Demons (Benevolent & Malevolent), Lucarelli

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UCLA Encyclopedia of EgyptologyUC Los Angeles

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Title:

Demons (benevolent and malevolent)

Author:

Lucarelli, Rita, University of Bonn

Publication Date:

09-01-2010

Publication Info:

UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures, UCLos Angeles

Permalink:

http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1r72q9vv

Additional Info:

Lucarelli, Rita, 2010, Demons (benevolent and malevolent). In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich(eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles.

Keywords:

magic, misfortune, evil, protection, apotropaeic, spirit, ghost, genie

Abstract:

According to ancient Egyptian belief, the created world was populated by humans, spirits ofdeceased humans, deities, and a host of supernatural beings whose identities were neverprecisely defined. The Egyptian language refers to the first three categories as, respectively, rmT,Ax or mwt, and nTr, but lacks a proper term for the fourth class. Egyptians nonetheless recognizedthe existence of these beings, and we are therefore justified in studying them as an ontologicalcategory. Instead of defining demons as a uniform group, the Egyptians gave specific namesand occasionally physical attributes to its individual classes and members. These names andassociated iconography do not so much characterize what these demons are as identify whatthey do. From the perspective of humans, their behavior can be benevolent and malevolent.Two main classes of demons can be recognized: wanderers and guardians. Wandering demonstravel between this world and the beyond acting as emissaries for deities or on their own accord.They can bring diseases, nightly terrors, and misfortune and are therefore basically malevolent.Guardian demons are tied to a specific locality, either in the beyond or on earth, and protect theirlocality from intrusion and pollution; as such, their function is rather benevolent. In the Late and

Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, they came to be regarded as deities in their own right and receivedcult.
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DEMONS (BENEVOLENT AND MALEVOLENT))(

Rita Lucarelli

EDITORS

WILLEKEWENDRICHEditor-in-Chief

University of California, Los Angeles

JACCO DIELEMANEditor

Area Editor ReligionUniversity of California, Los Angeles

ELIZABETH FROODEditor

University of Oxford

JOHN BAINESSenior Editorial Consultant

University of Oxford

Short Citation:Lucarelli, 2010, Demons (benevolent and malevolent). UEE.

Full Citation:Lucarelli, Rita, 2010, Demons (benevolent and malevolent). In Jacco Dieleman, Willeke Wendrich(eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles.http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0025fks3

1249 Version 1, September 2010http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0025fks3


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Demons (benevolent and malevolent), Lucarelli, UEE 2010 1

DEMONS (BENEVOLENT AND MALEVOLENT)

)

(

Rita Lucarelli

Dmonen (wohlwollend und bsartig)Dmons (bienveillant et malveillant)

According to ancient Egyptian belief, the created world was populated by humans, spirits ofdeceased humans, deities, and a host of supernatural beings whose identities were never preciselydefined. The Egyptian language refers to the first three categories as, respectively, rmT, Axor mwt,and nTr, but lacks a proper term for the fourth class. Egyptians nonetheless recognized theexistence of these beings, and we are therefore justified in studying them as an ontological category.Instead of defining demons as a uniform group, the Egyptians gave specific names andoccasionally physical attributes to its individual classes and members. These names and associatediconography do not so much characterize what these demons areas identify what they do. Fromthe perspective of humans, their behavior can be benevolent and malevolent. Two main classes ofdemons can be recognized: wanderers and guardians. Wandering demons travel between this worldand the beyond acting as emissaries for deities or on their own accord. They can bring diseases,nightly terrors, and misfortune and are therefore basically malevolent. Guardian demons are tied toa specific locality, either in the beyond or on earth, and protect their locality from intrusion andpollution; as such, their function is rather benevolent. In the Late and Ptolemaic and RomanPeriods, they came to be regarded as deities in their own right and received cult.

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f all Egyptian religious concepts,the notion of demon has alwaysbeen one of the most difficult to

interpret for modern scholars. The firstdifficulty lies in the fact that Egyptianterminology and iconography usually do notdistinguish ontologically between demon anddeity. In fact, no ancient Egyptian term existsthat would translate into demon and markan obvious distinction between deity (nTr) anddemon. Nonetheless, the scribal habit to oftenwrite the names of inimical beings in red inkand to add the evil or slain enemydeterminative to their name shows thatEgyptians recognized malevolent demon as

an ontological category in its own right. It isonly by comparing demons and deities withrespect to their function, appearance, andstatus in the created world that we can cometo an appreciation of demons in ancientEgyptian thought.

The main difference between demon anddeity seems to be that demons received nocult, at least until the New Kingdom. Withinthe hierarchy of supernatural beings, demonsare subordinate to the gods; although theyposses special powers, these powers are not

universal but rather limited in nature andscope. In general, their influence iscircumscribed to one single task, and incertain cases they act under the command of adeity. The available sources do not elaborateon the origin of demons; nor are theyexplicitly mentioned in creation accounts.However, as they often act as emissaries ofdeities and are subjected to their will, we maydeduce that demons are a creation of thegods. This hypothesis may find support in aformulation in one of the Oracular AmuleticDecrees, referring to protection againstcertain malevolent gods who make a wrt-demon against a man (Edwards 1960: T2 vs.84 - 85: nTrw ntyw jr wrt r rmT; for wrt-demons,see below).

To be distinguished from demons are theroaming dead (mwt) and disembodied spirits(Ax). Although occasionally showing ademonic nature, they are the manifestations of

deceased humans in the netherworld. Theyacquired their supernatural status only after ametaphysical transformation generated by

death and ritual. While mwtbeings are alwaysmalevolent, Axspirits can be either benevolentor malevolent. Demons, however, are entitiesin their own right. Nevertheless, demons andspirits of the dead are often listed together inapotropaic spells, because both can be hostileto humans.

O

Common understanding of the notion ofdemon, following the Christian reception ofthe Greek term daimnin Late Antiquity, seesevil as the main essence of demonic entities asopposed to the notion of angels (Ahn 1997).

Ancient Egyptian religion also relates theexistence of demons to evil, which isbelieved to be the realm of chaos outside thecreated world (te Velde 1975: 980). However,although this negative connotation cannot bedenied in light of the magical texts, the role ofdemons vis--vis the human world remainsambivalent and dependent on their specificcontext of appearance. In general, it can bestated that demons always act on the bordersbetween order and chaos, maat and isfet.Therefore, in order to define the ancient

Egyptian conception of demons, we may callthem religious frontier-striders (Ahn 2006:503), in reference to the apt German termGrenzgngerkonzepte(Ahn 1997). Some demonsbring chaos into the ordered world or actupon the world of the living by command ofthe divine (e.g., the wanderers), whereasothers mediate between order and chaos orthe sacred and the profane by protectingliminal and sacred places on earth and in thenetherworld from impurity (e.g., theguardians). In this sense, the Platonicdefinition of daimn as an intermediatebeing between gods and mortals (Plato,Symposium, 202e) also fits the overall picture.

As regards their origin, locality, and formsof appearance, their multifaceted characterand the general lack of uniform descriptionsin the sources make it impossible to identify asingle ontological category of demon. On thebasis of nature and location, we can recognize


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two main classes of demons, which havesimilar appearance and behavior towardshumans: the wanderers and the guardians.

Classes of DemonsDemons can manifest themselves and act as asingle individual but also appear in pairs, inthrees, or in a gang. A main distinction existsbetween demons traveling between the earthand the beyond, so-called wanderers, andthose that are tied to, and watch over, a place,namely guardians.

Among the wanderers we find many gangs,often of unspecified number, which arecontrolled by major deities such as Ra andOsiris and act as the executioner of theirdivine will. They can be agents of punishmenton earth and in the netherworld, like thewpwtjw, the messengers, which arementioned in magical and ritual texts from theMiddle Kingdom through the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods (Leitz 2002, Vol. 2: 364 -366). In other cases, they cause ineluctablemisfortune to humans without orders fromthe gods. As such they are agents of chaosthat persists outside the order of the creation.

The evil influence of the wanderers can be

warded off and kept at the borders of thehuman world by means of magic. However, itcan never be fully destroyed. How exactlytheir nature was understood remains difficultto establish: they are divine emissaries butoccasionally also act independently from thedivine will. Moreover, it cannot be stated thatthese demons are truly subordinate to thegods, since as divine messengers they gain theauthority of their senders. In fact, gods canalso act as intermediaries or messengers ofother deities, for example, Thoth (Kurth2003: 50) and Hathor (Schipper 2007: 3 - 5),

who occasionally serve as messengers of Ra.Gods and demons alike, when playing the

role of messengers, act with a single, preciseaim, which can be directed againsthumankind. Besides wpwtjw, other gangs ofwandering demons acting as divine emissariesare the xAtjw, the slaughterers, and theSmAjw, the wanderers, attested as early as the

Old Kingdom (xAtjw are mentioned in thePyramid Texts) until the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods. They are sent as death- andplague-carriers by furious goddesses like

Sakhmet and Bastet. At the end of the year,during the epagomenal days, their influencewas considered especially strong on earth, asattested in the Calendars of Good and BadDays (Leitz 1994: 244 - 255). Starting in theNew Kingdom, but especially in the templetexts of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods,xAtjw can also be manifestations of the deaddecans (von Lieven 2000: 46 - 50), whosestars were also seen as disease-bringers. In theLate Period and Ptolemaic and RomanPeriods, astrology gained prominence inancient Egyptian religious thought, and, as aresult, certain stars were demonized. Forinstance, certain astral bodies of the northernconstellations, depicted on the astronomicalceilings of temples and tombs, findcorrespondences in the representations of thedemonic inhabitants of the so-called mounds(jAwt) of the netherworld described in Spell149 of the Book of the Dead(von Lieven 2000:16 - 17, 27 - 28).

Wandering demons were also considered thecause of certain internal and mental diseases

or symptoms, whose pathology was notunderstood; accordingly, many are mentionedin the magico-medical texts of the MiddleKingdom and later. Among others, thedemon Sehaqeq (shAqq) is seen as the cause ofheadache (Leitz 2002, Vol. 6: 444 - 445); heappears in a few Ramesside spells from Deirel-Medina and is once depicted as a youngman covering his face (fig. 1). The nsj-demonand his female counterpart nsjt can affectvarious body parts and even bring death(Westendorf 1999: 379 - 382).

Nightmares (literally rswtDwt, bad dreams;see Szpakowska 2003: 159 - 180) were alsounderstood as caused by demons. Like thedisease demons, nightmare demons werebelieved to enter a human body from theoutside and are as such a sub-category ofwandering demons. They are said to descendupon a man in the night (Papyrus Leiden I348, v.2; see Szpakowska 2003: 168); in this


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Figure 1. Sehaqeq, the headache demon. OstraconLeipzig, gyptisches Museum Georg Steindorff.Inv.-No. 5152.

Figure 2. Guardian demons of Spell 145 of the

Book of the Dead.

sense, they can be considered the Egyptianequivalent of the Medieval incubi and succubi,although the characterization of sexual assaultassociated with the latter is not explicit in theEgyptian spells. Depictions of these roamingspirits are nonexistent except for the sketch ofthe headache demon Sehaqeq mentionedabove (fig. 1). Occasionally, spells allude totheir evil glance and warn them to turn theirface backwards.

Demonic possession did not only occurduring sleep at night; demons could attack orenter the human body also by day when theunlucky passerby approached their abode.Wandering demons also entered and hauntedhouses, as is evident in a list of the parts of ahouse to be defended against malevolentinfluences in a New Kingdom magical spell(Papyrus Chester Beatty VIII, vs. 1 - 2.4; see

Borghouts 1978: 10 - 11). They could alsomove between the earth and the beyond. Inthe beyond, when acting as guardians of theregions or gates of the netherworld, they

could be benevolent towards the deceased,provided the latter possessed the magic toface them. On earth, their actions were mostlymalevolent and connected to accidents andplagueswreaking havoc withoutdistinguishing among the virtuous and wicked.

Guardians represent the second class ofdemons. Their demonic activity istopographically defined, and their functioncan be rather benevolent towards those whohave the secret knowledge of their names andknow how to face them (Lucarelli 2006). They

are usually attached to a specific place, wheretheir power is truly effective, as, for example,the wrt-demons mentioned in the so-calledOracular Amuletic Decrees of the late 21stDynasty (Edwards 1960) and later attested inDemotic texts as wryalthough in this laterform the only reference to a specific place isrelated to an astrological house. The wrt-demons are often connected to a naturalplace, which they inhabit, like a pool, a river, amountain, etc., and from where they assaultthe passerby (Leitz 2002, Vol. 2: 506).

Demons that can be defined by location havealso been recognized in other systems ofbelief, among others in the Hellenistic world(Brenk 1986; Smith 1978).

The generally aggressive nature of theguardian demons is motivated by the need toprotect their abode and is therefore sensible insome measure; as such, they arefundamentally different from disease demons,who invade the human body and other placesthey do not belong to. They abound in thebeyond as guardians of gates and regions of

the realm of the dead. They are described anddepicted in detail in the spells 144 to 147 ofthe Book of the Dead(Guilhou 1999) and in thenetherworld books (figs. 2 and 3). Thedreadful nature of the guardian demonsmakes them also suitable for protecting sacredplaces; accordingly, they took on the role oftemple genii in the Late and PtolemaicPeriods (Goyon 1985). The common


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Figure 3. Guardian demons from a Guide of theNetherworld

Figure 4. Ammut, the devourer of the dead,from Spell 125 of the Book of the Dead.

Egyptological interpretation of demons asminor deities derives from these protectivefigures, which are often depicted with ananimal head on an anthropomorphic ormummified body and holding knives or otherweapons in their hands.

IconographyThe guardians of the netherworld are oftenprovided with an iconography. The othercategories of demons, like the alreadymentioned wrt, are never depicted orphysically described. The demonic guardians,on the other hand, are described in muchdetail and precision, because the deceasedmust be able to recognize them and know

their name in order to overcome theiraggression.

Guardian demons have a hybrid human-animal appearance as in other ancient

civilizations (Mesopotamia and Greece). Inancient Egypt, the theriomorphic traits ofsupernatural beings recall their wildest andmost fearful aspects, stressing theirotherness in contrast to theanthropomorphic forms, which denotehumanization and membership of the civilizedworld. Animals often included in thecomposite bodies of demons are reptiles(especially snakes), felines, and canids; othermammals (donkeys, baboons, hippos, goats,bulls), insects, scorpions, and birds (falcons,

vultures) can also be part of a demonic ordivine body. This iconography does in essencenot differ from the way deities are depicted intheir animal and hybrid forms. The similarityis especially striking in the case of apotropaicentities that fight malevolent forces, forexample, those represented on the so-calledmagic wands (Altenmller 1977).

More typical of demonic iconography arefantastic animals. Sometimes they also showmonstrous and grotesque iconographiescombining two or more animals or animals

and humans into one body (Kkosy 1982).The most popular example is that of Ammut,the devourer of the dead, of Spell 125 ofthe Book of the Dead (fig. 4), who has acrocodile head, a leonine body, and thehindquarters of a hippo. It is indeed in thenetherworld that the creativity of the ancientEgyptian theologians in regard to theiconography of demonic beings reached itspeak. Especially abundant in the funerarycompositions are composite figures ofdemonic snakes with anthropomorphic legs,

multiple heads, and wings, which serve asbenevolent and malevolent guardians, likeNehebkau and Rerek. The gigantic pythonApep is their archetypal model; however,because of his central and unique role ascosmic enemy of the sun god, Apep standsoutside of the categories of gods and demons.

In the case of gods, hybrid and grotesqueiconography symbolizes efficacious


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apotropaic qualities, as in the case of Bes, thehippo goddesses Ipet and Taweret, and thesphinx god Tutu. This sort of evidence can becompared to the worldwide religious

symbolism according to which supernaturalbeings who were able to transform intoanimals, like the werewolves and vampires ofthe Western folklore, were consideredborder crossers and therefore menacingentities for humankind (Holzapfel 2006: 74).

Besides fantastic and composite creatures,the netherworld was also the abode of animalswho were considered dangerous (reptiles,insects) or impure on earth (pig, donkey).These belonged conceptually to themanifestation sphere of potentially destructive

gods like Seth. A group of spells in thePyramid Texts aims at warding off snakes,which could be considered enemies of the sungod (Leitz 1996; Meurer 2002: 269 - 291).Similar spells occur in the Coffin Texts (Osing1987); spells 31 to 42 of the Book of the Deadare devoted to repelling dangerous andimpure animals, including snakes. Magical andritual objects and statues show demonicanimals being submitted and controlled byanthropomorphic deities in a protective role;the most wide-spread examples are the New

Kingdom ex-votos devoted to Horus-Shedand their later derivation, the Horus-stelaeand healing statues, which represent deitiesthat subject a host of dangerous animals. Thesubordinate role that theriomorphic demonsplay versus anthropomorphic deities or majorhumanized demons finds correspondences inother religious traditions, as in theiconography of the Mesopotamian demonicgoddess Lamashtu, mistress of animals,who is often depicted while holding snakes inher hands and with a scorpion between herlegs (van der Toorn 2003: 66 - 67).

Gender

Most demonic beings are male; femaledemons occur only rarely in the sources. Ingeneral, gender does not give informationabout the behavior and function of demons,but a few remarks can be made in relation tofemale demons. They are generally hybrid or

animal in form, such as the already mentionedAmmut and the Two Meret snakes, which arethe demonic forms of two goddessesmentioned in the Coffin Texts and Spell 37 of

the Book of the Dead. An epithet that may referspecifically to female demons is the abovementioned wrt of the Oracular AmuleticDecrees (Edwards 1960, Vol. 1: xxii).Although the etymology and precise meaningof the term is unclear, it is remarkable that thesame form occurs in combination with thedefinite article in the phrase tA-wrt, The GreatOne, which is the name for the hippogoddess Taweret and also an epithet forgoddesses like Sakhmet or Isis, especially inthe Late Period and later (Leitz 2002, Vol. 7:331c, and Vol. 2: 478b). This evidence wouldconfirm the female nature of the wrt-demonsand also suggest that the demonic epithetoriginated from a euphemistic use of thedivine one.

In the Oracular Amuletic Decrees as well asin other apotropaic spells (for instance, inpLeiden I 348, v.2; see Borghouts 1971: 32 -33, 176 - 186), demonic beings are listed inpairs of male and female as Axand Axt(maleand female spirit of a deceased), mwt andmwtt(male and female dead), or DAyand DAyt

(male and female opponent). However,instead of signaling the significance anduniqueness of female demons, such lists are infact standard formulae that aim to capture thetotality of possible dangers and do not reallystress the gender issue. Occasionally, spellsinclude the names of the father and mother ofa demon, as, for example, the headachedemon Sehaqeq, whose parents have namesof foreign origin. This suggests that kinshipcould serve as a classification system fordemons; in this respect, Egypt differs fromMesopotamia, where demons are said to have

no gender and no families (van der Toorn2003: 68).

In general, gender does not seem to berelevant with respect to the role demons playon earth and in the netherworld. Perhaps therare appearance of female demons may reflectthe idea that the dynamic, active power ofdemons is a typically male characteristic. Be


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this as it may, it must be kept in mind thatmost gangs of demons were controlled byangry goddesses like Sakhmet or Bastet, whoincarnate the power and wild aspect of

femininity. Magical texts also mentiondemons hiding themselves in females, forinstance, in an Asiatic woman in the Spell forMother and Child or in a dead female whorobs as a wailing woman in a Ramesside spellfor protecting different parts of the body(Borghouts 1971: 20, 97).

From Demon to Deity

In sources dating to the Late Period, and evenmore so in sources from the Ptolemaic andRoman Periods, we notice an increased

tendency to interpret daily life accidents andmisfortune as resulting from demonicinfluence. Consequently, to appease them,demons started to receive local and privatecults, as did Great-of-Strength (aApHtj), thefirst of the seven demons controlled by the

god Tutu (Kaper 2003: 61 - 62). Similarly, thexAtjw-demons seem to have received a cult inPtolemaic Thebes (Thissen 1989: 30 - 33);they even feature in Demotic personal names

with protective and apotropaic meaning(Lddekens et al. 1980: 382 - 383, 1989: 679).Conversely, certain gods are demonized asthey absorb the essence of the creatures theycontrol, like the sphinx god Tutu, who bearsthe epithet of master of demons (Kaper2003: 60 - 63).

Much later, in a corpus of Coptic magicalspells, we find mention of a real demonicpantheon, consisting especially of demons ofthe underworld. They are invoked to harmpersonal enemies. Their punitive function and

their specific tasks may well be reminiscent ofthe demons of Pharaonic times, who weresent to earth from the beyond and belongedto a peripheral world outside creation(Frankfurter 2007).

Bibliographic NotesThere is no comprehensive study on demons in ancient Egypt to date. The topic is discussed inseveral lexicon and encyclopedia entries, e.g., te Velde (1975), Meeks (2001), and Leitz (2004).The relationship between gods and demons is addressed by Kurth (2003). Meeks (1971) providesan overview of minor deities with demonic qualities. Meurer (2002) and Zandee (1960) discussthe occurrence of demons in the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, respectively. A collection of essayson ancient Egyptian demonology is Kousoulis (2010).

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Image CreditsFigure 1. Sehaqeq, the headache demon. Ostracon Leipzig, gyptisches Museum Georg Steindorff. Inv.-

No. 5152. Courtesy of gyptisches Museum Georg Steindorff. Photograph by Marion Wenzel.

Figure 2. Guardian demons of Spell 145 of the Book of the Dead. (Heerma van Voss 1971: pl. 21.)

Figure 3. Guardian demons from a Guide of the Netherworld. (Niwinski 1989: pl. 48a.)

Figure 4. Ammut, the devourer of the dead, from Spell 125 of the Book of the Dead. (Gabolde 2006: fig.8.)

Demons (Benevolent & Malevolent), Lucarelli

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