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FAO-UN, Myanmar Publicaon 2011/04
The Atlas and Guidelines for
Mangrove Management in
Wunbaik Reserved Forest
Deiva Oswin StanleyTCDC Consultant to FAO, Mangrove Management Specialist
Jeremy BroadheadBackstopping Ocer, RAPO, Bangkok
&
Aung Aung MyintForest Department
Forest Department, MOECAF
Union of Myanmar
Food and Agriculture Organizaon of the United Naons
Yangon, Myanmar
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The designaons employed and the presentaon of the material in this publicaon do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organizaon of
the United Naons concerning the delimitaon of its froners or boundaries
The opinions expressed in this publicaon are those of the authors alone and do not imply any
opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO
First Edion: 2011
FAO-UN Myanmar
Cover Design & Photos : Dr. Deiva Oswin Stanley
Maps: Aung Aung Myint
For Copies of the Book, write to:
FAO Representaon Oce
Seed Division Compound, Insein Road, Yangon, Myanmar
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 95-1-641772, 641673
Fax: 95-1- 641561
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In commemoration of theInternational Year of Forests 2011
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The Atlas and Guidelines for Mangrove Management in
Wunbaik Reserved Forest
CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgments
1 Introducon 1
2 General geographical descripon 2
3 Mangrove forest ulizaon paern 7
4 Biodiversity status of Wunbaik reserved mangrove forest 33
5 Mangrove forest structure 36
6 Mangrove management module of project TCP-MYA-3204 55
7 Guidelines for Wunbaik reserved mangrove forest management 72
8 Reference 85
Annexes 86
List of gures, tables and boxes 131
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Foreword
Mangroves of the Wunbaik Reserved Forest, Rakhine state is the most valuable forests and posing
major anthropogenic threats due to forest area conversion and reclamaon. Food and Agriculture
Organizaon of the United Naons, Myanmar jointly with the Forest Department of Myanmar
aempted to understand the mangrove land use paern in the Wunbaik Reserved Forests to
evolve with an Integrated Mangrove Management plan through the project entled Sustainable
Community-based Mangrove Management in Wunbaik Reserved Forest: TCP/MYA/3204. As
the mangroves oer innumerable services to the local community and to the country in terms ofshery, mber and wood for charcoal and fuel it is inevitable to protect the forest intact and allow
raonal ulity oers for sustainable food security.
Integrated Mangrove Management Specialist from India, the TCDC Consultant to FAO-UN, Myanmar
and Naonal Consultant from the Forest Department worked together, studied the status of the
reserved forest using the RS - GIS maps; have brought out the facts and validated through data
generated during the ground truth analysis carried out in random 10 survey sites inside Wunbaik.
The study conrms that the wood cungs, mangrove area reclamaon for paddy and shrimp farm
expansions are extremely beyond the carrying capacity of the forest. Out of 84 compartments, noone compartment in the reserve remains un-degraded in some way; The reserved forest has lost
25 % of the mangroves for paddy and shrimp farming and another 17% for illicit commercial wood
extracon and remains degraded. The quality of the trees in the rest of the forest is also of feeble
quality as all the mature stands have been cut down. The secondary growth remains as dense
patch of mangroves in Wunbaik which needs immediate aenon from the government.
The Atlas and Guidelines for Mangrove Management in Wunbaik Reserved Forest would be a
useful publicaon for the administrators, policy planners and the natural resource management
personals. We are happy to appreciate the eorts of the team and especially Dr. Deiva Oswin
Stanley, Dr. Jeremy Broadhead and Mr. Aung Aung Myint, for bringing out such a valuable piece of
work into being.
Ms. Bui Thi Lan
FAO Representave
Food and Agriculture Organizaon of the UnitedNaons, Yangon, Myanmar
U Aye Myint Maung
Director General Forest Department
Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
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Acknowledgements
Our honor and thanks are due to the Western Commander, Brigadier General U Soe Thein for
permission to study the mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Forest, Rakhine State
We are pleased to express our hearelt thanks to His Excellency U Win Tun, Union Minister,
Ministry of Environment Conservaon and Forestry and His Excellency U Hla Maung Tin, State
Chief Minister, Government of Rakhine State.
Our special thanks are due to U Aye Myint Maung, Director General, Forest Department, U Sann
Lwin, Director General, Planning and Stascs Department, Dr. Nyi Nyi Kyaw, Deputy Director
General, Forest Department U Zaw Win, Director, Planning and Stascs Division, U Kyaw Soe Khine,
Director, Forest Department, Rakhine State, U Win Myint, Assistant Director, Forest Department,
KyaukPyu District and the senior level ocers for rendering cooperaon and valuable suggesons
during project implementaon
Our thanks are due to Ms. Bui Thi Lan, FAO Resident Representave in Myanmar and Dr. Shin Imai,
ex-FAO Representave for constant support.
Our special thanks are due to Mr. Giuseppe Romalli, Chief Technical Advisor of ESFSP project, Dr.
Aung Swe, Assistant FAOR Programme, Ms. Tha Nwai Law, Assistant FAOR Administraon, Mr. Thu
Kha, Ms. Sanda Saing, Ms. Aye Aye Thet, Ms. Myat New, Ms. Aye Myint Khine, U. Than Hke Zin,
Ms. Phyo May Win, Ms. Thida Chaw Hlaing, Ms. Rachelle Yi Yi Wynn, U Maung Maung, Librarian
and Ms. Phyu Phyu Htwe for their ever smiling assistance.
Our special thanks are due to the ocers from line departments and agencies including Myanmar
Agriculture Service, Department of Fisheries, Selement and Land Record Department. We would
like to thank the responsible ocers from all levels of The Peace and Development Councils
of Rakhine State, Kyauk Phyu and Thandwe Districts, and Kyauk Phyu, Yambye, and Thandwe
Townships. Thanks are due to the naonal consultants of the project: U Win Myint, U Khim MaungSoe, Ms. Khin Hnin Myint, U San Win and U Than Hke Oo . We wish to express our thanks to the
Naonal Project Coordinators of the project: U Hla Maung Thein, U Aung Khin, U Myo Htun and
those who have contributed to the preparaon of the document.
iii
U Aung Aung Myint
Consultant to FAO
Forest Department
Dr. Jeremy Broadhead
Backstopping Ocer,
RAPO, Bangkok
Dr. Deiva Oswin Stanley
TCDC Consultant to FAO
Mangrove Management Specialist
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The Atlas and Guidelines for Mangrove Management
in Wunbaik Reserved Forest
1. Introducon
Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest provides economical, ecological and social benets for Rakhine
State and Myanmars economy. Wunbaik mangroves are indispensible to coastal communies in
the area, being the base for livelihood subsistence and cyclone protecon. Around eighty percent
of the rural populaon of Rakhine is involved in farming acvies, small-scale entrepreneurship
and collecon or harvest of forest products such as sh, crabs, clams, mber, fuelwood, honey,
bamboo, mangrove wood and bark. A considerable share of the forest products are derived from
the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest. The status of the Wunbaik mangroves as reservedhas not, however, provided sucient protecon against resource degradaon and loss of forest
biodiversity. The current ulizaon of mangroves and coastal wetlands in the Wunbaik area is
irraonal and unsustainable and is endangering the survival of one of the most important mangrove
ecosystems in Myanmar.
This publicaon is an output of Sustainable Community-based Mangrove Management in
Wunbaik Reserved Forest: TCP/MYA/3204, a project inaugurated by the Government of Myanmar
and supported by the Food and Agriculture Organizaon of the United Naons and the Forest
Department of Myanmar to conserve the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest. The project aimed
to develop an integrated mangrove management plan by assessing the status of forest and sheries
resources and trends in the socio-economic situaon of surrounding villages. Analysis of satellite
imagery conrmed detrimental paerns of land ulizaon in Wunbaik and the crically endangered
situaon of the reserved mangroves. An overview of the causes and eects of mangrove degradaon
in Wunbaik and the strategy to achieve mangrove conservaon for development of sustainable
livelihoods are shown in Figure 1 and 2 respecvely.
It is hoped that this publicaon and the data generated during the project will be valuable to
government and other agencies involved in developing environmental management and resource
ulizaon plans for Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest and adjacent ecosystems.
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Problem
Causes
Effects
Wun Baik Reserved Forest :
Mangrove Habitat CONVERSION
for Agriculture & Aquaculture
Population
Growth
Damaging farming
practices & Poisoning
the ecosystem
Extensive Bund
Construction-
Hydrology disruption
Selective Mangrove
Tree Felling for
fuel & charcoal
Soil Acidification
Less productive
paddy & shrimp
Management
Difficulties &
Limited facilities
Lack of Law enforcement
for Forest protection
and Conservation
Irreversible
Natural Biodiversity
Loss
Fishery Resource
Depletion
(Present & Future)
Mangrove
Ecosystem
Destruction
Limited Livelihood
Options Known /
Practiced
Agriculture/Fishery
promotion Policies
Lack of Mangrove Ecosystem Awareness
among Stakeholders/
Attitude towards Resource Conservation
Permanent Loss
of Protective
Green Belt
Permanent Loss
of Ecological and
Economic Services
Figure 1. Cause and eects of mangrove degradaon in Wunbaik
Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Wunbaik Forest Reserve
Can Serve Global Livelihood Security
Problem Identification
in Wunbaik Reserved
Mangrove Forest
Sorting Solutionsfor
Ecosystem Revival
Rectification and
Regulation of
Resource Utilization
Conservation Law
and Order
Enforcement
Responsible Management
of mangrove EcosystemBenefit the Productive
Ecosystem Services
Enjoy Local and
Global Livelihood
Security
Figure 2. Strategy for mangrove ecosystem conservaon to achieve sustainable livelihoods
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Note on the Atlas
The maps in the Atlas are displayed at a common scale of approximately 1: 80,000.
The demographic stascs used in the maps are dated 2009, RS-GIS data are from 1990, 2000,
2009 and 2011 and the environment scan data from the eld is of 2009-2011. The climac data
discussed is for the year 2011.
2. General geographical descripon
Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest lies between latudes 19 08' 10" & 19 23' 40" North and
Longitudes 93 54' 35" & 94 02' 10" East; and is situated in Yambye Township, Kyauk Phyu District.
The total reserved area is about 56 633 acres (22 919 ha) divided into eighty four compartments
(Figure 3). It was declared a reserve by order No. 343 in February 15 1931 by the Brish Government
with the basic objecve to supply rewood to salt factories and inland steam vessels. An adjacent
area (10 080 acres) has been noed as Mingyaung Public Protected Forest by the Ministry of
Forestry in 16 June, 2009.
The topography of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest is almost at except on the western
adjacent island of Kathaung Taung Kyun where a small hill rises. In the same area coral reefs are
found within the reserved forest boundary. Inland from Wunbaik the land is hilly and undulang
with many water bodies. In Yambye Township, the highest point, Zikha Taung, is 1 311 feet in
elevaon while the lowest place is only 6 feet above sea level(Forest Management Plan, Kyauk
Phyu District from 2006-07 to 2015-2016, revised edion).
Broadly the climate is divided into summer, monsoon and winter seasons. In general the area
experiences torrenal rains and humidity levels of up to 94% during the monsoon months from
May unl October. Annual rainfall recorded for 2011 was 5 362 mm. Maximum temperatures of
up to 34.5C were observed during April to October of 2011. Colder weather begins in November
and ends in February. January and February were the coldest months in 2011 with minimum
temperatures of around 15-16C.
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Table 1. Average rainfall, temperature and humidity recorded at Kyauk Phyu District in 2011
Months Average Rainfall Average Highest Lowest Humidity
(mm) Temp (C) Temp (C) Temp (C) (%)
January 93 22.2 30.5 15.0 76.0
February 0.5 23.7 30.5 16.0 77.0
March 9.9 25.8 32.0 18.5 79.0
April 68.1 28.3 34.0 22.3 81.0
May 409.4 28.9 34.5 23.5 83.0
June 1032.8 27.4 33.3 23.4 94.0
July 976.9 27.7 33.8 24.0 91.0
August 1265.2 28.2 32.3 24.5 92.0
September 1029.2 27.3 29.6 25.9 91.0
October 477.3 28.9 31.4 25.2 79.0
November - 25.8 29.5 22.5 73.5
December - - - - -
Source: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Kyauk Phyu
Figure 3. Locaon of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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The soil in Wunbaik consists of very ne mud over a sub-soil of clay with varying proporons of
sand. In elevated areas where dal inundaon is infrequent the soil is more saline and harder.
Paddy and shrimp farming has degraded around 25% of the forest land in Wunbaik and the soils
are acidied, harder, less producve and generally barren. Yambye Township has mainly sandy soils
in the landward area while clay and sand is prevalent in the coastal belts. There are many privately
owned oil wells, where oil is extracted tradional methods.
Neighboring Wunbaik mangroves are 30 712 households in Kyauk Phyu Township with a total
populaon of 195 420 and 21 256 households in Yambye Township with a populaon of 100 769.
The populaon of Kyauk Phyu Township grew from 185 550 in 2005; whereas, the populaon of
Yambye township declined from 139 850 in 2005. The overall populaon of Kyauk Phyu District
has declined in recent years due to migraon from Rakhine State to Yangon and other areas. The
developments in the new capital city, Nay Pyi Taw, have also aracted a considerable number of
migrants. The overall rural populaon in Kyauk Phyu District exceeds the rural populaon (Table 2).
Table 2. Populaon of Kyauk Phyu District in 2010-11
Township Household Male Female Total Urban Rural
Kyauk Phyu 30 712 94 770 100 650 195 420 31 282 164 138
Yambye 21 256 47 520 53 249 100 769 9 916 90 853
Manaung 14 015 47 608 51 622 99 230 7 132 92 098
Ann 22 056 52 565 52 158 104 723 6 298 98 425
District Total 88 039 242 463 257 679 500 142 54 628 445 514
Source: District Peace and Development Council, Kyauk Phyu
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3. Mangrove forest ulizaon paern
The Wunbaik mangrove forest was reserved for sustainable producon, conservaon and
protecon as per the reserved forest laws and regulaons. However, the mangroves of Wunbaikhave been heavily degraded for several reasons including thorough clearance for paddy and shrimp
farming. The loss of mangrove density, diversity and water holding capacity has been signicant.
In some areas, the forest has been damaged to such an extent that recovery is only achievable
through concerted eort. The forest cover change matrix demonstrates the impact of destrucve
and unsustainable pracces within the reserved forest boundary (Table 3).
3.1 Status of mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest during 1990, 2000, 2009 & 2011
In 1990, dense mangroves covered 43 628 acres in Wunbaik while degraded mangrove covered
8 487 acres. Between 1990 and 2011, the area of dense mangroves fell to 30 670 acres while the
degraded area increased to 9 673 acres (Figure 4). The water area has reduced to 50% within the
past ten years and agriculture and aquaculture has expanded.
Table 3. Status and forest cover change in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
Status of forest during 1990-2011 (acres)
Mangrove Forest Cover change (acres)
10 years 9 years 2 years 20 years 10 years
1990 2000 2009 2011 1990-2000 2000-2009 2009-2011 1990-2011 2000-2011
Water 4000 3796 3518 2105 786 -277 -1413 -905 -1691
Mangroves 43628 35250 31326 30670 -8379 -3923 -657 -12959 -4580
Degraded
Mangroves8487 8778 10533 9673 291 1755 -860 1186. 896
Agriculture 858 7196 8190 12314 6337 995 4124 11456 5119
Scrub jungle 0 81 0 0 81 -81 0 0 -81
Road 0 219 135 238 219 -84 103 238 19
Swamp 0 174 24 0 1734 -150 -24 0 -174
Aquaculture 650 1141 2907 1633 491 1765 -1274 983 491
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Figure 4 (i). Status of mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 1990
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Figure 4 (ii). Status of mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 2000
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Figure 4 (iii). Status of mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 2009
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Figure 4 (iv). Status of mangroves in Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 2011
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3.2 Water holding areas inside the reserved forest boundary
Mangrove ecosystems are dependent on dal ushing and the health of mangroves is therefore
directly linked to the water holding capacity of the ecosystem. Decrease in the area of water has
major implicaons for sheries resources and related biota within the ecosystem. Mangrove waters
are nursery grounds for economically valuable n and shell sh and sheries resources both with
in and outside mangrove areas are dependent on this funcon. The 1691 acres reducon in the
area of water between 2000 and 2011 and the rapid reducon of 1413 acres between 2009 and
2011 have had severe impacts on the mangrove vegetaon and the funconing of Wunbaik as a
reserved forest (Figure 5). Almost 45 % of the water holding capacity has been lost during these
years due to bund construcon and creek blockage associated with illegal farming.
The increase in the area of water between 1990 and 2000 was possibly related to the major cyclone
from May 16-19, 1992 which hit the Rakhine mangroves directly. Cyclone Giri in 2010 did not a
impact upon Wunbaik mangroves, only on the upper areas of Kyauk Phyu District.
3.3. Anthropogenic pressures
Despite the fact that Wunbaik is a reserved forest, trespassing and restricted acvies inside the
reserved forest boundary are not restricted. Land encroachments for farming, tree felling and
human selement are common while illegal shing and crab exploitaon connue unabated.With agreement from Forest Department and other administraons, the Government of Myanmar
constructed a 20 mile long east-west geo-texle road from Kyauk Phyu to Ma-e which is serving
as part of the Kyauk Phyu to Yangon high way. It occupies 0.4 % (238 acres) of the total mangrove
area of Wunbaik. The bridges constructed along the road are well designed and cross the various
creeks and water ways without disrupng the dal ow. Damage done to the mangroves during
construcon of the road such as loss of forest land and formaon of swamps and degraded patches
has mostly been reced through natural regeneraon. On a posive note, the Kyauk Phyu to Ma-e
road has provided an opportunity for the administraon to understand the illicit acvies takingplace inside the reserved forest boundary and has brought about measures to beer conserve the
forest.
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Figure 5(i). Water holding areas of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove forest in 2000
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Figure 5(ii). Water holding areas of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove forest in 2011
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3.3.1 Encroachment for paddy farming
Conversion of mangroves to agriculture began between 1979 and 1985 during which me the
World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the Japanese Government provided funding for
reclamaon of land for paddy through construcon of earthen bunds in the country. This resulted
in channels inside the reserved forest being blocked and areas of mangroves being cleared.
Disrupon of natural hydrology connues to destroy large expanses of mangroves in Wunbaik and
in Rakhine State. The major conversion of around 7 196 acres of mangroves to paddy took place
between 1990 and 2000 since when the total area has increased to 12 314 acres (Figure 6).
According to the Forest Law 1992, agriculture development within reserved forest is forbidden but
reluctance exists to enforce this law due to:
naonal and provincial level agricultural expansion targets;
alleged promoon of deforestaon to reduce the possibility of forests providing hideouts
for insurgents;
possible collecon of revenues from agricultural producon by various line agencies and
administrave levels within government;
reluctance to relocate farmers and disrupt local livelihood systems at a polically sensive
me in Myanmar.
In the converted mangrove land, annual yields are commonly around 0.5 tonnes per acre (40baskets/13 sacs). This fetches 208 000 Kyats or around US$200. In producve inland areas suitable
for paddy culvaon, yields of 3-4 tonnes/ha can be achieved. In addion to low yields, converted
areas generally have to be abandoned aer three years due to soil acidicaon and compacon.
3.3.2 Encroachment for shrimp farming
Intrusion into the reserved forest for shrimp farming was iniated by the Department of Fisheries
in 1980 as part of a state shrimp farming expansion plan in spite of such expansion being illegalas per the reserved forest law. There was major conversion of mangroves to shrimp ponds during
the 1980s and up to 2009 with the total area reaching 2907 acres (Figure 7). As ponds were not
protable due to the poor sluice systems, inadequate drainage, water acidicaon and disease
outbreaks, converted areas were abandoned and connued to obstruct the natural hydrology and
limit the health of adjacent mangrove formaons. Currently, 56 % (1274 acres) of shrimp farms
have been abandoned and further areas connue to be abandoned.
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Figure 6(i). Mangrove forest area converted for agriculture in 1990
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Figure 6(ii). Mangrove forest area converted for agriculture in 2000
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Figure 6(iii). Mangrove forest area converted for agriculture in 2009
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Figure 6(iv). Mangrove forest area converted for agriculture in 2011
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Figure 7(i). Mangrove forest area converted for aquaculture in 2000
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Figure 7(ii). Mangrove forest area converted for aquaculture in 2009
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Figure 7(iii). Mangrove forest area converted for aquaculture in 2011
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3.3.3 Illegal human selement inside the reserved forest boundary
Illegal selements inside the reserved forest boundary are common. Selements are constructed
for paddy farming, shrimp farming, wood cung, bark peeling and sheries resource collecon.
The paddy, sh or crab collecon unit owners are businessmen who support villagers to sele inside
the forest. There are several permanent units with jees allowing collecon and transportaon
of resources out of the reserved forest. These have, however, not aracted the aenon of the
administraon in relaon to possible law enforcement. The 22 major human selement spots
observed by the project team between November 2009 and November 2011 are ploed on the
map shown in Figure 8. Many other smaller selements are not shown on the map.
3.3.4 Illegal mangrove wood cung for mber and charcoal
Mangrove cung is a protable business and is conducted by community members in associaon
with or with the knowledge of the local administraon. Every stakeholder has the percepon
that mangroves can be felled freely as no informaon is disseminated in relaon to sustainable
management and protecon of the reserved forest. For charcoal producon, approximately 42
000 trees or around 30 feet in height are cut per kiln per annum to produce 22.5 tons of charcoal
and degrading approximately 104 acres of mangroves (42ha) per annum per kiln. The number of
both registered and unregistered charcoal kilns and the capacity of each kiln around Wunbaik is
unknown.
Fellings for mber for commercial and household use account for around 250 000 trees of around
30 feet in height per annum. At site, each tree is worth less than US $ 4 and approximately 250
hectares of mangrove are degraded in this way per annum. Dealers from surrounding towns
generally send boats to Wunbaik to hide in narrow creeks for a month or so while smaller boats go
on forays for wood unl the mother boat is full. The smaller boats are manned by local villagers
who cut wood and collect bark. There are also several village groups involved in wood cung who
sell wood or bark to dealers on the mother boats. The 12 hotspots observed by the project teamfor tree felling and or hiding mother boats are marked on the map shown in Figure 9.
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Figure 8. Illegal human selement inside the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 9. Hotspots of illegal wood cung in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 10. Hotspots of debarking and tree cung in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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3.3.5 Selecve tree felling for bark peeling
Bark peeling takes place between September and May. Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata are
the target species. Bark is mostly desned for Mandalay, Ma-ei and Taungok markets. The trees
are mostly peeled while standing and allowed to die and dry for fuel but are also at mes felled
and peeled. Villagers in groups of three or four come in small canoes and generally collect bark for
15 days using canoes of 24 feet in length. The villagers sell the bark to merchants from Taungok
who generally bring a mothercra with support canoes and workers for a period of one month. A
number of narrow creeks on the eastern side of the reserved forest are used for anchoring and as
hideouts. Trees of around 30 feet in height, and girth of 25 to 30 cm (i.e. the larger exisng trees)
are targeted and peeled with axes. One tree provides 48 kg of bark and sale price is 100 kyats per
kilogram on site. Boats carry around 16 tonnes in total.
The bark is used to make natural dye for the Buddhist monks clothing and also exported to china.
Approximately 105 000 trees of around 30 feet trees are felled per annum for bark extracon inside
Wunbaik which degrades around 105 hectares of mangroves. The map shows the 14 hotspots for
selecve tree felling and debarking inside the reserved forest boundary (Figure 10).
3.4 Mangrove cover change between 1990, 2000, 2009 and 2011
The change detecon map shows reducons in mangrove cover between 1990 and 2011 (Figure
11). As the mangroves have been converted to dierent man-made ecosystems, mangrove diversity
had been lost and in many cases a great deal of eort will be required to reverse the situaon.
Unless checked immediately a proporon of the mangrove ecosystem in Wunbaik reserved forest
is likely to be lost forever. The maps shown in Figure 11 illustrate change detected in the Wunbaik
Reserved Mangrove Forest while Figure 12 shows percentage forest cover during in 2000 and 2011.
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Figure 11(i). Mangroves cover change in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest between
1990 and 2000
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Figure 11(ii). Mangroves cover change in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest between 1990,
2000 and 2009.
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Figure 11(iii). Mangroves cover change in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest between
2009 and 2011.
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Figure 12. Land cover in 2000 and 2011
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Figure 13. Elevaon map of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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4. Biodiversity status of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
The Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest is endowed with a high level of biodiversity. Seventy
owering plants species have been idened inside the reserved forest boundary including thirtyfour mangrove species and thirty six salt tolerant mangrove associates (Win Myint and Deiva Oswin
Stanley, 2011; Annex 1). Seventy two sh and crustacean species and one-hundred and four bird
species have also been idened (Khin Maung Soe and Deiva Oswin Stanley, 2011; Annex 2 and
Deiva Oswin Stanley, 2011, Personal communicaon; Annex 3).
4.1 Flora
The ora of Wunbaik includes mangroves and associated salt tolerant species. There are also
several non-mangrove species which are not included in the lists created by the project. The
number of terrestrial associate species has risen as a result of human acvies in the area, including
agriculture and shrimp farming. In areas around farmed land, mangroves are oen degraded and
weeds associated with agriculture dominate. Larger trees are very rare and the majority of areas
comprise secondary growth vegetaon and immature forest stands. Single rows of tall, mature
trees ofSonneraa apetela exist in a few creeks, including Thazintan wa, Than Tha Ma She river,
mouth of Awele Byin river, Di Dok Bauk chaung, Daing Khun chaung, Kyauk Bok chaung, crossing
creek from Paung Daung chaung to Za Reik chaung, mouth of Ze Reik chaung and around Kathaung
Taung Kyun area but they are unlikely to be replaced as the areas behind these single tree rows are
occupied by paddy farming.
4.2 Fisheries
A total of 62 species of n sh, 5 species of crustacean and 5 species of mollusk have been idened
in the reserved forest area and there are likely to be many others sll to be recorded. Surveys
conducted by the project revealed the small size of individual sh and of sh populaons in the
waterways surrounding the reserved forest. These characteriscs result from connuing over-
shing and numerous other impacts:
encroachment into mangrove areas for paddy and shrimp farming and related hydrological
disrupon from the construcon of embankments and bunds which block and reduce the
water holding capacity in the area;
use of chemicals and pescides for farming purposes, resulng in the killing of juvenile sh
populaons;
stagnaon, acidicaon and putrefacon of enclosed areas of water due to poorly designed
sluices;
use of poison and explosives for shing;
fence net shing at river mouths;
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the use of shing nets with very small mesh size;
catching of gravid sh and crabs (brooders) and trapping of juvenile crabs.
These issues all need to be managed for shery resources replenishment within the reserved forest
boundary.
4.3 Avifauna
Including both migrants and residents, one-hundred and four bird species were recorded in
Wunbaik during the project period. However, the area is not as well populated as beer protected
mangrove areas in the region. Thirty-seven shore birds were recorded and parakeets and doves are
abundant in the reserved forest, especially around the paddy elds. Destrucon of mangroves and
hunng of arboreal and shore birds connues, however, at a comparavely high rate in Wunbaik
and this contributes to the low bird populaon. Bird shoong during the hunng season also
disrupts roosng, and many birds that are shot are not collected by hunters. Hunng of birds and
other animals is a regular acvity in Wunbaik.
4.4 Herpetofauna
Although no specic study on the herpetofauna of Wunbaik was carried out, the populaon of
amphibians and reples in the area is considerable. Snakes are common and prominent species
include Naja naja (Cobra), Naja hannah, (King Cobra), Elaphe radiata (copperhead rat snake),Bungarus fasciatus (banded krait) and Boa constrictor(boa snake). Threats to snake populaons
include hunng and sale of meat in local markets and increasing local consumpon.
Other amphibians and reples include Varanus spp (monitor lizard), which is common in open
mangrove areas and there are also many species of geckos, skinks, crested lizards, toads and frogs.
In recent years, Batagur baska (river terrapin) has become a rare species and Crocodylus porosus
(Crocodile) are exnct in the reserved area and in Rakhine state as a result of hunng for skin and
meat and associated trade.
4.5 Mammals
Mammals including Oers (Lutra lutra and Lutra spp) are common around the River Kadet and
crab-eang macaque (Macaca fascicularis) were observed near Nganapyagyi River and the mouth
of River Dipataik. The Indian ying fox (Pteropus giganteus), short-nosed or common fruit bat
(Cynopterus brachyos) and bamboo bats(Tylonycteris pachypus and Tylonycteris robustula) occur
in a range of habitats from terrestrial primary and secondary forests to mangroves and culvated
areas. Wild dog (Cuon apinus), sambar (Cervus unicolor), hog deer (Cervus porcinus), mouse deer(Tragulus javanicus), barking deer (Munacus muntjak), buck deer (Cervinae capreolinae), wild
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boar (Sus scrofa), shing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), jungle cat (Felis chaus) and wild cat (Felis
silvestris) are rare in the reserve nowadays. Elephants (Elephas maximus), ger (Panthera gris)
and leopard (Panthera pardus) were once common in the mangroves of Rakhine State but are now
exnct.
Under Myanmar's Protecon of Wild Life and Wild Plants and Conservaon of Natural Areas Law
(State Law and Order Restoraon Council Law No.583/94.1994) only ve of eight species of nave
wild cats are protected. In relaon, on the road to Wunbaik in Taungkok township, many restaurants
serve wild meat and an early morning daily public market sells wild meat from cats, jungle fowl,
deer, monkeys, langurs, wild boars and monitor lizards. There has been a drasc reducon in
mammal populaons and species diversity in the Wunbaik area and many species once known by
the community are now rare or exnct due to the high levels of hunng for meat. The remaining
mammal populaons are also severely threatened by habitat loss.
4.6 Insects
Insects perform a major role in the pollinaon of Wunbaiks mangrove species including Aegiceros
corniculatum, Soneraa apetala, Soneraa grithii, Soneraa alba, Xylocarpus spp, Bruguiera
cylindrica, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Bruguiera parviora, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora
mucronata, Avicennia alba and Avicennia ocinalis, Heriera formes, Kandelia candel, Ceriops
tagaland many others. Honey produced has medicinal value and a high demand. The cost of one
litre ofAegiceros corniculatum honey is around US$ 3 4 in local villages but higher in city markets.
Honey collecon takes place from aer the monsoon unl cold weather begins. Species including
Apis dorsata,Apis orea and Apis indica play a major role in honey producon. In one of the eld
sites in the reserve (B2), large bee hives measuring 1 x 1.5 m are common. Weaver ants are common
inside the mangroves and oen weave nests in Rhizophora spp and Bruguiera gymnorhiza trees.
Firey (Pteroptyxsp.) is also common in Wunbaik. TheAedes aegypmosquito is widespread in
coastal villages in the Wunbaik area and although they do not breed in estuarine habitats, monsoon
water collected in areas converted for paddy farming provides a suitable habitat .
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5. Mangrove forest structure
Mangroves are tropical species, occurring where annual temperature minimums exceed 66F
(19C) and not tolerang temperature uctuaons greater than 18F (10C) or temperatures belowfreezing for any length of me. Temperature recorded in the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
in 2011 was between 23.2C and 30.3C (Table 1).Tidal uctuaons and related salinity levels play
an important role in maintaining mangrove zonaon paerns. In the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove
Forest area dal inundaon was observed to be between 0.5 and 4 meters and water salinity levels
of between 0 parts per thousand (ppt) and 28 ppt were recorded (Table 4).
Table: 4. Ranges of salinity and dal height observed at the eld survey sites in Wunbaik
Reserved Mangrove Forest
Survey site Range of salinity (ppt) Range of dal height (m)
A1 5-10 0.3-1.5
A2 5-28 0.3-4.2
B1 5-18 0.3-3.6
B2 5-23 0.3-3.5
C1 5-15 0.3-3.2
C2 5-24 0.5- 4
D1 5-25 0.5-3.9
D2 5-26 0.5-3.5
E1 5-28 0.3-3.2
E2 5-15 0.3-3
A forest inventory was carried out to assess the structure and composion of the Wunbaik mangroves
and the impact of anthropogenic acvies in the reserved area. Informaon on species name, tree
height, diameter at breast height, number of trees, and number of recruits and seedlings wasrecorded during the inventory. Land elevaon was also recorded and a digital elevaon model
showing the elevaon of the mangroves in meters was created. (Figure 13).
5.1 Status of forest in the survey sites
Using topographic maps and satellite images, ten survey sites of 10 x 500m were chosen randomly
in dierent areas of the reserve (Figure 14). The sites were named as A1 (Compartment 69),
A2 (Compartment 81), B1 (Compartment 55), B2 (Compartment 19), C1 (Compartment 69),C2 (Compartment 25), D1 (Compartment 8), D2 (Compartment 7), E1 (Compartment 48), E2
(Compartment 39).
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Figure 14. Field survey sites
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Table 5. Details of the eld survey sites
Survey site Coordinates Remarks
A1 N 19 11 02.5 E 93 58 03.4 Area encroched for paddy farming
A2 N 19 12 11.9 E 93 56 37.9
Degraded mangroves. Only the survey area has dense
mangroves with 15 species included, dominated by
Ceriops tagal.
B1 N 19 14 14.1 E 94 00 23.7
Degraded mangroves. Only the survey area has dense
mangroves with 15 species included, dominated by
Ceriops tagal.
B2 N 19 15 10.0 E 93 58 55.1
Dense mangrove area with 16 mangrove species
dominated by Ceriops tagaland Bruguiera
gymnorhizaC1 N 19 18 28.5 E 94 00 21.2 Area encroched for paddy farming
C2 N 19 17 55.2 E 93 58 16.3
Degraded mangroves. Only the survey area has dense
mangroves with 15 species included, dominated by
Ceriops tagaland Aegialis rotandifolia.
D1 N 19 20 13.5 E 93 59 18.7
Survey area has dense mangroves while other areas
have been encroached for paddy and shrimp farming.
Mangrove area has 15 species dominated by Ceriops
tagaland Aegialis rotandifolia
D2 N 19 20 39.1 E 94 00 23.9
Survey plot area has dense mangroves with 14
species dominated by Ceriops tagaland Aegialis
rotandifolia
E1 N 19 17 50.2 E 93 55 56.6
Survey area has dense mangroves with 18 species
dominated by Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora
apiculata
E2 N 19 14 20.4 E 93 57 36.0
Survey area has dense mangroves with 18 species
dominated by Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Nypa frucans
and Rhizophora mucronata
Survey site descripons:
Site A1
Site A1 is in compartment 69 and is an area which has been encroached upon for paddy
farming. The land is enclosed by earthen bunds and mangroves have been totally cleared.
Paddy farming is pracced in most of the enclosed land area by Letpan and Yantheshe villagers.
The southern poron of forest compartment 69 has been totally deforested and converted
while in compartments 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 around 50 to 90% of the land is
converted to paddy or shrimp farms.
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Site A2
Site A2 is in compartment 81 and the surveyed area is dense forest with 15 mangrove species
dominated by Ceriops tagal, however, the other porons of compartment 81 and compartments
82, 83, 84, 65, 66, 67 are highly degraded due to recent encroachments. More than 40 % of the
area of compartment 66 has been converted for paddy farming.
Site B1
Site B1 is in compartment 55 and is a degraded patch of mangroves. The survey plot contains
dense mangroves with 15 species present, dominated by Ceriops tagal. Compartments 52, 53,
54 and 56 though not encroached show impacts of illegal logging and minor degradaon and
compartments 55, 57, 58. 59, 60, 61, 62 and 63 are 15-95 % converted for paddy or shrimp
farming.
Site B2
Site B2 is in compartment 34 and is a dense mangrove area with 16 mangrove species dominated
by Ceriops tagal and Bruguiera gymnorhiza. Compartment 31 is comparively intact but
compartment 33 is being degraded due to logging. Compartments 32 and 40 are around 90%
degraded.
Site C1
Site C1 is in compartment 19 which has been completely encroched for paddy farming. In someareas, mangroves have been cleared with earthen bunds created for iniaon of paddy farming.
Site C2
Site C2 is in compartment 25 and the survey area alone contains dense mangroves while other
areas are degraded. In the dense mangroves, 15 species are present, dominated by Ceriops
tagal and Aegialis rotandifolia. Compartments 16, 17, 23, 24, 26, 27 are more than 50%
degraded due to logging and bark peeling.
Site D1
Site D1 is in compartment 8 and while the survey area contains dense mangroves; other
areas have been encroached upon for paddy and shrimp farming. Fieen mangrove species
dominated by Ceriops tagaland Aegialis rotandifolia were recorded. Compartments 1, 2, 3,
4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 have been encroached upon for paddy and shrimp farming. In
parcular, around 50% of compartments 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12 have been encroached upon for
shrimp farming.
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Site D2
Site D2 is in compartment 7 and is a dense mangrove area with 14 mangrove species, dominated
by Ceriops tagaland Aegialis rotandifolia. Compartments 5, 6, 7, 18, 20 and 21 are parally
degraded and in compartment 5 around 40% is encroached for shrimp farming. In compartments
9 and 18 illegal logging is obvious and debarking was prominant in compartment 21.
Site E1
Site E1 is in compartment 48 and covers a dense mangrove area with 18 mangrove species
dominated by Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Rhizophora apiculata. Though the survey area has
dense crown cover, adjacent areas have been severely degraded with only 40% crown cover
remaining. Within compartment 18, larger trees have been felled and bushy secondary
vegetaon accounts for the compartment being included in the dense forest category.
Site E2
Site E2 is in compartment 39 and the survey plot contains a dense patch of mangroves while
other areas are considerably degraded. Eighteen mangrove species dominated by Bruguiera
gymnorhiza, Nypa frucans and Rhizophora mucronata are represented. Compartments 35,
36, 37, 38, 65 are heavily degarded due to logging and bark peeling.
5.2 General forest structure in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
The mangrove forests of Wunbaik are undergoing connual change, proceeding through a series of
successional stages of diering species composion. The ground beneath the mangroves is seldom
blanketed with detritus due to the ooding and ushing of des. In places where the dal ushing
is meagre, there is greater accumulaon of detritus such as decaying leaves, twigs, fallen trees,
animal scat and moss. In general the oor is spread with mangrove pneumatophores, knee roots,
planks and prop roots (Figure 15). Numerous species of ora and fauna subsist on the detritus and
thereby support the recycling of organic maer.
The herb layer in the mangroves is dominated by shade tolerant, so-stemmed species, generally
herbaceous plants such as colonising salt tolerant grasses (Figure 16), mangrove associated ferns
such as Acroschum spp., and others such as Sesuvium sp. Above the herb layer, a shrub layer
includes woody species such as Acanthus sp.,Aegiceras sp., Dalbergia sp.
The under storey comprises immature trees including Aegialis sp., Aegiceras sp., Ceriops sp.,
Kandelia sp., Rhizophora spp., and other small trees (Figure 17). In canopy gaps, these species
generally grow to ll the space and may also act as colonizers in open and degraded areas of the
forest.
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Figure 15. Mangrove oor of Wunbaik Reserved Forest
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Figure 16. Herb and shrub layers in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 17. The under storey in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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The major canopy includes species such as Rhizophora mucronata,R. apiculata, Soneraa apetella
and S. alba in the mature stands and Ceriops tagal, Aegialis rotundifolia, Aegiceras corniculatum
in secondary formaons where the crowns meet and form a thick layer (Figure 18).
In some areas Soneraa apetella,Avicennia alba, Heriera spp and Bruguiera parviora crowns
grow as emergent vegetaon, reaching heights greater than the surrounding canopy (Figure 19).
Mangrove species informaon from the eld assessment was used to idenfy corresponding
colour bands on 2011 satellite imagery and delineate areas of dominant or single species stand in
the reserved forest. (Figure 20)
Tree densies in Wunbaik are generally between 1648 and 15 864 stems per hectare. The densest
populaons were found in areas where the species such as Ceriops tagal, Aegialis rotundifolia and
Aegiceros corniculatum colonized as mono-generic formaons. Such formaons are especially
common in areas disturbed by anthropogenic pressures or where mangroves are primary colonizers
(Figure 21 and Figure 22).
Diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured for major species with DBH above 6cm. Trees with
DBH above 50cm include Soneraa apetala, Xylocarpus spp, Soneraa alba, Bruguiera cylindrica,
Rhizophora apiculata followed by Soneraa grithii, Avicennia alba and Avicennia ocinalis
with DBH above 40cm and Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Bruguiera parviora, Rhizophora mucronata,Heriera formes, Ceriops tagal and Aegiceros corniculatum with DBH below 40cm. The DBH range
of dominant species in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest is shown in Table as below:
Table 6: Maximum diameter at breast height (DBH) for major species found in Wunbaik Reserved
Mangrove Forest
Species Maximum DBH
Rhizophora mucronata 36
Rhizophora apiculata 51
Avicennia ocinalis 43
Avicennia alba 44
Ceriops tagal 26
Heriera formes 34
Bruguiera gymnorhiza 37
Bruguiera parviora 36
Bruguiera cylindrica 53
Xylocarpus spp 61
Soneraa alba 58
Soneraa grithii 47
Soneraa apetala 72Aegiceros corniculatum 20
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Figure 18. The major canopy in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 19. Emergent vegetaon in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 20. Mangrove species composion in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 21. Monogeneric vegetaon in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 22. Relave frequency and dominance of mangrove species in Wunbaik Reserved
Mangrove Forest
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With respect to crown size, Soneraa alba have the largest canopies of up to 15m diameter while
Rhizophora mucronata are up to 10m, Rhizophora apiculata up to 8m, Bruguiera spp.up to 7m,
Xylocarpus spp.up to 5m, Avicennia ocianalis up to 5m, Heriera spp. up to 5m, Ceriops tagalup
to 5m.
5.3Forest recovery capacity
The capacity of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest to recover from degradaon is extremely
good where the natural hydrology remains intact. Areas, in which the hydrology has been altered,
however, suer connued degradaon. Mangroves seed producon is abundant and seedlings
germinaon rates are high where the microclimac condions are appropriate (Table 8).
Table 7: Species wise seed producon in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
Species Tree height (m) Canopy diameter (m)
Approximate seed
producon
per tree per season
Rhizophora mucronata 10 5 4 822
Rhizophora apiculata 7 5 4 273
Avicennia ocinalis 6 5 184 536
Avicennia alba 5 3 152 341
Ceriops tagal 5 3 2 011Heriera formes 5 3 1 522
Bruguiera gymnorhiza 5 5 6 501
Bruguiera parviora 5 3 3 032
Bruguiera cylindrica 5 3 4 504
Xylocarpus spp 6 5 209
Soneraa alba 5 5 18 021
Soneraa grithii 5 3 15 032
Soneraa apetala 10 8 20 041Aegiceros corniculatum 5 3 150 112
Aegialis rotandifolia 3 2 10 032
In many areas the rao of seedlings reaching the recruitment stage is high. The number of recruits
reaching the tree stage has, however, been reduced by cung and encroachment. Survey data
shows that the density of seedlings below 1 m in height reached 123 per square meter, while for
seedlings below 2 m densies reached a maximum of 7 per square meter and for seedling above 3
m in height there were up to 9 per square meter. The greater number of seedlings between 2-3 m
resulted from dense formaons ofCeriops taga,Aegiceros corniculatum andAegialis rotandifolia.Figure 23 shows the density of seedlings in the survey sites.
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Seedling density in survey sites : seedling height below 1 m
Seedling density in survey sites : seedling height below 2 m
Recruit stage plant density in survey sites : plant height below 3m
Figure 23. Density of seedlings in the eld survey sites in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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The Forest Department Working Plan 1958-70 states that yield from Wunbaik mangroves is 1.68
tons per acre per annum from annual coupes covering 33 280 acres. Producon was, however,
xed conservavely at 50 000 per tons per annum. In Ayeyarwady Delta, where an average density
of 11.7 trees per acre of above 2 inches diameter was recorded, yields were esmated at 4.42 tons
per acre. In the mangroves of Rakhine State, yields were lower due to tree densies of only 9.5
trees per acre.
Currently,the tree class composion in Wunbaik follows an unhealthy declining exponenal curve
rather than the bell shaped curve expected for a healthy forest. In all survey sites except E2, the
curves decline and exhibit dominance of size classes below 6 cm. In site E2 there are a considerable
number of mature trees ofRhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora apiculata, Xylocarpus granatum,
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Bruguiera parviora, Ceriops tagalandAegiceros corniculatum. Figure 24
shows the size class distribuon across all survey sites in Wunbaik.
There are 84 compartments in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest. As per the 0.5 meter
panchromac (black and white) and 1.65 meter mulspectral resoluon GeoEye-1 , the protecon,
conservaon and management of Wunbaik mangroves is severely threatened. For example, there
is no single compartment that can be categorized as dense mangrove vegetaon, or undegraded;
all compartments have either been encroached upon or are degraded. Of 84 compartments, 33
compartments (39%) are highly degraded, 13 compartments (16 %) are parally degraded and 38
compartments (45 %) are exclusively under farming or have been encroached upon (Figure 25).
Full mangrove recovery will only be possible if all human acvies cease or are signicantly curtailed.
If roune encroachment prevails there will be no healthy mangroves remaining in Wunbaik in
10-15 years, similar to the current situaon in Ayeyarwady delta. Eradicaon of mangroves from
Wunbaik would expose Rakhine and its inhabitants to coastal disasters including annual cyclones
and storms, monsoonal ooding and possible tsunamis.
If the decision is taken to aid mangrove recovery, the appropriate soluon is to allow NATURALRECOVERY. Gardening approach of planng seedlings raised in nurseries may not serve in
restoraon of degraded mangroves in Wunabik, ecological restoraon is the raonal approach.
Some facilitaon may be required by demolishing embankments, bunds and creek blockages to
restore the natural hydrology. The me required for natural recovery is likely to be in the order of
5 to 10 years.
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Survery Site A1 Survery Site A2
Survery Site B1 Survery Site B2
Survery Site C1 Survery Site C2
Survery Site D1 Survery Site D2
Survery Site E1 Survery Site E2
Figure 24. Tree size class distribuon in the survey sites in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 25. Compartment wise mangrove degradaon and encroachment in Wunbaik Reserved
Mangrove Forest
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6. Mangrove management module of project TCP-MYA-3204
6.1 Baseline data assessment
Scienc and parcipatory assessments were carried out to assess biodiversity, forest ulisaon
paerns, change in mangrove cover since 1900, alternave livelihood opons for Wunbaik
users and alternave opons for mangrove usage. Floral and sheries diversity of Wunbaik was
documented in books entled The Mangrove Vegetaon of Wunbaik Reserved Forest and The
Fishery Resources of Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest (Figure 26). Parcipatory assessments
were conducted in the villages in the Wunbaik area and reports produced on their socio-economic
situaon and possible livelihood prototypes that could be adopted.
6.2 Awareness, training and skill development
Training courses covering many subjects were held by the project: forest surveying, mangrove
species idencaon, mapping, remote sensing and GIS, sheries management, rapid assessment
of mangrove vegetaon and forest structure, teak nursery management, parcipatory forest
management, community forestry, tree graing and hybridizaon, triple and double rack home
gardening, mber and fuel species tree nursery development, plantaon management, forest
management plans and monitoring, community organizaon and management, product markeng
and Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR). Parcipatory management skill development
programs were also run, covering topics including: awareness on linkages between livelihoods
and mangrove conservaon, management of Wunbaik mangroves, mangrove awareness for
the user communies and management of Wunbaik sheries Resources. In addion, training
in entrepreneurship skill development training was provided to mangrove dependent local
communies and line departments on fuel ecient stoves and hygienic drier construcon and
commercial graed seedling producon (Figure 27).
6.3 Livelihood support opons
7.3.1 Commercial community nurseries and market linkages
Two commercial community nurseries of 18 x 12 m were set up in Letpan and Yantheshe villages.
The gender composion of the management commiee is 7:3 women to men and the women lead
nursery management and linking with markets. The nursery acvies form an alternave income
source for the community groups and villagers (Figure 28).
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Figure 26(i). Mangrove vegetaon in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 26(ii). Fishery resources in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 27. Awareness and skill development programs in Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest
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Figure 28. Commercial community nursery and the management commiee
from the beneciary village
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6.3.2 Fuel ecient stove producon
Following training conducted by the project, the community management groups and many
individual women are producing fuel ecient stoves in a variety of sizes to suit dierent family sizes,
and selling them in local markets. The moulds used for construcon of the stoves were provided bythe project. As stove producon was found to be economically benecial for involved womenfolk, a
producon unit 3 x 12 m was established, adjacent to the community nursery to enable women to
gather in one place to produce, store and market products. The cost of stove producon is solely in
terms of labour requirements as raw material is available free of charge in the area. A single stove
unit is sold for 1500 kyats (nearly US$ 2) in local markets and 2000 kyats (nearly US$ 2.5) in Yambye
market. The stoves reduce daily fuel wood usage by 40 percent (Figure 29).
6.3.3 Village pond restoraon
Water is in high demand in the villages during summer. To help supply the village plantaons and
gardens, which provide an important alternave income source for Wunbaik communies, the
project supported restoraon of the fresh water ponds in Letpan and Yantheshe villages (Figure
30).
6.3.4 Double rack backyard vegetable garden
To support the landless and those with limited income and land holdings, triple rack home gardens
were introduced and were well accepted by community members. Because of their greater
portability villagers preferred double racks and the triple rack model was therefore redesigned as
Double Rack Backyard Vegetable Garden. Around 40 families in Letpan village and 30 families in
Yantheshe village now own Double Rack Backyard Vegetable Gardens which provide considerable
income: monthly benets from each unit are esmated at 15000-20000 Kyats (nearly US $ 25)
(Figure 31)
6.4 Mangrove ulity migaon
6.4.1 Fuel and mber tree plantaons
The dependency on mangroves for fuel and mber is high in the Wunbaik area and to reduce
demand and help conserve the mangrove resources, terrestrial trees were planted in the villages to
yield fuel and, preferably, mber (Figure 32). The community groups manage the tree plantaons
but in some cases the project also supported tree planng in private lands under the agreement
that benets would be shared 75:25 between the land owner and the community. The village
heads, community management groups and the land owners have signed wrien agreements in
relaon to benet sharing.
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Figure 29. Fuel ecient stove producon at the beneciary village
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Figure 30. Pond restoraon acvies at the beneciary villages
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Figure 31. Double Rack Backyard Vegetable Garden in the beneciary villages
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Figure 32. Alternave fuel and mber plantaon in the beneciary villages
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6.4.2 Alternave bio-energy opons
The major cause of mangrove degradaon in Wunbaik has been collecon of wood for energy
producon both for local communies and for the country as a whole. Establishing alternave
energy sources for cooking, heang and lighng in Myanmar is a key challenge. Myanmar has oil
and gas reserves but the extent to which these resources will be consumed and shared, if at all, at
the naonal level remains unclear. As a result, there is no clear alternave and although ecient
stoves make a dierence, pressure on mangroves is likely to remain and considerable eort will be
needed to prevent further degradaon.
To help address the high demand on mangrove resources for energy producon, a study on the
feasibility of establishing a gas producon system based on rice husks and providing gas through
pipelines to Letpan village was carried out (Figure 33). The costs of equipment for conversion and
laying pipelines were assessed but due to fund constraints, the project was not able to connue
with the strategy of alternave energy provision to migate mangrove wood cung for fuel.
6.5 Mangrove management schemes and demonstraons
Various eorts were made by the project to assist management of mangrove in the Wunbaik area
including registraon of a community forest, demonstraon of Ecological Mangrove Restoraon
(EMR) and establishment of a Wunbaik users register.
6.5.1 Community forestry
As Wunbaik mangroves are in a reserved forest area that is distant from most selements in the
district, community management is not considered appropriate. In spite of this fact, a community
forestry demonstraon site was iniated in Hlang Kuang, which is situated in Mingyaung Public
Protected Forest, adjacent to Wunbaik, where the Forest Department allowed around 23 families
to sele. The status of mangroves near the selement is very poor and most mangrove areas havebeen converted to paddy farming (Figure 34). An area of 25 acres including degraded mangrove
areas has nonetheless been registered with the Forest Department as a community forest. The
community forest management commiee will iniate re-greening of the degraded forest area and
also protect the mangroves from further encroachment (Figure 35).
6.5.2 Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR)
The area in Wunbaik in which mangroves have been cleared or are highly degraded amounts to 24
352 acres or 43 % of the total reserved mangrove forest. Restoraon of the ecosystem is unlikely
to be possible through direct planng of mangroves in such highly degraded areas and on such a
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large scale. Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR) can, however, achieve excellent results in such
circumstances by facilitang return of natural hydrological paerns though removal of disrupve
factors while addressing the reasons for damage done in the past.
Figure 33. Stove fueled by gas generated from rice husk
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Figure 34. Mangrove area converted for paddy in Mingyaung Public Protected Forest,
near Hlang Kuang selement area
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Figure 35. Map showing the 25 acres registered as a community forest near Hlang Kuangselement in Mingyaung Public Protected Forest
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The Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR) technique was used by the project to restore 4 acres
of abandoned paddy elds that were previously covered with mangroves in an area adjacent
to Hlang Kuang selement (Figure 36). The restoraon work principally involved facilitang the
natural hydrology with lile need for re-grading of land. There was no need for a mangrove nurseryor for planng of mangrove seedlings given the abundance of seedlings in the local waterways. The
natural regeneraon process assists long-term survival and replenishment of the forest ecosystem
by avoiding mistakes that are commonly made in selecng mangrove species for dierent heights
in the dal range.
Abandoned degraded areas of land in the Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest require similar
acon to restore the mangrove vegetaon as detailed in the Integrated Mangrove Management
Plan.
6.5.3 Wunbaik user register
Use of Wunbaik mangroves for acvies including paddy or shrimp farming and commercial
exploitaon of trees and shery resources is illegal. A Wunbaik User Register is suggested as a
means for the Forest Department to monitor and manage acvies in Wunbaik Reserved Forest.
All users, regardless of their intended mode of ulizaon should register to facilitate systemac
management of the area and to enable livelihood support to be provided as appropriate. As per
the Reserved Forest law, the Forest Department is not obliged to compensate the trespassing
pares. Indeed, as trespassers are in contravenon of the law, a penalty would more commonly be
applied. Line departments are, however, encouraging communies to encroach into the reserved
forest and are calling upon the local administraon to seek areas outside the reserved forest
for trespassing paddy and shrimp farmers to move to. The Forest Department is supporng the
process by idenfying lands outside the reserved forest boundary for the trespassers. To receive
the opon of moving to a new area, it is recommended that the details of all farmers are added to
the Wunbaik User Register. A preliminary Wunbaik User Register was developed during the project
period, which should be extended to all villages surrounding Wunbaik and to villagers entering
Wunbaik for resource extracon (Annex 4).
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Figure 36(i). Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR) training.
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Figure 36(i). Ecological Mangrove Restoraon (EMR) demonstraon in four acres.
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7. Guidelines for Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest management
Wunbaik Reserved Forest is one of the last great areas of mangroves in Myanmar and in all
Southeast Asia. The area has an extremely high potenal producvity in terms of both forestand sheries resources and provides a home for a wide range of fauna and ora. The forest also
provides storm and cyclone protecon and exhibits high levels of carbon storage and sequestraon.
Through careful management, the Wunbaik Reserved Forest can become more producve in terms
of wood and non-wood forest products, including sheries resources, and ecosystem services
including biodiversity conservaon and climate change migaon. In conserving and improving
the management of the area, local level benets for current and future generaons will also be
increased.
To respond to current issues and address demands in a sustainable and equitable way, much more
acve forms of management are required than are currently being implemented. Greater aenon
to sustainable management of the natural resources in the reserve area will benet both current
and future generaons and will also provide a model for eecve management of other mangrove
areas in Myanmar and the region as a whole.
To improve sustainable management of natural resources in and around the reserve, rights and
responsibilies must be distributed amongst stakeholders such that incenves are provided to
oset tendencies for short-term degradaon. For this an enabling regulatory environment and
eecve law enforcement and governance are necessary. As such, the Forest, Fisheries and Land
Planning Departments as key partners in managing the reserved forest must act in coordinaon
and in partnership with the local communies. To support collaboraon between agencies and
communies, instuonal strengthening at the local level will be parcularly important.
With respect to management and technical maers, educaon and awareness raising amongst
stakeholders at all levels is essenal, especially in relaon to the importance of mangrove forests and
the technical measures necessary to raise the eciency with which producon and conservaonobjecves are achieved. Alternave livelihood opons and income generang acvies for
local communies must also be provided in addion to training on forest and sheries resource
management.
The following secons address the issues summarised in Secon 2 and provide a set of measures
necessary to sustainably manage Wunbaik Reserved Forest for the producon of wood and
non-wood forest products and conservaon of natural resource for the benet of surrounding
communies and future generaons. The measures recommended have been derived fromcommunity level visits surveys and discussions, eld level implementaon of pilot level acvies,
naonal and local level consultaons and expert input.
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7.1 Agree on a policy for future management of Wunbaik Reserved Forest
A key area for discussion and consultaon during the project implementaon period was the issue
of encroached land within the Wunbaik Reserved Forest. Table 3 shows that approximately 5 644
hectares (13 947 acres) of land have been encroached upon for paddy and shrimp farming. Secon
1.4 outlines current legislaon governing reserved forests and the lack of provision for encroached
land within reserved forests.
In managing the reserved forest, a key decision therefore concerns the future use of areas of
encroached land. According to the forest law, agricultural and aquaculture land uses should not
be present within the reserve area and because of the isolaon of the farmed areas and need for
families to relocate during the growing season, alternave land closer to communies permanent
dwellings is preferred by many farmers and stakeholders as recorded during the IMMP consultaon
in Yambye (see Annex 7).
I