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The Production of Other Knowledges and its Tensions:

From Andeanist Anthropology to Interculturalidad?

Marisol de la CadenaDepartment of Anthropology

University of California-Davis

In a recent volume, anthropologist-politician Carlos Ivn Degregori described

anthropology in Peruhis country and mineas having developed an in!ard loo"ing

analytical vie!point that lac"s comparative perspective# $his situation, he e%plains, contrasts

!ith research conditions in the &orthern 'emisphere !here access to bibliographic and

funding resources provide scholars !ith a broader vie! that, nonetheless, features an in!ardloo"ing tradition of its o!n# (hile resources allo! them to compare and contrast

anthropological "no!ledge about Andean countries, they generally do so !ith information

published in )nglish, mostly by U* scholars# As an e%ample of this parochialism +!hich,

ho!ever, is not generally considered such given the authority of &orth America as an

academic center he mentions an article by a U* colleague devoted to a balance of Andean

anthropology in !hich out of si%ty t!o titles mentioned in the bibliography, only t!o are by

Peruvian scholars, and one of them is in )nglish, and !ritten by a Peruvian !oman teaching

in the U*#. /et, suggesting the comple% geo-politics of "no!ledge0po!er relations, he admits

that his o!n balance of Peruvian anthropology e%cluded, or at the very least subordinated,

"no!ledge produced in provincial universities +Degregori, 1222345-46#

$he hegemony of )uro-American "no!ledge emerges from apparently innocuous

disciplinary interactions# As Degregori7s self criticism alerts us, even critical dispositions

may prove insufficient to shelter us from this hegemony8 !e need to, at the very least, disrupt

the silence in !hich it thrives# Universal in appearance, (estern forms of "no!ledge and its

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practices are not confined to )urope or the United *tatesthey have e%ceeded those

territories for almost si% centuries no!# Articulated by a vocation to spread reason, the

modern geo-politics of "no!ledge both established acenter +the &orth Atlantic and

surpassed it, thus constituting regional academic +and intellectual formations !ith their

centers +!here the institutions of reason accrued and peripheries !here rational logic had a

!ea"er established presence# $hese regional formations constitute a comple% configuration

of multiple, hierarchically organi9ed centers, some of !hich are peripheral., in relation to

other more central. ones# :unning through this configuration, layered and many-directional

relations of domination and subordination contribute to shaping !hat eventually isconsidered universal knowledgeand !hat remains considered local information--both

!orld!ide and in specific countries# Indeed, this universal. and this local. are also relative

!ithin the configuration8 ho! far local "no!ledge ma"es it, depends-- !e believe

hegemonically--on its theoretical strength., and this is problematic if by that !e mean a

"no!ledge process that extractsgeneral ideas out of specific meanings, and ignores the

specificityin so doing#

$o illustrate the hegemony of )uro-American forms of "no!ledge, most specifically the

process through !hich it is achieved, this paper attempts a genealogical and dialogical

discussion of that aspect of ;atin American anthropology "no!n as Andeanism# I follo!

Andeanism as it connected !ith academic formations in the United *tates, as !ell as !ith

political-intellectual discussions !ithin ;atin America and Peru, specifically !ith debates

about mestizaje and interculturalidad#4I start my story early in the t!entieth century, !hen

anthropology had not coalesced as a discipline# /et, discussions about culture. fueled

nationalist pro


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mesti9a


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anthropological "no!ledge and the political proui


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historical ethnography produced by a ;atin American intellectual, the first edition of !hich had

a prologue by ronisla! Malino!s"i# Jrti9 coined the term transculturacin, !ith !hich he

rebu"ed the notion of acculturation. and


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archaeological remains, fol"lore, colonial !ritings, vernacular languages and indigenous !ays

of living# As anthropology consolidated in the United *tates, Indigenistas traveled &orth both to

share their local "no!ledge !ith their U* counterparts, and to have it academically certified#

@rom Peru ulio C# $ello, an archaeologist, acBuired an honorary degree at 'arvard in the early

4?12s, and the Me%ican Manuel Namio obtained his degree in Columbia !here he !as one of

@ran9 oas7 students# ;uis )# alcrcel, the head of the Museum of 'istory +created in 4?2, in

;ima toured several universities in the United *tates !here he !as impressed !ith the

oasian, *mithsonian, and 'arvard institutions#. +*alomon, 4?6G36?8 alcrcel, 4?64# $he U*

academia, ho!ever, did not e%haust Indigenistas7 intellectual interest, for Indo-Americanismo!as a political doctrineand anti-Imperialist at such# Me%ico !as an important ideological hub

in the net!or", the space of a successful revolution, and a source of ideas of mestizaje.

Mesti9a


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$hat same year the AC;* created a Committee on ;atin American *tudies that years later

became an AC;*-**:C


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Concerned !ith the creation of Peru as a modern nation, intert!ined !ith official

politics, and boasting Inca legacy, Peruvian anthropology chose past and present Andean

indigenous cultures. as its ob


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historical colonial relations of domination and contemporary capitalist economic

e%ploitation# @rom this vie!point came a proposal about mesti9aui


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Arguedas7s anthropology !as never important +and is currently totally ignored his literary

!or" continues to be contentious among social scientists and politicians ali"e#

All the Bloods: Arguedas as an "nthin#ale $pistemological %e!olution

$he controversy that Arguedas7s !or" !ould eventually provo"e came to fruition

around his novel Todas las Sangres, All the loods# In the late 4?E2s, in a reno!ned thin"-

tan" in ;ima, gathered around a round table, a group of prominent social scientists and

literary critics discussed the novel for many hours# ? After a bitter discussion +that !as taped,

transcribed and published as a boo"let in the 4?62s they arrived to at the conclusion that thenovel proposed an unfeasible political pro


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)ven more significant +and unacceptableO Arguedas7s novel posed an epistemological

challenge to the hegemony of the singular modern sub


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magic and reason ali"e# It is reminiscent of the 46GG *antal rebellion in India as Nuha +4?6

has represented it# Ultimately, Todas las Sangresproposed an alternative indigenous social

movement, a critical ally of the modern leftyet !ith an a-modern hybrid logic of its o!n#

;iteracy and modern politics !ere important, yet they had to be selectively used and

translated, rather than eradicating, indigenous !ays# As in the follo!ing Buote3

In


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peasant insurrection, and therefore he appeared a little in disguise amongst his

o!n# ut the ne%t impression, particularly at the end of the novel, suggests that

:endn reintegratesnot totally, not in a fully conscious !ay, but in some sense

he reintegratesback into the indigenous traditional +!orld# +I)P, K4?E6L

12223G?, my emphasis

$he indigenous !orld and its animated landscape !ere not the secular arena that modern

political organi9ation reBuired# In apparent parado% then, class analysis !or"ed as a prose of

counterinsurgency. +cf# Nuha 4?66 for even as rural upheavals too" place under the

leadership of indigenous politicians +probably li"e :endn (ill"a they !ere not deemed

indigenouspoliticalmovements8 they !erefor better or !orseonly an aspect of the

revolutionary struggle led by urban politicians# 'adn7t )ric 'obsba!m defined peasants as

pre-political actors in an analysis that included Peruvian rural movements in his sampleS

+'obsba!m4?54K4?G?L# $he notion of change. promoted by moderni9ing premises

+including those of dependency theory and class analysis !as specific3 it moved for!ard

from past to future,. from superstition. to historical consciousness#. Untamed by this

narrative (ill"a represented the indiani9ation of politics,. a historical impossibility for the

sociologists !ho imagined a different "ind of leader3

I am currently !or"ing in a research on peasant leadership, and last year I

traveled to several areas affected by the peasant movement# In every peasant

union I have visited, I have found only one indigenous leader#"ndigenous

leadership does not exist today!ithin the peasant movement8 it appears as an

e%ception and in isolated fashion, the Indian leader is himself going through a

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process of cholificacin# $hus, I do not thin" that an indigenous solution to the

peasant problem !ould be feasible# +I)P, K4?E6L 12223G?-E2

$hese !ords-- Anibal >uiuiui


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for!ard moving history of modernity or simply Hpersisting7 had a historicity of its o!n-- the

undeniable po!er of industrial capitalism not!ithstanding# More significantly, (ill"a7s

political leadership implied the inclusion of indigenous forms of "no!ledge in nation-!ide

pro


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epistemologies to replace non-!estern ontologies !ith modern forms of consciousness# $hus

he unveiled !hat >uiuechua until my adolescence# I !ill probably never be able to let go

ofQ my initial conceptuali9ations of the !orld# @or a monolingual >uechua

spea"er the !orld is alive8 there is not much difference bet!een a mountain, an

insect, a huge stone, and a human being# $here are, therefore, no boundaries

bet!een the marvelous. and the real. Q there is neither much difference

bet!een the religious, the magical, and the ob


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ine%istence of a >uechua culture, they say that Peru is not bi-cultural, and that

indigenous communities have a subculture that !ill be difficult to uplift to the

level of national culture,. +Murra and ;pe9 aralt 4??E34E1#

Amidst the moderni9ing !ill and the rigid political economy positions that had

colored the controversial :ound $able. and that continued to characteri9e academic thought

in the follo!ing decades, the concern for Andean cultural aspects eventually fit the label of

lo Andino8. the intellectual community scornfully confined it to anthropology and ethno-history, the sciences of the past8 sociologists and economists devoted themselves to the study

of the present# As lo Andino. circulated in the U* and became Andeanism, Arguedas7s

political suggestion for an alternative form of "no!ing!hich he phrased as the demand for

magic. to be considered on a par !ith reason, and for informants. to become sub


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specifically regional formation that interloc"ed anthropologies from )cuador, Colombia,

olivia, and northern Chile and Argentina#

Indigenous Politics and the $nd of &esti'a(e: Interculturalidador Knowledge as

)ialogic %elationship

Q the gods and other agents inhabiting practices of so-called superstition havenot died any!here# I ta"e gods and the spirits to be e%istentially coeval !ith thehuman, and thin" from the assumption that the Buestion of being human involvesthe Buestion of being !ith gods and the spirits# +Cha"rabarty 12223 4E

I have been told that the discussion that too" place at the :ound $able did not have

immediate repercussions8 the tapes !here !ere lost and unearthed several years later, as a

conseBuence of a cleaning spree at the Instituto de )studios Peruanos# 12 /et, it !as not an

ephemeral and isolated incident involving the relationship bet!een t!o intellectuals# Jnce

the transcription !as published as a pamphlet +that has had several editions the event

became a topic of conversations in Peruvian and international academic circles# @rom my

vie!point, the controversy featured a double, intert!ined symbolism# 14 )pistemologically,

the discussion e%pressed the tension bet!een a !idespread analytical tradition that tends to

evacuate the local by assimilating it to some abstract universal8 and a hermeneutic tradition

that finds thought intimately tied to places and to particular forms of life# +Cha"rabarty 12223

46# Politically, the discussions in the3esa 4edonda!ere a prelude to the intense disputes

that pitted campesinista. +or clasista. political leaders against their indianista.

counterparts and that too" place all over ;atin America in the last decades of the 12thcentury#

+'ale 4??F8 /ashar 4??6 $hese !ere part of a process that some have labeled the return of

the Indian. +Alb 4??48 :amn 4??8 (earne 4??E, a reference to the increasing political

significance of social movements that articulate their demands around indigenous issues and

4?


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ethnic claimsand that in one !ay or another challenge simplistic universali9ing analytical

vie!points#

)merging in the early 4?52s, organi9ations li"e the Colombian C:IC 5Consejo 4egional

"nd!gena del Cauca6,%C7474" in )cuador, the AID)*)P in Peru, and in olivia the

3oimiento 4eolucionario Tupac 8atari,insurged in the political picture of their countries

demanding and enacting indigenous citi9enship# *ince their inception the movements have

proposed pro


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leaders of the movement !ere indigenous individuals !ho combined rural and urban

e%perience, as did the movement, as it deftly appropriated modern practices and transformed

their logic# Illustrative of this, and since the very beginning, the political demonstrations of

the movement boasted Andean ritual iconography and enactments, thus de-seculari9ing

politics, as in Arguedas7s novel# Intended as acts of memory. +cf# al 4??? the de-

seculari9ed political rituals also defy official nationalist histories, introducing into the

political pantheon the presence and ideas of indigenous activists# In olivia, for e%ample, as

the memory of $upac Tatari !as revitali9ed and politici9ed, his phrase I !ill return

transformed into thousands. became central to the indigenous social movement# $VpacTatari !as an indigenous insurgent !ho led an anti-colonial struggle at the end of the

eighteenth century8 his very memory demanded the restoration of indigenous actions and

"no!ledges in history-- the de-coloni9ation of history# Urged by this need, the social

movements produced their o!n organic intellectuals, indigenous university students and

professors decided to recover and re-elaborate the indigenous past and its forms of historical

"no!ledge. +$icona 12223 41# $hey also established &on Novernmental Jrgani9ations, li"e

$'JATaller de $istoria 9ral ndina-!hich functions in ;a Pa9, +olivia since 4?6-

4?6F and !or"s to investigate, disseminate, and revitali9e the culture, history, and identity

of indigenous peoples#. +http300!!!#aymaranet#org0thoa5#html

Ideologically fragmented into divergent tendencies, the process of re-!riting indigenous

histories and transforming the political habitus in Andean countries is no panacea# As !ith

any political process, this one has been fraught !ith po!er struggles, e%pressed in

essentialisms, factionalisms, and the production of universali9ing meta-narratives of its o!n#

+(arren 4??68 $icona 12228 Alb 4??F8 an Cott 1222 'o!ever, it has certainly burst open

14
http://www.aymaranet.org/thoa7.htmlhttp://www.aymaranet.org/thoa7.html


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evolutionary narratives of indigeneity and advanced a politics of indigenous heterogeneity#

(ithin this novel narrative, Nuatemalan-Maya historian )dgar )sBuit e%plains3 Mayaness is

!hat Mayas do, provided that other Mayas recogni9e it as such. +1222# More importantly,

the public +and at times highly influential presence of indigenous intellectuals has made

obvious the possibility for an epistemic border +cf# Mignolo, 1222 !here, at ease or

a!"!ardly, rational "no!ledge cohabits !ith non-rational "no!ledge# Jrgani9ed in social

movements, this blend sustains political pro


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improve Indians,. it revolves around bilingual education +>uechua and *panish# In

olivia, the P:J)I Andes, a college for bilingual education teachers in Cochabamba,

features a similar mission since 4??E !hen it !as established# In both countries, the main

activities are administered and funded by the *tate through the Ministry of )ducation, and

the participation of indigenous organi9ations is marginal# /et interculturalidadhas also an

ambitious version that aims at forging nationsand ultimately a !orld--characteri9ed by

pacific cohabitation among peoples and cultures, based on


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able to produce ne! categories and notions that have Hinterculturalidad7 as their

epistemological frame!or"#. +Istituto Cientifico de Culturas Indigenas, )ditorial 1222 $he

same editorial critici9es modern science as having emerged from a monologue and building

self-referential categories that did not allo! the inclusion of the strange. and different.

!ithin the borders of "no!ledge#. Intriguingly, it concludes !ith a series of Buestions3

If modern science has been monologic, and if the conditions for "no!ing are al!ays

implicated in the conditions of po!er, then ho! can !e generate the conditions for a

dialogueS 'o! do !e articulate interculturalidad within the limits of epistemologyand theconditions of "no!ledge productionS 'o! do !e contribute to the adventure of

"no!ledge from different sourcesS 5:Como aportar a la aentura del conocimiento

desde nueas fuentes;6+ibid#

I !ant to bring these stimulating Buestions to the arena of anthropology!hich the

Universidad Intercultural rightly critici9es as having constituted itself by creating and

maintaining indigenous peoples as others, and moreover, by e%cluding their possibility self-

understanding# $hus, in finali9ing this section, I !ant to use the opportunity of the Buestions

asa call for an anthropology +most specifically for an ethnographic production articulated

by !hat I call relational epistemologies#. Inspired by Arturo /umbay an )cuadorian

politician !ho described the role of the anthropologists !ho !or" !ith the indigenous social

movement as one of acompa*antes +companions in a dialogic sensesee /umbay 1224,I

see relational epistemologies as a situated "no!ledge position +cf# 'ara!ay 4??4# $hat

position assumes the historical contingency of universal categories and uses them in dialogic

process !ith local thought, !hile paying relentless and critical attention to processes of

1F


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translation bet!een both, thus rendering local "no!ledge visible# :elational epistemologies

cancel sub


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$his opinion belongs to the genealogy of "no!ledge against !hich interculturalidadhas

insurged# /et the dynamics and hierarchies of hegemonic "no!ledge continue to pervade its

production# Pamela Calla, a olivian anthropologist describes some of the conflicts at the

olivian P:J)I College !here she teaches# *tudents, she tells us, have coined labels that

attest to different forms of being indigenous, !hich, ho!ever, highlight the tensions of being

inferior. in a modern sense, i#e# less educated or less masculine# @or e%ample, on one

occasion the students classified themselves into academics. and fundamentalists#. &ot

surprisingly, the academics. self-position as a superior group in the tension and is

challenged by the fundamentalists. self-identification as more indigenous. and thereforemore masculine +Calla 1221# Although the latter interpretation challenges dominant

stereotypes, !hereby !omen are more Indian. +De la Cadena 4??4 they continue to abide

by modern gender hierarchies# *imilarly, pressures to be modern andindigenous are

comple%as in the follo!ing Buote, by an indigenous leader, !hose name I !ill "eep

anonymous3

*ometimes I feel I am going cra9y because I cannot thin" li"e an Indian anymore#

I fight for Indians among !hites, and therefore I have to thin" li"e them# I

represent indigenous interests !ithin *tate institutions, but I have not been bac" in

my village for three years# I travel all over the place, and I "no! I am an Indian#

ut !hat "ind of an IndianS +Jliart 1221

As becomes obvious through these Buotes, interculturalidadis not a smooth, let alone

simply successful, process# Moreover it has not eliminated images of liberal Andeanism in

the region# A conseBuential e%ample should suffice to illustrate the !ay it thrives in Peru# In

1E


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4?6F, caught in !ar bet!een the *hining Path and the Peruvian Army, indigenous peasants

from the village of Uchuraccay +located in the region called Ayacucho, the epicenter of the

violence collectively "illed si%


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In the 4?E2s-4?52s historicist class analysis !or"ed as a prose of counterinsurgency.

that e%cluded indigenous revolts from the academically defined field of politics# At the turn

of the t!enty first century, liberal multiculturalism can !or" as an anti-politics machine.

+cf# @erguson 4??2 by including !ithin the hegemony of liberalismor neo-liberalism in

this case--circumstances that could reveal and thus politici9e everyday narratives of

cultural. or ethnic. e%clusion# $he inclusive yet de-politici9ing !or" of multiculturalism

!or"s through normali9ing education# In Peru, for e%ample, the scandal that !ould other!ise

represent the image of a cholo as President of the country, is canceled Xor at the very least

soothed --by references to Ale


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"no!ledge as a dialogic process of translationbet!een the local and the universal, bet!een

histories and 'istory, bet!een the singular and the generalis in order#

+otes

4I use a"htins notion of dialogue !ith @oucaults genealogical perspective to avoid thelinear historical narrative that naturali9es the current geo-politics of "no!ledge#

1$o formulate this notion >ui


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acculturation. upon returning from field!or" in *urinam +!here he might have becomein contact !ith Caribbean notions of m


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4F@rom similar evolutionary mind frames, some historians and sociologist deniednationalist consciousness. to peasants# *ee for e%ample, 'eraclio onilla $he (ar ofthe Pacific and the &ational and Colonial Problem in Peru,. in1ast and 1resent643 ?1-446 and 'enri @avre :emarBues sur la ;utte des Classes pendant la Nuerre du

PacifiBue. in /it


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(alsh, Catherine +1221+De Construir la Interculturalidad# Consideraciones cr=ticasdesde la pol=tica, la colonialidad y los movimientos ind=genas y negros del )cuador.# in&orma @uller +ed,"nterculturalidad y 1ol!tica. (esaf!os y 1osibilidades# ;ima3 :edpara el desarrollo de las ciencias sociales +44G-4F1#

+@orthcoming ;as geopol=ticas del conocimiento y colonialidad del poder# )ntrevista a(alter Mignolo.# in C# (alsh, @# *chi!y and *# Castro-Nme9 +eds, "ndisciplinar lasCiencias Sociales, Meopol!ticas del Conocimiento y Colonialidad del 1oder +>uito3UA*0Abya /ala, en imprenta

(arren, Tay +4??66 "ndigenous 3oements and their criticsG 1an#3aya actiism inMuatemala, Princeton, #3 Princeton University Press#

(earne, Phillip +4??E4eturn of the "ndianG con&uest and reial in the meritas.;ondon3 Cassell, in association !ith ;atin America ureau +:esearch and Action ;td#

/ashar, Deborah +4??6 Contesting Citi9enship3 Indigenous Movements andDemocracy in ;atin America#. Comparatie 1olitics, 4+43 1-F1#

/umbay, Arturo +1224 ;a CJ&AI)3 :eferente de &uestros Pueblos del )cuador. in@oro Ind=gena %l 3oimiento "nd!gena como ctor 1ol!ticoG 4ealidad Sue*os y (esaf!os;ima3 Coppip-Conacami +44-45#

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