Definitions: Learning is:1. “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).

2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Learning TheoryQ: How do people learn?

A: Nobody really knows.

But there are many theories:

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Social Learning Theories

Humanism

Models of Teaching(Joyce, Weil,

and Calhoun, 2015)

Information-Processing

FamilyOf

Models

Social FamilyOf

Models

Personal Family

Of Models

Behavioral Systems Family

Of Models

Behavioral Systems Family of Models

Behavioral Systems Family of Models apply the principles of behaviorism in the classroom to both academic content and student behavior. The belief is that learning is a measurable change in behavior. By manipulating (controlling) select variables we can elicit certain behaviors (decoding words, comparing ideas, performing math computations, using good social skills, etc.) that define learning. By reinforcing these behaviors (providing salient praise, grades, etc.,) the behaviors will become strengthened and endure. Names associated with this model are John Carroll and Benjamin Bloom (Mastery Learning,) Madeline Hunter (7 Step Lesson Plan), Ethna Reid (Exemplary Center For Reading Instruction.)

Behavioral Systems Models

The focus of the methods associated with this category is on observable skills and behaviors.

Behavioral Systems Models

Two major models in this category are:

Direct Instruction

Highly structured, teacher-directed; maximization of student learning timeMastery

Learning

Given enough time and quality instruction, nearly all students can master any set of objectives

Behavioral Psychology

The premise of Behavioral Psychology is that behavior is lawful and subject to variables in the environment. Behavioral Psychology is only concerned with measurable behavior, behavior that can be operationalized. Basic principles of Behavioral Psychology are as follows: Given a stimulus and an ensuing response, the response will more likely recur if reinforced and less likely to recur if punished.

REINFORCER = increased likelihood of recurring

STIMULUS RESPONSE

PUNISHER = decreased likelihood of recurring

In Behavioral Psychology we are not concerned with inner functions such as thought, feelings, or beliefs.

BehaviorismLearning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors

Focuses solely on observable behaviors

A biological basis for learning

Learning is context-independent

Classical & Operant ConditioningReflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

Behaviorism in the Classroom

Rewards and punishments

Responsibility for student learning rests squarely with the teacher

Lecture-based, highly structured

Critiques of Behaviorism

Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Information Processing Family Of Models

Models in this family draw from cognitive psychology. They focus on ways we can improve a person’s drive to make sense of the world including how they acquire information, organize data, frame problems, and generate solutions.

Cognitive Theories Of Psychology

In Cognitive Psychology we are interested in how a person thinks, remembers and knows. Applications of this branch of psychology help individuals understand, remember, and make connections among ideas and thoughts.

Information Processing Models

Three major models in this category are:

Concept Attainment

Categorizing information and concept formation

Inquiry Training/ Inductive Thinking

Causal reasoning, interpretation of data, and formation of principles and theoriesThe influence of maturity on thinking and reasoning

Intellectual

Development

Cognitivism

Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection

Cognitive Learning Theory

Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner

Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel

Cognitivism in the Classroom

Inquiry-oriented projects

Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding

Critiques of Cognitivism

Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute

Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic

Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

Theories of Social Psychology

Theories of social psychology help us understand interaction patterns among people. Large-group dynamics and small-group dynamics are two areas that are important.

Social Family of Models

The Social Family of Models apply social psychological principles in the classroom. Teacher Student and Student Student Interaction patterns have implications for learning. The teacher structures interactions to maximize learning and other desired educational outcomes. We see applied social psychology in the classroom when we see true Cooperative Learning. Johnson and Johnson have contributed greatly to this field.

Social Interaction Models

The models associated with the social interaction family are focused on developing the concepts and skills needed to work in groups.

Social Interaction Models

Two major models in this category are:

Cooperative Learning

Working in groups; based on the methods of Slavin and Johnson and Johnson

Role playing

Study and development of social behavior and values

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Grew out of Cognitivism

A. Bandura (1973)

Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences

Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery

SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games

SLT in the Classroom

Collaborative learning and group work

Modeling responses and expectations

Opportunities to observe experts in action

Critiques of Social Learning Theory

Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors

Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners

Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning

Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is…A search for meaning by the learnerContextualizedAn inherently social activityDialogic and recursiveThe responsibility of the learner

Lev VygotskySocial Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the Classroom

Journaling

Experiential activities

Personal focus

Collaborative & cooperative learning

Critiques of Social Constructivism

Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic Psychology is concerned with fostering the ability of each person to find and express their maximum potential as human beings. It emphasizes consciousness, human dignity, and the capacity to direct our own destinies.

HumanistAll students are intrinsically motivated to self actualize or learn

Learning is dependent upon meeting a hierarchy of needs (physiological, psychological and intellectual)

Learning should be reinforced.

The Personal Family of Models

Models from the Personal Family draw on principles from Humanistic Psychology. They focus on the individual and emphasize the self. Helping the student feel good about herself and empowering the student to maximize her potential and have power over her own life are important focuses.

Personal Development Models

Three major models in this category are:

Facilitative teaching

Affective orientation; based on methods of Carl Rogers

Increasing Personal Awareness

Focus is on developing an awareness and fulfillment of individual potentialFocus on the development and application of creativity

Synectics

Personal Development ModelsThe focus of these models is on those outcomes held in high regard by humanistic educators:

• high self-concept and self-esteem; • positive self-direction and independence; • creativity and curiosity;• the development of affect and emotions.