ewatto Grammer School Iguaben 16. Anglican Girls Grammer School 17. Imaguero College 18. Army Day Sec. School
Edo North - SD/036/ED
1. Uhi Grammer School Uromi 2. Akpekpe Sec. School Uromi 3. Ikasco Sec. School, Uromi 4. Udo High School Uromi 5. Uji Grammer School Uromi 6. Ibillor Boys Sec. School, Ibillor 7. CSS, Ogori Mangogo 8. Ekpedo Comp. Sec. School 9. Boys Model College, Ebovoanka 10. Ikpesi Grammer School 11. Ubiaji Comp. School, Ubiaji
12. Akoko Edo Grammer School, Uneme-Nekhua. 13. Ososo Grammer School, Ososo 14. Ososo Comp. Sec. School, Ososo 15. Ekpese College Egor 16. Ehor Grammer School, Egor 17. Oka Sec. School 18. Aduwa Sec. School
Edo South - SD/037/ED
1. Edokpolor Grammer School Benin City 2. Western Boys High School Benin City 3. Ihogbe College Benin City 4. Osaniwende Sec. School, Benin City 5. Akenzuwa Sec. School, Benin City 6. Baptist High School Benin City 7. Emotan College 8. Egosa Ang. Grammer School, Benin City 9. Aduwawa Sec. School, Benin City 10. Oba Ewanbe Sec. School 11. Evibotubo Sec. School, Benin City 12. Niger College, Benin City 13. Ugioma Sec. School, Benin City 14. Oredo Sec. School, Benin City 15. Itohan Girls Grammer School, Benin City 16. Ogbe Sec. School, Benin City 17. St. Maria Gorrette College, Benin City 18. Asoso Grammer School, Benin City
RIVERS STATE
Rivers East - SD/094/RV 1. CSS, Rumuoji 2. Army Day Sec. Schl, Bori Camp 3. Model Sec. School, Port Harcourt 4. CSS, Pabod, Port Harcourt 5. CSS, Nkpogwu Port Harcourt 6. Model Girls Sec. School Rumueme 7. CSS, Rumuolumeni 8. GGSS, Rumuokuta 9. Enithonia High School, Borokiri 10. CSS, Rumuokini 11. CSS, Amadi-Ama 12. CSS, Rumuoprikom 13. CSS, Rumuodamaya 14. CSS, Nkpolu-Oruwuorokor 15. GSS, Orominike 16. CSS, Aluu 17. CSS, Elele-Alimini 18. CSS, Igwuruta 19. CSS, Okoro nu-Odu
284
Rivers South East - SD/094/RV
1. CSS, Bori 2. CSS, Alode 3. GSS, Lua-wii 4. CSS, Mogho 5. CSS, Yeghe 6. GSS, Kpor 7. CSS, B-Dere 8. BNGS, Bori 9. CSS, Wiyakara 10. CSS, Koroma Tai 11. ICSS, Kono 12. Bane Comp. College Bane 13. GCHS, Taabaa 14. Comp. High School Nowa 15. CSS, Kpean 16. GSS, Kaa 17. BNCSS, Gwarra 18. Comm. Sec. Schlool, K-Dere 19. GSS, Onne
Rivers West - SD/095/RV
1. CSS, Emago-Kugbo 2. CSS, Emelego 3. GGSS, Ahoada 4. CSS, Okporomini Ahoada 5. County High School, Ahoada 6. CSS, Ogbogu 7. CSS, Obuburu 8. CSS, Obagi 9. GSS, Akabuka 10. Model Boys Sec. School, Omoku 11. CGSS, Omoku 12. CSS, Ido 13. KNC, Buguma 14. CSS, Abalama 15. CSS, Tombia 16. Degema National High School 17. GSS, Mibiama 18. CSS, Ifoko 19. GSS, Okarki
285
DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL POPULATION PER SENATORIAL ZONES IN SOUTH-SOUTH,
NIGERIA
AKWA IBOM STATE = 234 Secondary Schools
• Akwa Ibom North-East: (8 LGAs), and 79 schools. 1. Etinan - 11 2. Ibesikpo Asultan - 7 3. Ibiono Ibom - 11 4. Itu - 8 ) Sampled schls = 18 5. Nsitibom - 7 6. Nsit Ubim - 12 7. Uruan - 8 8. Uyo - 15
79 • Akwa Ibom North-West: (10 LGAs), and 82 schools. 1. Abak - 11 2. Essien Udium - 10 3. Etim Ekpo - 7 4. Ika - 4 5. Ikono - 12 ) Sampled Schls.= 18 6. Ikot Ekpene - 7 7. Ini - 7 8. Obot Akara - 5 9. Oruk Anam - 14 10. Ukanafun - 5_
82 • Akwa Ibom South: (12 LGAs), and 73 Sec. schools 1. Eastern Obolo - 3 2. Eket - 8 3. Esit Eket - 5 4. Ibeno - 1 5. Ikot Abasi - 11 6. Mbo - 3 7. Mkpat Enin - 16 ) Sampled Schls.= 18
8. Okobo - 8 9. Onna - 9 10. Oron - 4 11. Udung Uko - 1 12. Orue Offong/Oruku - 4_
73 BAYELSA STATE = 148 Secondary Schools • Bayelsa East: (3 LGAs), and 45 Sec. schools 1. Brass - 8 2. Nembe - 11 Sampled Schls.= 12
3. Ogbia - 26_ 45_
• Bayelsa Central: (3 LGAs), and 66 Sec. schools 1. Okolokuma/Opukuma - 12 2. Southern Ijaw - 32) Sampled Schls.= 12
3. Yenagoa - 22 66
• Bayelsa West: (2 LGAs), and 37 Sec. schools 1. Ekeremor - 17 2. Sagbama - 20 Sampled Schls.= 12
37 CROSS RIVER STATE = 248 Secondary Schools • Cross River North: (6 LGAs), and 87 Sec. schools 1. Bekwarra - 6 2. Obanliku - 13 3. Obudu - 24 4. 4. Ogoja - 16 ) Sampled Schls.= 19
5. Yala - 20 6. Biase - 8_ 87 • Cross River Central: (6 LGAs), and 95 Sec. schools 1. Abi - 11 2. Boki - 28 3. Etung - 9 4. Ikom - 15 )Sampled Schls.= 19 5. Oburra - 16 6. Yakurr - 14
95 • Cross River South: (6 LGAs), and 66 Sec. schools 1. Calabar Municipality - 16 2. Calabar South - 7 3. Akampka - 19 4. Akpabuyo - 7) Sampled Schls.= 19
5. Bakasi - 3 6. Odunkpani - 14
66 DELTA STATE = 248 Secondary Schools • Delta Central: (7 LGAs), and 96 Sec. schools 1. Ethiope East - 19 2. Ethiope West - 6 3. Okpe - 8 4. Sapele - 8 )Sampled Schls.= 18
5. Ugheli North - 22 6. Ugheli South - 14 7. Uvwie - 11
96 • Delta North: (8 LGAs), and 94 Sec. schools 1. Aniocha North - 15 2. Aniocha South - 13 3. Ika North-East - 15 4. Ika South - 12) Sampled Schls.= 18
5. Ndokwa East - 13
286
6. Ndokwa West - 12 7. Oshimilli North - 8 8. Oshimilli South - 7_
94 • Delta South: (8 LGAs), and 54 Sec. schools 1. Bomadi - 8 2. Burutu - 11 3. IsokoNorth - 10 4. Isoko South - 3) Sampled Schls.= 18
5. Pathani - 5 6. Warri North - 4 7. Warri South - 9 8. Warri North West - 4_
54 EDO STATE = 234 Secondary Schools • Edo Central: (5 LGAs), and 63 Sec. schools 1. Essan Central - 11 2. Essan North-East - 9 3. Essan South-West - 13) Sampled Schls.= 18
4. Essan West - 16 5. Igueben - 14
63 • Edo North: (6 LGAs), and 75 Sec. schools 1. Akoko Edo - 12 2. Esako East - 10 3. Esako Central - 13) Sampled Schls.= 18
4. Esako West - 13 5. Owan East - 15 6. Owan West - 14
75 • Edo South: (7 LGAs), and 96 Sec. schools 1. Oredo - 12 2. Orhrionmwon - 10 3. Ovia North-East - 14) Sampled Schls.= 18
4. Ovia South-West - 11 5. Egor - 15 6. Uhunwode - 14 7. Ikpoba Okha - 20
96
RIVERS STATE = 245 Secondary Schools • Rivers East: (8 LGAs), and 94 Sec. schools 1. Etche - 19 2. Omuma - 3 3. Ikwerre - 13 4. Obio/Akpor - 16 5. Port Harcourt - 15) Sampled Schls.= 18
6. Okrika - 6 7. Ogu/Bolo - 3 8. Emuoha - 19
94 • Rivers South-East: (7 LGAs), and 67 Sec. schools 1. Opobo/Nkoro - 3 2. Andoni - 10 3. Oyigbo - 4 4. Tai - 10 5. Eleme - 6 ) Sampled Schls.= 18
6. Gokana - 12 7. Khana - 22
67 • Rivers West: (8 LGAs), and 84 Sec. schools 1. Abua/Odual - 11 2. Ahoada East - 12 3. Ahoada West - 13 4. Asari-Toru - 11) Sampled Schls.= 18
5. Akuku-Toru - 6 6. Degema - 12 7. Bonny - 4 8. Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni- 15
84
287
Appendix D
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
Department of Education Foundation University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
25th May, 2013. Dear Sir/Madam,
Demographic and Personality correlates of Principals’ Performance in the Management of Secondary Schools in South-South, Nigeria
I am a doctoral student of the department of Educational Foundation, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, I am carrying out a study on the topic stated above. The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between demographic and personality factors, and the performance of principals in the management of secondary schools in South-South Nigeria. Your co-operation is, therefore, highly needed in order to make this work successful. In the questionnaire, you are provided with opinions and you are requested to tick (√) in the column against the item you feel is applicable. I wish to assure you that all information given by you will be treated in strict confidence and used purely for the research purpose. Thank you for your anticipated co-operation
Yours Sincerely,
Walson, Ominini Brother Asako PG/Ph.D/09/52080 (Researcher)
288
Appendix E PRINCIPALS MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS QUESTIONNAIRE (PMFQ )
(Principals only)
(SECTION A) DEMOGRAPHIC DATA
Tick in the box provided where appropriate and give the necessary information in the space provided.
1 . Name of School: ________________________________________________________ 2. Sex: Male Female 3. a. Academic Qualification: List all-----------------------------------------------------------
b. Area of specialization:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Job Experience as: Principal -------------------------------------------------
Vice Principal---------------------------------------
5. Marital Status: Married Single Divorced Separated
7. Age: ------------------------------------
289
(SECTION B)
PRINCIPALS’ MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS - (Principals only)
This Section is on Principals’ Motivational Factors. It is aimed at identifying factors
which serve as motivators to principals for effectiveness and efficiency in the management of
their schools. Indicate appropriately by ticking any option that describes the extent you
agree that each item applies to you using the following scale: Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed
(A); Disagreed (D); and Strongly Disagreed (D).
S/No. QUESTION ITEMS SA
A
D
SD NATURE OF WORK ITSELF
As a School principal, 1 The work I am doing is meaningful 2 The work I am doing is interesting 3 The job I am doing require my initiatives 4 My job is not threatened 5 I derive pleasure in my job 6 The job I am doing is challenging RECOGNITION 7 My opinion is highly valued at PTA meetings. 8 There is meaningful recognition of successfully
accomplished tasks by PTA and Schools Board.
9 I am always commended by PTA and Schools Board when I do well
10 My views are sought for in decision making 11 I am often used as a point of reference for successful
accomplishment of task
RESPONSIBILTY 12 I am not redundant on the job 13 I preside over Staff meetings 14 I participate in the supervision of instruction in my
school.
15 I supervise various sections of the school 16 I nominate my staff to participate in available
conferences/workshops
17 I am the custodian of all important records of my school 18 I am an officer of the PTA
290
SA A D SD ACHIEVEMENT
19 My students are doing well 20 My staff are making some socio-economic progress. 21 There is improvement in infrastructure in my school 22 School-Community relationship is cordial ADVANCEMENT
23 I have acquired further education and training since becoming principal
24 I have acquired management committee experience on the job
25 There is support for professional growth 26 There is possibility of self actualization 27 There is opportunity for promotion
291
Appendix F
PRINCIPALS’ LEADERSHIP STYLES QUESTIONNAIRE (PLSQ), (To be completed by teachers)
(SECTION A)
DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Tick in the box provided where appropriate and give the necessary information in the space provided.
1 . Name of School: ________________________________________________________ 2. Sex of teacher: Male Female
3. Academic Qualification of teacher: List all------------------------------------------------------
4. Job Experience of teacher:----------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Marital Status of teacher: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
292
(SECTION B)
LEADERSHIP STYLES
In this section you are provided with statements that describe the leadership styles of the
principal of your secondary school. You are kindly, requested to indicate the extent you agree
that the statements apply to your principal by ticking in one of the four columns provided
using the following scale: Strongly Agreed (SA); Agreed (A); Disagreed (D) and Strongly
Disagreed (SD).
S/No.
Question Items SA A D SD My principal
1 communicates openly to staff about school activities
2 encourages self expression, creativity and interaction in the school
3 shows feeling of concern and respect for staff
4 delegates duties to staff
5 involve teachers in decision making
6 nags at teachers openly
7 makes appeal rather than commands staff
8 imposes task and duties on teachers
9 concedes to high level of staff independence in school activities
10 wants things done in his/her own way
11 is concerned about staff feelings
12 apportions blames to staff when things go wrong
13 is resistant to change
14 is indifferent about activities in the school
15 shows concern for school goals and staff welfare
293
Appendix G (To be completed by teachers )
PRINCIPALS PERFORMANCE SCALE (PPS)
This scale provides a cluster of measures to assess principal’s performance on nine
administrative Task areas with 45 associated items. Read each statement carefully and tick the
response that best fits the specific job behavior or practice of your principal. The response
options are: Very Frequently (VF), Frequently (F) Occasionally (O), and Never (N).
S/No. Question items VF F O N
(A) INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISION
My principal
1 inspects teachers’ notes of lesson to see if they are properly written.
2 examines students note books during class visits
3 conducts unscheduled informal visits to classrooms
4 points out specific strengths and weaknesses in teacher's instructional practices
5 assigns teachers to classes according to their qualifications
(B) COMMUNICATION
My principal
6 discusses the school's goals and mission with teachers at meetings
7 informs staff and students about School rules and guidelines to enable them adjust properly.
8 encourages teachers to discuss their problems with him/her.
9 mention the school's goals or mission in fora with students (e.g., in assemblies)
10 sends out information about students to parents and guardians.
( C ) DECISION-MAKING My principal
11 involves teachers in decision making process in the school
12 ensures that PTA meetings are held to discuss salient issues of school improvement.
13 takes decision based on available resources.
14 considers school programmes in taking decisions
294
15 involve students representatives in taking decisions concerning them
(D) PROVISION OF INCENTIVES TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS
My principal
16 rewards teachers who perform well
17 rewards students with outstanding performance
18 shows love and care to staff and students
19 recognizes teacher’s personal value.
20 ensures that the learning environment is safe from hazards.
(E) HUMAN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
My principal
21 organizes programmes for staff improvement
22 shows interest in teachers in-service training
23 encourages teachers to attend available professional development programmes like seminars or workshops.
24 builds a sense of teamwork to nurture an earnest effort to help each staff member achieve his or her potential
25 sets aside time at staff meetings for teachers to share ideas or information from in-service activities
(F) PUBLIC RELATIONS
My principal
26 organizes extra-curricular activities with parents of students and other stake holders in attendance
27 keeps the community adequately informed of the specific needs of the school for possible assistance
28 helps in the establishment of PTA groups and working co-operatively with them.
29 liaise with the schools board in finding solution to school problems
30 allows the public to use school facilities
(G) FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
My principal
31 prepares realistic budget
32 explores sources of revenue generation to provide some essential needs of the school
33 Keeps proper accounts of disbursement of school funds
34 prioritizes financial allocation according to needs
35 works within the confines of school budget
295
(H) ADHERANCE TO LEGAL STATUS
My principal
36 emphasizes proper understanding of the rights, limitations and legal implications of teachers actions in dealing with students and parents’ in educational matters
37 maintains the confidentiality of official matters
38 ensures mutual understanding through obedience and preservation of school rules and regulations
39 ensures strict control over teachers and prefects whose powers and limitations are clearly defined
40 makes school rules and regulations available to teacher and students to regulate their conduct.
(I) CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AND RESOLUTION
My principal
41 does not take side with any party in a dispute in the school
42 creates cordial relationship with and among teachers
43 ensure proper school organization to define staff roles to avoid a clash
44 Treats everybody equally
45 foster strict disciplinary measures to defaulting staff and students to serve as a deterrent to others
296
Appendix H
PLANT OBSERVATION RATING SCALE(PORS)
Name of School: ________________________________________________________________________________________ Class------------------------------------------------------
Availability : Adequacy Population of Class------------------------------------- Key: Available Very High = VH High = H Not Available Low = L
Very Low = VL
S/No. PLANT ITEMS Availability Adequacy Items No.
1.
CLASSROOMS
VH H L VL Students locker & Seats 1 Teacher table & Seat 2
Ventilation
Windows/doors 3 Fan 4 Air Conditioner 5
Chalkboard
Wall 6 Wood 7 White 8
Lighting
Natural 9 Electricity 10 Solar 11
Esthetics 12
2.
OFFICES
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Teacher table & Seat 13 Ventilation
Windows/doors 14 Fan 15 Air Conditioner 16
Lighting
Natural 17 Electricity 18 Solar 19
Space 20 Filling Cabinet 21 Esthetics 22
Availability Adequacy
3.
LABORATORY
VH H L VL Equipment 23 Benches/Tables 24 Stools 25
Ventilation
Windows/doors 26 Fan 27 Air Conditioner 28
Lighting
Natural 29 Electricity 30
297
Solar 31
Space 32
Esthetics 33
4.
WORKSHOPS
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL Equipment 34 Benches/Tables 35 Stools 36
Ventilation
Windows/doors 37 Fan 38 Air Conditioner 39
Lighting
Natural 40 Electricity 41 Solar 42
Space 43 Esthetics 44
5.
TOILETS
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Water System 45 Pit Hole 46 Bucket 47 Bush 48
6.
WATER
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Pipe borne 49 Borehole 50 Mono Pump 51 Well 52 Spring 53 Tanker Supply 54 Lake/River 55 Student Supply 56 Others( 57
Availability Adequacy
7.
PLAYGROUND
VH H L VL Foot ball pitch 58 Other field events pitch 59 Track events pitch 60 Esthetics 61
8.
ELECTRICITY
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Solar 62 Public Power Supply 63 Generator 64
9.
COMPOUND
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Trees 65 Flowers 66 Grasses 67 Esthetics 68
298
Name of Observer:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Date:---------------------------------------
Time:--------------------------------------------------------------Sign:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Industrial 69 Bucket 70
11.
MEDICAL FACILITIES
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
First Aid Box 71 Attendants 72 Drugs 73 Others (Specify) 74
12.
LIBRARY
Availability Adequacy VH H L VL
Books 75 Shelves 76 Chairs 77 Tables 78
Ventilation
Windows/doors 79 Fan 80 Air Conditioner 81
Lighting
Natural 82 Electricity 83 Solar 84
Space 85 Esthetics 86
299
BENCHMARK FOR RATING SCHOOL PLANT ITEMS
Instruction: High & above = VH or H Low & Below = L or VL
S/No.
General Criteria
Items
Benchmark Ratings
High & above
Low & Below
1.
Ventilation
Windows/doors Cross ventilation Yes - No Cross ventilation - Yes
Fan & Air conditioner Functional Yes - Not Functional - Yes
2.
Light Natural, Solar & Generator Public Power Supply
Bright Yes - Dark - Yes
3.
Space
Classrooms, Offices, Lab, Lib. & Workshops
Allowance for movement Yes - Congestion
-
Yes
4.
Esthetics
Classrooms, Offices, Lab, Lib. & Workshops
Painted, neat & proper arrangement Yes
-
Not painted, dirty & Poor arrangement - Yes Playground & compound
Trimmed flowers, trees & clean paths. Yes - Untrimmed flowers, trees & over grown grasses on paths and field.
- Yes
Specific Criteria
Items
Benchmark
5.
Classroom
Table & Seat for teachers In good condition Yes - In bad condition - Yes
Seats & desks for students Equal to Number of Students in class Yes - Less than Number of students in class - Yes
Blackboard Large & smooth surface Yes - Large/Small &Rough surface - Yes
6. Offices Filing cabinet Useable by teachers Yes - Not Useable by teachers - Yes
7.
Laboratories & Workshops
Equipments
Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes
Benches, Tables & Stools Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes
8.
Library
Chairs & Table Equivalent to number of students Yes - Less than Number of students - Yes
Shelves Useable Yes - Un useable - Yes
Books Good quantity Yes - Scanty - Yes
9.
Playground
Football pitch, other field events pitch, track events pitch
Marked &useable Yes - Un marked or Fairly marked & useable
- Yes
Trees & flowers
Planted in good number & well trimmed
Yes -
Sparse - Yes
300
10.
Compound
Grasses Well cut & clean paths Yes - Bushy & dirty paths - Yes
Water
Pipe borne, Bore hole, Mono pump, & Spring.
Yes -
Tanker supply, lake/river/stream, student supply, well
- Yes
Toilets Water system, clean pit Yes - dirty Pit, bucket, & bush - Yes
11. Fire extinguisher
Compound/Offices Industrial Yes - Bucket of sand - Yes
12.
Medical facilities
First Aid Box
Functional apparatus Yes - Non-Functional apparatus - Yes
Attendants 2personnel & above Yes - Less than 2 personnel - Yes
Drugs Good quantity Yes - Low quantity - Yes
301
Appendix I
SUGGESTIONS DURING VALIDATION
The experts who validated the instrument made the following suggestions:
1. Dr. J.J. Ezeugwu suggested that effectiveness and efficiency be expunged from the
topic. He noted that the research questions and hypotheses be restructured while some
items in the demographic section of the instruments which are not relevant be
expunged. He equally moderated some of the items in the instruments and specifically
pointed out that the response pattern of the Principal Motivational Factors
Questionnaire be re-visited to tally with the questions raised. He also suggested that the
question items in the instruments be concise for simplicity while more plant items be
included in the plant observation scale. These suggestions were taken into
consideration and reflected in the final copy.
2. Prof. N.O. Ogbonnaya also suggested changes in the purpose of the study while some
items not relevant in the demographic section of the instrument be expunged. He
equally moderated some of the items in the instruments suggesting that some of the
clusters in the Principals’ Performance scale (POS) be possibly obliterated on due
consultation with the supervisor as the clusters seem to be much. These suggestions
were taken into consideration and corrections reflected.
3. Dr. (Mrs.) G.T.U. Chiaha suggested changes in the purpose of the study, research
questions and hypotheses. She moderated some of the items in the instruments noting
that more items be included especially in the Principal Motivational Factors
Questionnaire and Plant Observation scale. She also suggested that some items in the
demographic section of the instruments be expunged. These suggestions were taken into
consideration.
302
Appendix J
LIST OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS USED FOR THE TRIAL TESTIN G OF
INSTRUMENT IN ENUGU STATE
1. Urban Boys Secondary School, Nsukka
2. Model Secondary School, Nsukka
3. G.T.C. Nsukka
4. Community Secondary School, Nru-Nsukka
5. Urban Girls Secondary School, Nsukka
6. Community Secondary School, Obukpa
7. Community Secondary School, Alor-Uno
8. Community Secondary School, Ihkpa-Awka
9. Government Secondary School, Ibagwa-Aka
10. Community Secondary School, Uhuowerre
11. Ibagwa-Ani Secondary School
12. Igbo-Eze Secondary School
13. Boys Secondary School, Ibagwa-Aka
14. Edem Community Secondary School