Dedication - s e v i e s · of the Painters, Dr. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets to Lytton...

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Transcript of Dedication - s e v i e s · of the Painters, Dr. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets to Lytton...

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Dedication

ForSallyCockburn

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Contents

DedicationMapsIntroductionChapterOne:MeccaChapterTwo:JahiliyyahChapterThree:HijrahChapterFour:JihadChapterFive:SalamGlossaryNotesAbouttheAuthorBooksintheEminentLivesSeriesAlsobyKarenArmstrongCopyrightAboutthePublisher

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EminentLives,briefbiographiesbydistinguishedauthorsoncanonicalfigures,joinsalongtraditioninthislivelyform,fromPlutarch’sLives toVasari’sLivesof thePainters,Dr. Johnson’sLivesof thePoets toLytton Strachey’sEminentVictorians.Pairinggreatsubjectswithwritersknownfortheirstrongsensibilitiesand sharp, lively points of view, the Eminent Lives are ideal introductionsdesigned to appeal to the general reader, the student, and the scholar. “Topreserve a becoming brevitywhich excludes everything that is redundant andnothingthatissignificant,”wroteStrachey:“That,surely,isthefirstdutyofthebiographer.”

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Introduction

THE HISTORY OF A RELIGIOUS tradition is a continuous dialogue between atranscendent reality and current events in the mundane sphere. The faithfulscrutinize the sacred past, looking for lessons that speak directly to theconditions of their lives.Most religions have a figurehead, an individualwhoexpressestheidealsofthefaithinhumanform.IncontemplatingtheserenityoftheBuddha,BuddhistsseethesupremerealityofNirvanatowhicheachofthemaspires;inJesus,Christiansglimpsethedivinepresenceasaforceforgoodnessandcompassionintheworld.Theseparadigmaticpersonalitiesshedlightontheoftendark conditions inwhichmostofus seek salvation inour flawedworld.Theytelluswhatahumanbeingcanbe.Muslimshavealwaysunderstoodthis.Theirscripture,theQur’an,gavethem

amission:tocreateajustanddecentsociety,inwhichallmembersweretreatedwithrespect.Thepoliticalwell-beingof theMuslimcommunitywas,and is,amatterofsupremeimportance.Likeanyreligiousideal,itisalmostinsuperablydifficulttofulfill,butaftereachfailure,Muslimshavetriedtogetupandbeginagain.ManyIslamicrituals,philosophies,doctrines,sacredtexts,andshrinesaretheresultoffrequentlyanguishedandself-criticalcontemplationofthepoliticaleventsofIslamicsociety.The life of the ProphetMuhammad (c. 570–632 CE) was as crucial to the

unfoldingIslamicidealasit is today.HiscareerrevealedtheinscrutableGod’sactivity in theworld, and illustrated theperfect surrender (inArabic, thewordfor “surrender” is islam) that every human being should make to the divine.BeginningduringtheProphet’slifetime,Muslimshadtostrivetounderstandthemeaningofhislifeandapplyittotheirown.AlittlemorethanahundredyearsafterMuhammad’s death, as Islam continued to spread to new territories andgain converts, Muslim scholars began to compile the great collections ofMuhammad’ssayings(ahadith)andcustomarypractice (sunnah),whichwouldform the basis ofMuslim law.The sunnah taughtMuslims to imitate thewayMuhammadspoke,ate, loved,washed,andworshipped, so that in thesmallest

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detailsoftheirdailyexistence,theyreproducedhislifeonearthinthehopethattheywouldacquirehisinternaldispositionoftotalsurrendertoGod.At about the same time, in the eighth and ninth centuries, the firstMuslim

historiansbegantowriteaboutthelifeoftheProphetMuhammad:MuhammadibnIshaq(d.767);Muhammadibn‘Umaral-Waqidi(d.c.820);MuhammadibnSa‘d(d.845);andAbuJarirat-Tabari(d.923).Thesehistorianswerenotsimplyrelyingon theirownmemoriesand impressions,butwereattemptingaserioushistorical reconstruction. They included earlier documents in their narratives,traced oral traditions back to their original source, and, though they reveredMuhammad as a man of God, they were not entirely uncritical. Largely as aresultof their efforts,weknowmoreaboutMuhammad thanaboutnearlyanyother founder of a major religious tradition. These early sources areindispensable to any biographer of the Prophet, and I will frequently refer totheminthesepages.The work of Muhammad’s first biographers would probably not satisfy a

modernhistorian.Theyweremenof their timeandoften includedstoriesofamiraculousand legendarynature thatwewould interpretdifferently today.Buttheywereawareofthecomplexityoftheirmaterial.Theydidnotpromoteonetheoryor interpretationofeventsat theexpenseofothers.Sometimes theyputtwoquitedifferentversionsofanincidentsidebyside,andgaveequalweighttoeach account, so that readers could make up their own minds. They did notalwaysagreewiththetraditionstheyincluded,butweretryingtotellthestoryoftheirProphetashonestlyandtruthfullyastheycould.Therearelacunaeintheiraccounts.WeknowpracticallynothingaboutMuhammad’searlylifebeforehebegantoreceivewhathebelievedwererevelationsfromGodattheageofforty.Inevitably, pious legends developed aboutMuhammad’s birth, childhood, andyouth,buttheseclearlyhavesymbolicratherthanhistoricalvalue.There isalsovery littlematerialaboutMuhammad’searlypoliticalcareer in

Mecca.At that time,hewasarelativelyobscurefigure,andnobodythought itworthwhiletomakenoteofhisactivities.OurmainsourceofinformationisthescripturethathebroughttotheArabs.Forsometwenty-threeyears,fromabout610tohisdeathin632,Muhammadclaimedthathewastherecipientofdirectmessages fromGod,whichwerecollected into the text thatbecameknownastheQur’an.ItdoesnotcontainastraightforwardaccountofMuhammad’slife,ofcourse,butcametotheProphetpiecemeal,linebyline,versebyverse,chapterbychapter.SometimestherevelationsdealtwithaparticularsituationinMeccaorMedina.IntheQur’an,GodansweredMuhammad’scritics;hereviewedtheir

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arguments;heexplained thedeepersignificanceofabattleoraconflictwithinthe community. As each new set of verses was revealed to Muhammad, theMuslimslearneditbyheart,andthosewhowereliteratewroteitdown.Thefirstofficial compilation of theQur’anwasmade in about 650, twenty years afterMuhammad’sdeath,andachievedcanonicalstatus.TheQur’anis theholywordofGod,anditsauthorityremainsabsolute.But

Muslimsknowthatitisnotalwayseasytointerpret.Itslawsweredesignedforasmallcommunity,butacenturyaftertheirProphet’sdeath,Muslimsruledavastempire, stretching from the Himalayas to the Pyrenees. Their circumstanceswere entirely different from those of the Prophet and the first Muslims, andIslamhadtochangeandadapt.ThefirstessaysinMuslimhistorywerewrittentoaddresscurrentperplexities.HowcouldMuslimsapplytheProphet’sinsightsandpracticetotheirowntimes?Whentheearlybiographerstoldthestoryofhislife,theytriedtoexplainsomeofthepassagesintheQur’anbyreproducingthehistorical context in which these particular revelations had come down toMuhammad. By understanding what had prompted a particular Qur’anicteaching, they could relate it to their own situation bymeans of a disciplinedprocessofanalogy.Thehistoriansandthinkersofthetimebelievedthatlearningabout theProphet’s struggles tomake thewordofGod audible in the seventhcenturywouldhelpthemtopreservehisspiritintheirown.Fromtheverystart,writing about theProphetMuhammadwasnever awholly antiquarianpursuit.The process continues today. SomeMuslim fundamentalists have based theirmilitant ideologyon the lifeofMuhammad;Muslimextremistsbelieve thathewouldhavecondonedandadmiredtheiratrocities.OtherMuslimsareappalledby theseclaims,andpoint to theextraordinarypluralismof theQur’an,whichcondemnsaggressionandseesall rightlyguidedreligionsasderivingfromtheoneGod.WehavealonghistoryofIslamophobiainWesternculturethatdatesback to the time of the Crusades. In the twelfth century, Christian monks inEurope insisted that Islam was a violent religion of the sword, and thatMuhammadwasacharlatanwho imposedhis religionona reluctantworldbyforce of arms; they called him a lecher and a sexual pervert. This distortedversionoftheProphet’slifebecameoneofthereceivedideasoftheWest,andWestern people have always found it difficult to see Muhammad in a moreobjective light.Since thedestructionof theWorldTradeCenter onSeptember11,2001,membersoftheChristianRightintheUnitedStatesandsomesectorsof theWestern media have continued this tradition of hostility, claiming thatMuhammad was irredeemably addicted to war. Some have gone so far as to

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claimthathewasaterroristandapedophile.Wecannolongeraffordtoindulgethistypeofbigotry,becauseitisagiftto

extremists who can use such statements to “prove” that theWestern world isindeedengagedonanewcrusadeagainsttheIslamicworld.Muhammadwasnotaman of violence.Wemust approach his life in a balancedway, in order toappreciate his considerable achievements. To cultivate an inaccurate prejudicedamages the tolerance, liberality, and compassion that are supposed tocharacterizeWesternculture.I became convinced of this fifteen years ago, after the fatwah of Ayatollah

KhomeinihadsentencedSalmanRushdieandhispublisherstodeathbecauseofwhatwasperceivedtobeablasphemousportraitofMuhammadinTheSatanicVerses. I abhorred the fatwahandbelieved thatRushdiehada right topublishwhatever he chose, but Iwas disturbed by theway some ofRushdie’s liberalsupporters segued from a denunciation of the fatwah to an out-and-outcondemnationofIslamitselfthatborenorelationtothefacts.Itseemedwrongtodefenda liberalprincipleby revivingamedievalprejudice.Weappeared tohave learnednothing from the tragedyof the1930s,when this typeofbigotrymade it possible for Hitler to kill six million Jews. But I realized that manyWesternpeoplehadnoopportunitytorevisetheirimpressionofMuhammad,soI decided to write a popular accessible account of his life to challenge thisentrenchedview.TheresultwasMuhammad:ABiographyoftheProphet,whichwasfirstpublishedin1991.ButinthewakeofSeptember11,weneedtofocusonotheraspectsofMuhammad’slife.Sothis isacompletelynewandentirelydifferentbook,which,Ihope,willspeakmoredirectlytotheterrifyingrealitiesofourpost–September11world.Asaparadigmaticpersonality,Muhammadhasimportantlessons,notonlyfor

Muslims,butalsoforWesternpeople.Hislifewasajihad:asweshallsee,thisword does not mean “holy war,” it means “struggle.” Muhammad literallysweatedwith theeffort tobringpeace towar-tornArabia,andweneedpeoplewhoarepreparedtodothistoday.Hislifewasatirelesscampaignagainstgreed,injustice,andarrogance.HerealizedthatArabiawasataturningpointandthattheoldwayofthinkingwouldnolongersuffice,soheworehimselfoutinthecreative effort to evolve an entirely new solution. We entered another era ofhistory on September 11, and must strive with equal intensity to develop adifferentoutlook.Strangely,eventsthattookplaceinseventh-centuryArabiahavemuchtoteach

usabouttheeventsofourtimeandtheirunderlyingsignificance—farmore,in

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fact, than the facile sound bites of politicians. Muhammad was not trying toimposereligiousorthodoxy—hewasnotmuchinterested inmetaphysics—buttochangepeople’sheartsandminds.Hecalledtheprevailingspiritofhistimejahiliyyah.Muslims usually understand this tomean the “Timeof Ignorance,”that is, the pre-Islamic period in Arabia. But, as recent research shows,Muhammadusedthetermjahiliyyahtorefernottoanhistoricalerabuttoastateofmindthatcausedviolenceandterrorinseventh-centuryArabia.Jahiliyyah,Iwouldargue,isalsomuchinevidenceintheWesttodayaswellasintheMuslimworld.Paradoxically,Muhammadbecamea timelesspersonalitybecausehewas so

rooted in his own period. We cannot understand his achievement unless weappreciatewhathewasupagainst.Inordertoseewhathecancontributetoourownpredicament,wemustenterthetragicworldthatmadehimaprophetnearlyfourteenhundredyearsago,onalonelymountaintopjustoutsidetheholycityofMecca.

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ChapterOne

Mecca

AFTERWARDSHEFOUNDITalmostimpossibletodescribetheexperiencethatsenthimrunninginanguishdowntherockyhillsidetohiswife.Itseemedtohimthata devastating presence had burst into the cave where he was sleeping andgripped him in an overpowering embrace, squeezing all the breath from hisbody.Inhisterror,Muhammadcouldonlythinkthathewasbeingattackedbyajinni, one of the fiery spiritswho haunted theArabian steppes and frequentlylured travellers from the right path. The jinn also inspired the bards andsoothsayers of Arabia. One poet described his poetic vocation as a violentassault:hispersonaljinnihadappearedtohimwithoutanywarning,thrownhimto the ground and forced the verses from his mouth.1 So, when Muhammadheard the curt command “Recite!” he immediately assumed that he too hadbecomepossessed.“Iamnopoet,”hepleaded.Buthisassailantsimplycrushedhimagain,until—justwhenhethoughthecouldbearitnomore—heheardthefirstwordsofanewArabicscripturepouring,asifunbidden,fromhislips.HehadthisvisionduringthemonthofRamadan,610CE.LaterMuhammad

wouldcallitlaylaal-qadr(the“NightofDestiny”)becauseithadmadehimthemessenger of Allah, the high god of Arabia. But at the time, he did notunderstandwhatwas happening.Hewas forty years old, a familyman, and arespectedmerchantinMecca,athrivingcommercialcityintheHijaz.LikemostArabs of the time, he was familiar with the stories of Noah, Lot, Abraham,Moses,andJesusandknewthatsomepeopleexpected the imminentarrivalofanArabprophet,but itneveroccurred tohim thathewouldbeentrustedwiththismission.Indeed,whenheescapedfromthecaveandranheadlongdowntheslopes of Mount Hira’, he was filled with despair. How could Allah haveallowed him to become possessed? The jinn were capricious; they werenotoriously unreliable because they delighted in leading people astray. ThesituationinMeccawasserious.Histribedidnotneedthedangerousguidanceof

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a jinni. They needed the direct intervention ofAllah,who had always been adistant figure in thepast,andwho,manybelieved,was identicalwith theGodworshippedbyJewsandChristians.*Mecca had achieved astonishing success.The citywas nowan international

trading center and itsmerchants and financiers had become rich beyond theirwildestdreams.Onlyafewgenerationsearlier,theirancestorshadbeenlivingadesperate, penurious life in the intractable deserts of northern Arabia. Theirtriumphwasextraordinary,sincemostArabswerenotcitydwellersbutnomads.The terrain was so barren that people could only survive there by roamingceaselesslyfromplacetoplaceinsearchofwaterandgrazingland.Therewereafew agricultural colonies on the higher ground, such as Ta’if, which suppliedMecca with most of its food, and Yathrib, some 250 miles to the north. Butelsewherefarming—and, therefore,settled life—wasimpossible in thesteppes,sothenomadsscratchedoutameagreexistencebyherdingsheepandgoats,andbreeding horses and camels, living in close-knit tribal groups. Nomadic(badawah) life was a grim, relentless struggle, because there were too manypeoplecompetingfortoofewresources.Alwayshungry,perpetuallyonthebrinkof starvation, the Bedouin fought endless battles with other tribes for water,pastureland,andgrazingrights.Consequently the ghazu (acquisition raid) was essential to the badawah

economy.Intimesofscarcity,tribesmenwouldregularlyinvadetheterritoryoftheirneighborsinthehopeofcarryingoffcamels,cattle,orslaves,takinggreatcare to avoid killing anybody, since this could lead to a vendetta. Nobodyconsideredthisinanywayreprehensible.Theghazuwasanacceptedfactoflife;itwas not inspired by political or personal hatred, butwas a kind of nationalsport,conductedwithskillandpanacheaccordingtoclearlydefinedrules.Itwasa necessity, a rough-and-readyway of redistributingwealth in a regionwheretherewassimplynotenoughtogoaround.EventhoughthepeopleofMeccahadleft thenomadiclifebehind, theystill

regarded the Bedouin as the guardians of authentic Arab culture. As a child,Muhammadhadbeensenttoliveinthedesertwiththetribeofhiswetnurseinorder to be educated in the badawah ethos. Itmade a profound impressiononhim.TheBedouinwerenotveryinterestedinconventionalreligion.Theyhadnohope of an afterlife and little confidence in their gods,who seemed unable tomakeanyimpacton theirdifficultenvironment.The tribe,notadeity,was thesupremevalue,andeachmemberhad to subordinatehisorherpersonalneedsanddesirestothewell-beingofthegroup,andfighttothedeath,ifnecessary,to

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ensure its survival.Arabshad little timeforspeculationabout thesupernaturalbutwerefocusedonthisworld.Fantasywasuselessinthesteppes;theyneededpragmatic, sober realism. But they had evolved a chivalric code, which, bygivingmeaningtotheirlivesandpreventingthemfromsuccumbingtodespairintheseharshconditions,performedtheessentialfunctionofreligion.Theycalleditmuruwah, a complex term that is difficult to translate succinctly.Muruwahmeantcourage,patience,endurance;itconsistedofadedicateddeterminationtoavengeanywrongdonetothegroup,toprotectitsweakermembers,anddefyitsenemies.Topreservethehonorofthetribe,eachmemberhadtobereadytoleaptothedefenseofhiskinsmenatamoment’snoticeandtoobeyhischiefwithoutquestion.Aboveall, a tribesmanhad tobegenerousandsharehis livestockand food.

Lifeinthesteppeswouldbeimpossibleifpeopleselfishlyhoardedtheirwealthwhile others went hungry. A tribe that was rich today could easily becomedestitutetomorrow.Ifyouhadbeenmiserlyingooddays,whowouldhelpyouinyourhourofneed?Muruwahmadeavirtueoutofthisnecessity,encouragingthekarim(the“generoushero”)tocarelittleformaterialgoodssothathewouldnotbecomedepressedbyhis lifeofdeprivation.A trulynobleBedouinwouldtakenoheedforthemorrow,showingbyhislavishgiftsandhospitalitythathevaluedhisfellowtribesmenmorethanhispossessions.Hehadtobepreparedtogive all his wealth—his camels, flocks, and slaves—to others, and couldsquanderhisentirefortuneinasinglenightbyputtingonasuperbfeastforhisfriendsandallies.Butthegenerosityofthekarimcouldbeself-destructiveandegotistic: He could reduce his family to poverty overnight, simply todemonstrate the nobility that flowed in his veins and enhance his status andreputation.Muruwah was an inspiring ideal, but by the end of the sixth century, its

weaknesses were becoming tragically apparent. Tribal solidarity (‘asibiyyah)encouraged bravery and selflessness, but only within the context of the tribe.There was no concept of universal human rights. A Bedouin felt responsiblemerelyforhisbloodrelativesandconfederates.Hehadnoconcernforoutsiders,whomheregardedasworthlessandexpendable.Ifhehadtokillthemtobenefithisownpeople, he felt nomoral anguish andwastedno time inphilosophicalabstractionsorethicalconsiderations.Sincethetribewasthemostsacredvalue,hebackedit,rightorwrong.“IamofGhazziyya,”sangoneofthepoets.“Ifshebe inerror, Iwillbe inerror;and ifGhazziyyabeguidedright, Iwillgowithher.”2Or, in thewordsof apopularmaxim: “Helpyourbrotherwhetherhe is

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beingwrongedorwrongingothers.”3Eachtribehaditsownspecialbrandofmuruwah,which,theArabsbelieved,

hadbeen inherited from the founding fathersof the tribe andwaspassed, likeotherphysicalandmentalcharacteristics,fromonegenerationtoanother.Theycalled this tribal glory hasab (“ancestral honor”).4 As the source of theirparticulargenius, tribes-men revered their forefathers as the supremeauthorityandthisinevitablyencouragedadeepandentrenchedconservatism.Thewayoflife (sunnah) that the ancients hadbequeathed to their descendantswas sacredandinviolable.“Hebelongstoatribewhosefathershavelaiddownforthemasunnah,” another poet explained, “Every folk has its own traditional sunnah;everyfolkhasitsobjectsofimitation.”5Anydeviation—howevertrivial—fromancestral customwas a great evil.Apracticewas approved not because of itsinherentdecencyornobility,butsimplybecauseithadbeensanctionedlongagobythefathersofthetribe.The Bedouin could not afford to experiment. It would be criminally

irresponsibletoignoretheshari‘ah,thepathtothewaterholethathadbeenthelifeline of your people from time immemorial. You learned to survive byfollowing a set of ruleswhose value had been proven by experience.But thisunquestioning acceptance of tradition could lead to rampant chauvinism: thesunnahofyourpeoplewasthebestandyoucouldcontemplatenootherwayofdoingthings.Youcouldonlypreservethehonorofyourtribebyrefusingtobowtoanyotherauthority,humanordivine.Akarimwasexpectedtobeproud,self-regarding,self-reliant,andaggressivelyindependent.Arrogancewasnotafaultbut a sign of nobility,whereas humility showed that you came fromdefectivestock and had no aristocratic blood in your veins. A base-born person wasgenetically destined to be a slave (‘abd); thatwas all hewas good for.A truekarimcouldnotsubmit toanybodyatall.“Werefusetoallmensubmissiontotheirleading,”sangonepoet,“tillweleadthemourselves,yeawithoutreins!”6Akarimwouldmaintain thisdefiant self-sufficiencyeven in thepresenceof agod,becausenodeitycouldbesuperiortoatrulynoblehumanbeing.Inthesteppes,thetribeneededmenwhorefusedtobebowedbycircumstance

andwhohadtheconfidence topit themselvesagainstoverwhelmingodds.Butthishaughtyself-reliance(istighna’)couldeasilybecomerecklessandexcessive.The Bedouin was easily moved to extremes at the smallest provocation.7Because of his exalted sense of honor, he tended to respond violently to anyperceivedthreatorslight.Hedidnotsimplyactinself-defense;truecouragelayinthepreemptivestrike.Itisnotenoughfor“awarrior,fierceasalion,tostrike

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back and chastise the enemywhohas struckhimwith a blow,” cried thepoetZuhayribn‘AbiSalma,“heshouldratherattackfirstandbecomeanaggressorwhen no one wrongs him.”8 The courage praised by the tribal poets was anirresistibleimpulsethatcouldnotandshouldnotberestrained.Ifawrongwasdone to a singlemember of his tribe, a karim felt the duty of vengeance as aphysicalpainanda tormenting thirst.9 Itwasa tragicworldview.TheBedouintried toglorify theirstruggle,but their lifewasgrimand therewasnohopeofanythingbetter.Allbeings,theybelieved,cameundertheswayofdahr(“time”or“fate”),whichinflictedallmannerofsufferingonhumanity;aman’slifewasdetermined in advance. All things passed away; even the successful warriorwoulddieandbeforgotten.Therewasaninherentfutilityinthislifeofceaselessstruggle.Theonlyremedyagainstdespairwasalifeofpleasure—especiallytheoblivionofwine.In the past, many of the Bedouin had tried to escape from the steppes and

build a more secure, settled (hadarah) life, but these attempts were usuallyfrustrated by the scarcity of water and arable land, and the frequency ofdrought.10 A tribe could not establish a viable settlement unless it had eitheraccumulated a surplus ofwealth—an almost impossible feat—or took over anoasis, as the tribe of Thaqif had done in Ta’if. The other alternative was tobecome an intermediary between two or more of the rich civilizations in theregion.ThetribeofGhassan,forexample,whichwinteredontheborderoftheByzantineempire,hadbecomeclientsof theGreeks,converted toChristianity,and formed a buffer state to defendByzantium against Persia. But during thesixthcentury,anewopportunityaroseasaresultofatransportrevolution.TheBedouin had invented a saddle that enabled camels to carry far heavier loadsthanbefore,andmerchantsfromIndia,EastAfrica,Yemen,andBahrainbegantoreplacetheirdonkeycartswithcamels,whichcouldsurvivefordayswithoutwater and were ideally suited to navigate the desert. So instead of avoidingArabia, foreign merchants trading in luxury goods—incense, spices, ivory,cereals, pearls,wood, fabrics, andmedicines—began to take their caravansbythemoredirectroutetoByzantiumandSyriathroughthesteppes,andemployedtheBedouintoguardtheirmerchandise,drivethecamels,andguidethemfromonewelltoanother.

Mecca became a station for these northbound caravans. It was convenientlylocated in the center of theHijaz, and even though itwas built on solid rock,whichmadeagricultureimpossiblethere,settlementwasfeasiblebecauseofan

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undergroundwatersourcethattheArabscalledZamzam.ThediscoveryofthisseeminglymiraculousspringinsuchanaridregionhadprobablymadethesiteholytotheBedouinlongbeforethedevelopmentofacityinMecca.ItattractedpilgrimsfromalloverArabia,andtheKabah,acube-shapedgranitebuildingofconsiderable antiquity, may originally have housed the sacred utensils of theZamzamcult.Duringthefifthandsixthcenturies,thespringandthesanctuary(haram) were controlled by a succession of different nomadic tribes: Jurham,Khuza‘ah, and finally in theearly sixthcenturyby theQuraysh,Muhammad’stribe,whodroveouttheirpredecessorsandwerethefirsttoconstructpermanentbuildingsaroundtheKabah.ThefoundingfatheroftheQurayshwasQusayyibnKilab,whohadbrought

togetheranumberofpreviouslywarringclansthatwerelooselyrelatedbybloodandmarriageandformedthisnewtribe,justasMeccawasbecomingapopularcenterforlong-distancetrade.Thename“Quraysh”mayhavebeenderivedfromtaqarrush (“accumulation” or “gaining”).11 Unlike the Jurham and Khuza‘ah,whohadnotbeenabletoabandonbadawah,theyacquiredacapitalsurplusthatmadeasettledlifestylepossible.Firsttheymanagedtosecureamonopolyofthenorth-south trade, so that they alone were allowed to service the foreigncaravans.Theywere also able to control themercantile activitywithinArabiathat had been stimulated by the influx of international commerce. During thefirstpartofthesixthcentury,Bedouintribeshadbeguntoexchangegoodswithoneanother.12Merchants congregated in a series of regularmarkets thatwereheld each year in different parts ofArabia, andwere so arranged that traderscircledthepeninsulainaclockwisedirection.Thefirstmarket(suq)oftheyearwas held in Bahrain, the most densely populated region; the next were heldsuccessivelyinOman,Hadramat,andYemen,andthecycleconcludedwithfiveconsecutive suqs in and aroundMecca. The last fair of the year was held in‘Ukaz immediately before themonth of thehajj, the traditional pilgrimage toMeccaandtheKabah.Duringthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,theQurayshhadstartedtosendtheir

owncaravanstoSyriaandYemen,andgraduallytheyestablishedthemselvesasindependent traders. But despite this success, they knew that they werevulnerable.BecauseagriculturewasimpossibleinMecca,theyreliedentirelyonthe exchange of commodities, so if the economy failed, they would starve todeath.Everybody,therefore,wasinvolvedincommerce,asbankers,financiers,or merchants. In the agricultural settlements, the badawah spirit remainedvirtually intactbecause itwasmorecompatiblewith farming,but theQuraysh

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were forced to cultivate a strictly commercial ethos that took themaway frommanyof the traditionalvaluesofmuruwah.Theyhad, forexample, tobecomemen of peace, because the kind of warfare that was endemic in the steppeswould make business impossible. Mecca had to be a place where merchantsfrom any tribe could gather freely without fear of attack. So the Qurayshsteadfastly refused on principle to engage in tribal warfare and maintained aposition of aloof neutrality. Before their arrival, there had often been bloodybattles around Zamzam and theKabah, as rival tribes tried to gain control oftheseprestigioussites.Now,withconsummateskill,theQurayshestablishedtheHaram,azonewithatwenty-mileradius,withtheKabahatitscenter,whereallviolencewas forbidden.13 Theymade special agreementswithBedouin tribes,whopromisednottoattackthecaravansduringtheseasonofthetradefairs;inreturntheseBedouinconfederateswerecompensatedforthelossofincomebybeingpermittedtoactasguidesandprotectorsofthemerchants.TradeandreligionwerethusinextricablycombinedinMecca.Thepilgrimage

toMeccawastheclimaxofthesuqcycle,andtheQurayshreconstructedthecultandarchitectureof thesanctuaryso that itbecameaspiritualcenter forall theArabtribes.EventhoughtheBedouinwerenotmuchinterestedinthegods,eachtribe had its own presiding deity, usually represented by a stone effigy. TheQurayshcollectedthetotemsofthetribesthatbelongedtotheirconfederacyandinstalled them in the Haram so that the tribesmen could only worship theirpatronal deitieswhen they visitedMecca.The sanctity of theKabahwas thusessential to the success and survival of the Quraysh, and their competitorsunderstoodthis.InordertoattractpilgrimsandbusinessawayfromtheQuraysh,thegovernorofAbyssinia andYemenconstructed a rival sanctuary inSana‘a.Then,in547,heledanarmytoMeccatoprovethatthecitywasnot,afterall,immunefromwarfare.But,itwassaid,hiswarelephantfelluponitskneeswhenitreachedtheoutskirtsofMecca,andrefusedtoattacktheHaram.Impressedbythismiracle,theAbyssiniansreturnedhome.TheYearoftheElephantbecameasymbolofMecca’ssacredinviolability.14Butthecultwasnotsimplyanempty,cynicalexploitationofpiety.Therituals

of the hajj also gave the Arab pilgrims a profound experience. As theyconverged on Mecca at the end of the suq cycle, there was a sense ofachievementandexcitement.ThecaravanswerecheckedbytheQuraysh, theircamelsrelievedoftheirburdens,and,afterpayingamodestfee, themerchantsand their servantswere free topay their respects to theHaram.As theymadetheir way through the narrow streets of the suburbs, they uttered ritual cries,

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announcing their presence to the gods who were awaiting their arrival. Aftertheir long trek around the peninsula, this reunion with the sacred symbols oftheir tribes felt likeahomecoming.When they reached theKabah, surroundedbythe360tribaltotems,theybegantoperformthetraditionalritesinMeccaandits environs, which may originally have been devised to bring on the winterrains.TheyjoggedseventimesbetweenthehillsofSafaandMarwah,totheeastoftheKabah;raninabodytothehollowofMuzdalifah,thehomeofthethundergod;made an all-night vigil on the plain besideMount ‘Arafat, sixteenmilesoutsidethecity;hurledpebblesatthreepillarsinthevalleyofMina;andfinally,at the end of their pilgrimage, sacrificed their most valuable female camels,symbolsoftheirwealthand—hence—ofthemselves.Themostfamousritualofthehajjwasthetawaf,sevencircumambulationsof

theKabahinaclockwisedirection,astylizedre-enactmentofthecirculartraderoute round Arabia, which gave the Arabs’ mercantile activities a spiritualdimension. The tawaf became a popular devotional exercise, and citizens andtheir guests would perform it all the year round. The structure of the Haramacquiredanarchetypalsignificance,whichhasbeenfoundintheshrinesofothercities in theancientworld.15TheKabah,with its fourcorners representing thefourcardinaldirections,symbolizedtheworld.Embeddedinitseasternwallwasthe Black Stone, a piece of basalt of meteoric origin, which had once fallenbrilliantlyfromthesky,linkingheavenandearth.Asthepilgrimsjoggedaroundthehugegranitecube,followingthecourseofthesunaroundtheearth,theyputthemselvesinharmonywiththefundamentalorderofthecosmos.Thecircleisacommon symbol of totality, and the practice of circumambulation, where youconstantlycomeback toyourstartingpoint, inducesasenseofperiodicityandregularity.BycirclingroundandroundtheKabah,pilgrimslearnedtofindtheirtrueorientationandtheirinteriorcenter;thesteadyrhythmofthejoggraduallyemptied their minds of peripheral thoughts and helped them to enter a moremeditativestate.The reformed ritesmadeMecca the center ofArabia.Where other pilgrims

hadtoleavetheirhomelandsandjourneytoremotesites,theArabshadnoneedtoleavethepeninsula,whichremainedalawuntoitself.AllthisreinforcedthecentralityofMeccaasthefocusoftheArabworld.16ThecitywasalsoisolatedandthisgavetheArabsararefreedom.NeitherPersianorByzantium,thegreatpowersof the region, had any interest in thedifficult terrainofArabia, so theQuraysh could create amodern economywithout imperial control. Theworldpassed throughMecca, but did not stay long enough to interfere. Arabswere

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able to develop their own ideology and could interpret the knowledge andexpertise of their more sophisticated neighbors as they chose. They were notpressured to convert to analien religionor conform toofficialorthodoxy.Theclosedcircleofboththetradecycleandthehajjritualssymbolizedtheirproudself-sufficiency,which,astheyearspassed,wouldbecomeamarkoftheirurbanculture.Theirseparationfromthegreatpowersmeantthat theMeccaneconomywas

notdamagedbytheirdeclineinfortune;indeed,theQurayshwereabletoprofitfrom it. By 570, the year of Muhammad’s birth, Persia and Byzantium werelocked in a debilitating series of wars with one another that would fatallyweakenbothempires.SyriaandMesopotamiabecameabattleground,manyofthetraderouteswereabandoned,andMeccatookcontrolofalltheintermediarytradebetweennorthandsouth.17TheQurayshhadbecomeevenmorepowerful,yetsomewerebeginningtofeelthattheywerepayingtoohighapricefortheirsuccess. As the sixth century drew to a close, the city was in the grip of aspiritualandmoralcrisis.Theoldcommunalspirithadbeen tornapartby themarketeconomy,which

dependedupon ruthlesscompetition,greed, and individualenterprise.Familiesnowviedwith one another forwealth andprestige.The less successful clans*felt that they were being pushed to the wall. Instead of sharing their wealthgenerously, people were hoarding their money and building private fortunes.They not only ignored the plight of the poorer members of the tribe, butexploitedtherightsoforphansandwidows,absorbingtheirinheritanceintotheirown estates. The prosperouswere naturally delightedwith their new security;theybelievedthattheirwealthhadsavedthemfromthedestitutionandmiseryofbadawah.Butthosewhohadfallenbehindinthestampedeforfinancialsuccessfelt lostanddisoriented.Theprinciplesofmuruwahseemedincompatiblewithmarketforces,andmanyfeltthrustintoaspirituallimbo.Theoldidealshadnotbeen replaced by anything of equal value, and the ingrained communal ethostoldthemthatthisrampantindividualismwoulddamagethetribe,whichcouldonlysurviveifitsmemberspooledalltheirresources.

Muhammadwas born into the clan ofHashim, one of themost distinguishedfamily groups inMecca. His great-grandfather had been the firstmerchant toengageinindependenttradewithSyriaandYemenandtheclanhadtheprivilegeofprovidingthepilgrimswithwaterduringthehajj,oneofthemostimportantofficesinthecity.Butrecently,Hashimhadfallenonhardtimes.Muhammad’s

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father‘AbdullahdiedbeforeMuhammadwasbornandhismotherAminahwasinsuchstraitenedcircumstancesthat,itwassaid,theonlyBedouinwomanwhowaswillingtobehiswetnursecamefromoneof thepoorest tribes inArabia.Helivedwithherfamilyuntilhewassixyearsold,andwouldhaveexperiencednomadic life at its harshest. Shortly after he was brought back toMecca, hismotherdied.ThisdoublebereavementmadeadeepimpressiononMuhammad;asweshallsee,hewouldalwaysbeconcernedabouttheplightoforphans.He was kindly treated by his surviving relatives. First he lived with his

grandfather,‘Abdal-Muttalib,whohadbeenahighlysuccessfulmerchantinhisprime.TheoldmanmadequiteafavoriteofMuhammad.Helikedtohavehisbedcarriedoutside,wherehecouldlieintheshadeoftheKabah,surroundedbyhissons.Muhammadusedtositbesidehim,whilehisgrandfatheraffectionatelystroked his back. When he died, however, Muhammad, now eight years old,inherited nothing. His more powerful relatives controlled the estate andMuhammad went to live with his uncle Abu Talib, who was now the sayyid(“chief”)ofHashimandgreatlyrespectedinMecca,eventhoughhisbusinesswasfailing.AbuTalibwasveryfondofhisnephew,andhisbrothersalsohelpedwith Muhammad’s education. Hamzah, the youngest, a man of prodigiousstrength,instructedMuhammadinthemartialarts,makinghimaskilledarcherand competent swordsman. His uncle ‘Abbas, a banker, was able to getMuhammada jobmanaging thecaravanson thenorthern legof the journey toSyria.TheyoungMuhammadwaswell-liked inMecca.Hewas handsome,with a

compact,solidbodyofaverageheight.Hishairandbeardwerethickandcurly,and he had a strikingly luminous expression and a smile of enormous charm,which is mentioned in all the sources. He was decisive and wholehearted ineverything he did, so intent on the task at hand that he never looked over hisshoulder, even if his cloak got caught in a thorny bush.When he did turn tospeaktosomebody,heusedtoswinghisentirebodyaroundandaddresshimfullface.When he shook hands, he was never the first to withdraw his own. Heinspiredsuchconfidencethathewasknownasal-Amin,theReliableOne.Buthisorphanedstatusconstantlyheldhimback.HehadwantedtomarryhiscousinFakhitah,butAbuTalibhad torefusehisrequest forherhand,gentlypointingout that Muhammad could not afford to support a wife, and made a moreadvantageousmatchforher.But when Muhammad was about twenty-five years old, his luck suddenly

changed. Khadijah bint al-Khuwaylid, a distant relative, asked him to take a

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caravanintoSyriaforher.ShecamefromtheclanofAsad,whichwasnowfarmoreinfluentialthanHashim,andsinceherhusbandhaddied,shehadbecomeasuccessful merchant. Urban life often gives elite women the opportunity toflourish inbusiness, thoughwomenof the lowerclasseshadnostatusatall inMecca.MuhammadconductedtheexpeditionsocompetentlythatKhadijahwasimpressed and proposedmarriage to him. She needed a new husband and hertalentedkinsmanwasasuitablechoice:“Ilikeyoubecauseofourrelationship,”she told him, “and your high reputation among your people, yourtrustworthiness, good character, and truthfulness.”18 Some of Muhammad’scriticshavesneeredatthistimelymatchwiththewealthywidow,butthiswasnomarriageof convenience.Muhammad lovedKhadijahdearly, and even thoughpolygamywas thenorm inArabia,henever tookanother,youngerwifewhileshe was alive. Khadijah was a remarkable woman, “deter-mined, noble, andintelligent,”saysIbnIshaq,Muhammad’sfirstbiographer.19Shewasthefirsttorecognizeherhusband’sgenius,and—perhapsbecausehehadlosthismotheratsuchayoungage—hedependeduponheremotionallyandreliedonheradviceand support. After her death, he used to infuriate some of his later wives byendlesslysingingherpraises.KhadijahwasprobablyinherlatethirtieswhenshemarriedMuhammad,and

borehimatleastsixchildren.Theirtwosons—Al-Qasimand‘Abdullah—diedin infancy, but Muhammad adored his daughters Zaynab, Ruqayyah, UmmKulthum and Fatimah. It was a happy household, even though Muhammadinsistedongivingahighproportionoftheirincometothepoor.Healsobroughttwoneedyboysintothefamily.Ontheirweddingday,KhadijahhadpresentedhimwithayoungslavecalledZaydibnal-Harithfromoneofthenortherntribes.Hebecamesoattachedtohisnewmaster thatwhenhisfamilycametoMeccawith the money to ransom him, Zayd begged to be allowed to remain withMuhammad,whoadoptedhimandgavehimhisfreedom.Afewyearslater,AbuTalibwas in such financial trouble thatMuhammad tookhis five-year-old son‘Ali into his household to ease his burden.Hewas devoted to both boys andtreatedthemashisownsons.Weknowverylittleabouttheseearlyyears.Butfromhislatercareeritisclear

thathehadaccuratelydiagnosedthemalaisethatwasparticularlyrifeamongtheyoungergeneration,whofeltillateaseinthisaggressivemarketeconomy.TheQurayshhadintroducedclassdistinctionsthatwerequitealientothemuruwahideal. Almost as soon as they had seized control of Mecca, the wealthierQuraysh had lived beside the Kabah, while the less prosperous inhabited the

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suburbs and themountainous regionoutside the city.Theyhad abandoned thebadawahvirtueofgenerosityandbecomeniggardly,exceptthattheycalledthisshrewdbusinesssense.Somenolongersuccumbedtotheoldfatalism,becausetheyknewthat theyhadsucceededin turningtheirfortunesaround.Theyevenbelieved that theirwealth couldgive them somekindof immortality.20Otherstook refuge in a life of hedonism, making a religion out of pleasure.21Increasingly, it seemed toMuhammad that theQurayshhad jettisoned thebestandretainedonlytheworstaspectsofmuruwah:therecklessness,arrogance,andegotismthatweremorallydestructiveandcouldbring thecity toruin.Hewasconvinced that social reformmust be based on a new spiritual solution, or itwouldremainsuperficial.Heprobablyrealized,atsomedeeplevel,thathehadexceptional talent, but what could he do? Nobody would take him seriously,because,despitehismarriagetoKhadijah,hehadnorealstatusinthecity.

*Therewaswidespreadspiritualrestlessness.ThesettledArabs,wholivedinthetownsandagriculturalcommunitiesoftheHijaz,haddevelopedadifferentkindof religious vision. They weremore interested in gods than the Bedouin, buttheir rudimentary theism had no strong roots in Arabia. Very few mythicalstorieswere told about the various deities.Allahwas themost important god,andwas reveredas the lordof theKabah,buthewasa remote figureandhadvery little influence on the people’s daily lives.Like the other “high gods” or“skygods”whowereacommonfeatureofancientreligion,hehadnodevelopedcultandwasneverdepictedineffigy.22EverybodyknewthatAllahhadcreatedtheworld;thathequickenedeachhumanembryointhewomb;andthathewasthe giver of rain.But these remained abstract beliefs.Arabswould sometimespray toAllah inanemergency,butonce thedangerhadpassed they forgotallabouthim.23Indeed,Allahseemedlikeanirresponsible,absenteefather;afterhehad brought men and women into being, he took no interest in them andabandonedthemtotheirfate.24The Quraysh also worshipped other gods. There was Hubal, a deity

representedbyalarge,reddishstonewhichstoodinsidetheKabah.25Therewerethree goddesses—Al-Lat, Al-Uzza and Manat—who were often called the“daughters of Allah” (banat Allah) and were very popular in the settledcommunities. Represented by large standing stones, their shrines in Ta’if,Nakhlah, andQudhaydwere roughly similar to theMeccanHaram.AlthoughtheywereoflesserrankthanAllah,theywereoftencalledhis“companions”or“partners” and compared to the beautiful cranes (gharaniq)which flewhigher

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than any other bird. Even though they had no shrine in Mecca, the Qurayshloved these goddesses and begged them to mediate on their behalf with theinaccessibleAllah.As they jogged around theKabah, theywould often chantthisinvocation:“Al-Lat,Al-Uzza,andManat, thethird, theother.Indeedthesearetheexaltedgharaniq;letushopefortheirintercession.”26Thisidolworshipwasarelativelynewreligiousenthusiasm,whichhadbeen

importedfromSyriabyoneoftheMeccanelderswhobelievedthattheycouldbringrain,butwehavenoideawhy,forexample,thegoddessesweresaidtobeAllah’sdaughters—especiallysinceArabsregardedthebirthofadaughterasamisfortuneandoftenkilledfemaleinfantsatbirth.ThegodsofArabiagavetheirworshippers nomoral guidance; even though they found the rituals spirituallysatisfying, some of the Quraysh were beginning to find these stone effigiesinadequatesymbolsofdivinity.27Butwhatwasthealternative?Arabsknewaboutthemonotheisticreligionsof

Judaism and Christianity. Jews had probably lived in Arabia for over amillennium, migrating there after the Babylonian and Roman invasions ofPalestine.JewshadbeenthefirsttosettleintheagriculturalcoloniesofYathribandKhaybarinthenorth;therewereJewishmerchantsinthetownsandJewishnomadsinthesteppes.Theyhadretainedtheirreligion,formedtheirowntribesbut had intermarried with the local people, and were now practicallyindistinguishable from Arabs. They spoke Arabic, had Arab names, andorganized their society in the sameway as theirArab neighbors. Some of theArabs had become Christians: there were important Christian communities inYemenandalongthefrontierwithByzantium.TheMeccanmerchantshadmetChristian monks and hermits during their travels, and were familiar with thestoriesofJesusandtheconceptsofParadiseandtheLastJudgment.TheycalledJewsandChristianstheahlal-kitab (“thePeopleof theBook”).Theyadmiredthenotionofarevealedtextandwishedtheyhadsacredscriptureintheirownlanguage.But at this time, Arabs did not see Judaism and Christianity as exclusive

traditions that were fundamentally different from their own. Indeed, the term“Jew”or“Christian”usuallyreferredtotribalaffiliationratherthantoreligiousorientation.28Thesefaithswereanacceptedpartofthespirituallandscapeofthepeninsula and considered quite compatible with Arab spirituality. Because noimperialpowerwasseeking to imposeany formof religiousorthodoxy,Arabsfeltfreetoadaptwhattheyunderstoodaboutthesetraditionstotheirownneeds.Allah, they believed, was the God worshipped by Jews and Christians, so

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ChristianArabsmade thehajj to theKabah, thehouseofAllah, alongside thepagans.ItwassaidthatAdamhadbuilttheKabahafterhisexpulsionfromEdenand that Noah had rebuilt it after the devastation of the Flood. The QurayshknewthatintheBibletheArabsweresaidtobethesonsofIshmael,Abraham’soldest son, and that God had commanded Abraham to abandon him with hismotherHagarinthewilderness,promisingthathewouldmaketheirdescendantsagreatpeople.29LaterAbrahamhadvisitedHagarandIshmaelinthedesertandhadrediscoveredtheshrine.HeandIshmaelhadrebuiltityetagainanddesignedtheritesofthehajj.Everybody knew that Arabs and Jews were kin. As the Jewish historian

Josephus (37–c.100CE) explained,Arabs circumcised their sons at the ageofthirteen“becauseIshmael,thefounderoftheirnation,whowasborntoAbrahamof theconcubine[Hagar],wascircumcisedat thatage.”30Arabsdidnot feel itnecessarytoconverttoJudaismorChristianity,becausetheybelievedthattheywerealreadymembersoftheAbrahamicfamily;infact,theideaofconversionfromonefaithtoanotherwasalientotheQuraysh,whosevisionofreligionwasessentiallypluralistic.31EachtribecametoMeccatoworshipitsowngod,whichstoodintheHaramalongsidethehouseofAllah.Arabsdidnotunderstandtheidea of a closed system of beliefs, nor would they have seenmonotheism asincompatiblewithpolytheism.TheyregardedAllah,whowassurroundedbytheringofidolsintheKabah,aslordofahostofdeities,inmuchthesamewayassomeofthebiblicalwriterssawYahwehas“surpassingallothergods.”32But some of the settled Arabs were becoming dissatisfied with this pagan

pluralism,andwereattemptingtocreateanindigenous,Arabianmonotheism.33ShortlybeforeMuhammadreceivedhisfirst revelation, theyhadsecededfromthereligiouslifeoftheHaram.Itwaspointless,theytoldtheirtribesmen,torunroundandroundtheBlackStone,whichcould“neithersee,norhear,norhurt,nor help.” Arabs, they believed, had “corrupted the religion of their fatherAbraham,”sotheyweregoingtoseekthehanifiyyah,his“purereligion.”34Thiswas not an organized sect. These hanifs all despised theworship of the stoneeffigies and believed thatAllahwas the onlyGod, but not all interpreted thisconvictionidentically.SomeexpectedthatanArabprophetwouldcomewithadivinemissiontorevivethepristinereligionofAbraham;othersthoughtthatthiswasunnecessary:peoplecouldreturn to thehanifiyyahon theirowninitiative;some preached the resurrection of the dead and the Last Judgment; othersconvertedtoChristianityorJudaismasaninterimmeasure,untilthedinIbrahim(thereligionofAbraham)wasproperlyestablished.

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Thehanifshadlittleimpactontheircontemporaries,becausetheywerechieflyconcernedwith theirownpersonalsalvation.Theyhadnodesire to reformthesocial or moral life of Arabia, and their theology was essentially negative.Insteadofcreatingsomethingnew,theysimplywithdrewfromthemainstream.IndeedthewordhanifmayderivefromtherootHNF:“toturnawayfrom.”Theyhadaclearerideaofwhattheydidnotwantthanapositiveconceptionofwheretheyweregoing.ButthemovementwasasymptomofthespiritualrestivenessinArabiaatthebeginningoftheseventhcentury,andweknowthatMuhammadhadcloselinkswiththreeoftheleadinghanifsofMecca.‘UbaydallahibnJahshwashis cousinandWaraqah ibnNawfalwasa cousinofKhadijah:both thesemenbecameChristians.ThenephewofZaydibn‘Amr,whoattackedthepaganreligionofMeccasovehementlythathewasdrivenoutofthecity,becameoneof Muhammad’s most trusted disciples. It seems, therefore, that Muhammadmoved in hanafi circles, and may have shared Zayd’s yearning for divineguidance.One day, before he had been expelled fromMecca,Zayd had stoodbeside the Kabah inveighing against the corrupt religion of the Haram. Butsuddenly,hebrokeoff.“OhAllah!”hecried,“IfIknewhowyouwishedtobeworshipped,Iwouldsoworshipyou,butIdonotknow.”35Muhammadwasalsoseekinganewsolution.Forsomeyears,accompaniedby

Khadijah, he hadmade an annual retreat onMountHira’ during themonth ofRamadan, distributing alms to the poorwho visited him in hismountain caveand performing devotions.36We know very little about these practices,whichwerebelievedbysomeofthesourcestohavebeeninauguratedbyMuhammad’sgrandfather.Theyseem tohavecombinedsocialconcernwith rituals thatmayhaveincludeddeepprostrationsbeforeAllah,37andintensivecircumambulationof the Kabah. At this time, Muhammad had also started to have numinousdreams,radiantwithhopeandpromise,thatburstuponhim“likethedawnofthemorning,” a phrase that in Arabic expresses the sudden transformation of theworldwhen the sun breaks through the darkness in these eastern landswherethereisnotwilight.38Itwaswhile hewasmaking his annual retreat onMountHira’ in about the

year610thatheexperiencedtheastonishinganddramaticattack.Thewordsthatweresqueezed,asiffromthedepthsofhisbeing,wenttotherootoftheprobleminMecca.

Reciteinthenameofyourlordwhocreated—Fromanembryocreatedthehuman.

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Reciteyourlordisall-givingWhotaughtbythepenTaughtthehumanwhathedidnotknowbefore

ThehumanbeingisatyrantHethinkshispossessionsmakehimsecureToyourlordisthereturnofeverything

ThisversewasanextensionoftheQuraysh’sbeliefthatAllahhadcreatedeachoneof them. It identified theproudself-sufficiencyofmuruwahasadelusion,becausehumansareentirelydependentuponGod.Finally,Allahinsistedthathewasnotadistant,absentdeitybutwantedtoinstructandguidehiscreatures,sotheymust “come near” to him. But instead of approachingGod in a spirit ofprideful istighna’, theymust bow before him like a lowly slave: “Touch yourheadtotheearth!”Godcommanded39—aposturethatwouldberepugnanttothehaughty Quraysh. From the very beginning, Muhammad’s religion wasdiametricallyopposedtosomeoftheessentialprinciplesofmuruwah.WhenMuhammadcametohimself,hewassohorrifiedtothink,afterallhis

spiritual striving, that he had simply been visited by a jinni that he no longerwanted to live. In despair, he fled from the cave and started to climb to thesummitof themountain toflinghimself tohisdeath.But therehehadanothervision.Hesawamightybeingthatfilledthehorizonandstood“gazingathim,moving neither forward nor backward.”40 He tried to turn away, but, he saidafterwards, “Towards whatever region of the sky I looked, I saw him asbefore.”41 Itwas the spirit (ruh) of revelation,whichMuhammadwould latercall Gabriel. But this was no pretty, naturalistic angel, but a transcendentpresencethatdefiedordinaryhumanandspatialcategories.Terrified and still unable to comprehend what had happened, Muhammad

stumbled down themountainside toKhadijah.By the time he reached her, hewas crawling on his hands and knees, shaking convulsively. “Cover me!” hecried,asheflunghimselfintoherlap.Khadijahwrappedhiminacloakandheldhim in her arms until his fear abated. She had no doubts at all about therevelation.Thiswasno jinni, she insisted.Godwouldneverplay suchacrueltrick on a man who had honestly tried to serve him. “You are kind andconsideratetoyourkin,”sheremindedhim.“Youhelpthepoorandforlornandbeartheirburdens.Youarestrivingtorestorethehighmoralqualitiesthatyour

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people have lost. You honor the guest and go to the assistance of those indistress. This cannot be, my dear.”42 Muhammad and Khadijah had probablydiscussedtheirdawningunderstandingofthetruenatureofareligionthatwentbeyond ritual performance and required practical compassion and sustainedmoraleffort.To reassureMuhammad,Khadijah consulted her cousinWaraqah, the hanif,

whohadstudied thescripturesof thePeopleof theBookandcouldgive themexpert advice.Waraqah was jubilant: “Holy! Holy!” he cried, when he heardwhathadhappened.“Ifyouhavespokenthetruthtome,OKhadijah,therehascometohimthegreatdivinitywhocametoMosesaforetime,andlo,heis theprophetofhispeople.”43ThenexttimeWaraqahmetMuhammadintheHaram,hekissedhimontheforeheadandwarnedhimthathistaskwouldnotbeeasy.Waraqahwasanoldmanandnot likely to livemuchlonger,buthewishedhecouldbealivetohelpMuhammadwhentheQurayshexpelledhimfromthecity.Muhammad was dismayed. He could not conceive of a life outside Mecca.Wouldtheyreallycasthimout?heaskedindismay.Waraqahsadlytoldhimthataprophetwasalwayswithouthonorinhisowncountry.It was a difficult beginning, fraught with fear, anxiety, and the threat of

persecution.YettheQur’anhaspreservedanotheraccountoftheexperienceonMount Hira’, in which the descent of the spirit is described as an event ofwonder,gentleness,andpeace,similartotheconceptionofJesusinthewombofMary.44

WesenthimdownonthenightofdestinyAndwhatcantellyouofthenightofdestiny?ThenightofdestinyisbetterthanathousandmonthsTheangelscomedown—thespirituponher—bypermissionoftheirlordfromeveryorderPeacesheisuntiltheriseofdawn.45

Inthissurah(chapter)oftheQur’an,thereisasuggestiveblurringofmasculineand feminine, especially in pronouns,which is often lost in translation. In theQur’an, the question “What can tell you?” regularly introduces an idea thatwould have been strange to Muhammad’s first audience, indicating that theywere about to enter the realm of the ineffable. Here Muhammad has self-effacinglydisappearedfromthedramaofMountHira’,andthenight(layla) iscenter stage, like a woman waiting for her lover. The Night of Destiny had

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inaugurated a new era of communion between heaven and earth. The originalterror of the divine encounter has been replaced by the peace that filled thedarknessastheworldwaitedfordaybreak.Muhammadwould have understood theGerman historianRudolfOtto,who

describedthesacredasamysterythatwasbothtremendumandfascinans.Itwasoverpowering,urgent,andterrible,butitalsofilledhumanbeingswith“delight,joy, and a sense of swelling harmony and intimate intercourse.”46 Revelationcannotbedescribed in a simplemanner, and the complexityofhis experiencemadeMuhammadverycautiousoftellinganybodyaboutit.AftertheexperienceonMountHira’,thereweremorevisions—wedonotknowexactlyhowmany—andthen,toMuhammad’sdismay,thedivinevoicefellsilentandtherewerenofurtherrevelations.Itwasatimeofgreatdesolation.HadMuhammadbeendeludedafterall?Was

the presence simply amischievous jinni?Or hadGod foundhimwanting andabandoned him? For two long years, the heavens remained obdurately closedandthen,suddenly,thedarknesswasdispersedinaburstofluminousassurance:

BythemorninghoursBythenightwhenitisstillYourlordhasnotabandonedyouanddoesnothateyou

WhatisafterwillbebetterthanwhatcamebeforeToyouthelordwillbegivingYouwillbecontent

DidhenotfindyouorphanedandgiveyoushelterFindyoulostandguideyouFindyouinhungerandprovideforyou

Asfortheorphan—donotoppresshimAndonewhoasksforhelp—

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donotturnhimawayAndthegraceofyourlord—proclaim47

Here,Allahofferedhis assurance thathedidnot abandonhis creatures, and

remindedmen and women to imitate his continuous kindness and generosity.Human beings,who had experienced the care ofGod, had a duty to help theorphan and the deprived. Anybody who had known dereliction, hunger, andoppressionmust refuse under any circumstances to inflict this pain on others.Therevelationconcludedby tellingMuhammadthat itwas time to“proclaim”thismessagetotheQuraysh.Buthowwouldtheyrespond?

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ChapterTwo

Jahiliyyah

HEBEGANQUIETLY,speakingabouthisrevelationstoasmallbandoffriendsandfamilymembers,whobecameenthusiasticandsympatheticdisciples,convincedthathewasthelong-awaitedArabprophet.ButMuhammadrealizedthatmostoftheQurayshwouldfinditwell-nighimpossibletoacceptthis.ThemessengersofAllahhadallbeentoweringfigures,foundingfathersofsociety.Somehadevenworkedmiracles.How couldMuhammadmeasure up toMoses or Jesus?TheQurayshhadwatchedhimgrowingup;theysawhimgoingabouthisbusinessinthemarket,eatinganddrinking likeeverybodyelse.Theyhad jettisonedmanymuruwah values, but had retained its elitist, aristocratic outlook and wouldexpect God to choose a well-born karim from one of the more distinguishedclans, rather than a minor member of Hashim. How would they react whenMuhammadtoldthemtoabandontheirloftyindependenceinawaythatviolatedthesunnahoftheirforefathers?Even at this early stage,Muhammad had encountered opposition.Khadijah,

their daughters, ‘Ali, and Zayd accepted his new status unconditionally, butthough his uncle Abu Talib would continue to love and support him, he wasdeeply pained that Muhammad had the temerity to depart from the absoluteauthorityoftheirancestors.Hewassplittingupthefamily.Muhammad’scousins—Ja‘far ibn Abi Talib, ‘Abdullah and ‘Ubaydallah ibn Jahsh, and their sisterZaynab—all accepted the revelations, but his uncles ‘Abbas and Hamzah didnot, though their wives did. Muhammad’s son-in-law, Abu l-‘As, who hadmarried his daughter Zaynab, refused even to consider the new religion.Naturally, this was distressing toMuhammad. Family solidarity was a sacredvalue, and like any Arab, he respected the elders of his tribe and clan. Heexpectedleadershiptocomefromthetop,butitwastheyoungergenerationwhoresponded to his message. The revelations had already started to pushMuhammadaway from thenorm.Hecouldnothelpnoticing thatmanyofhis

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followers came from the lower classes. A significant number were women,others freedmen,servants,andslaves.Foremostamong the latterwasBilal,anAbyssinianwith an extraordinarily loud voice.When theMuslims gathered topray together in the Haram, Muhammad found himself surrounded by “theyoungmenandweakpeopleofthecity.”1Muhammadwelcomedthemwarmlyinto his little company, but hemust havewondered how amovement of suchperipheralpeoplecouldsucceed.Indeed,someoftheQurayshanelders,whoasyet knew nothing of the revelations, had begun to ask him why he wasconsortingwithsuchriff-raff.The “weak” people were not all down-and-outs; this technical tribal term

denoted inferior tribal status rather than poverty. Muhammad’s most zealousfolloweratthispointwashisfriend‘AttiqIbn‘Uthman,whowasusuallyknownby his kunya, Abu Bakr.* He was a successful, wealthy merchant, but likeMuhammad he came from a “weak” clan that had fallen on hard times. AbuBakr was “well-liked and of easy manners,” Ibn Ishaq tells us, a kindly,approachableman,especially skilled in the interpretationofdreams.2Manyofthe younger generation, who were disturbed by the aggressive capitalism ofMecca, came to him for advice. Some of the young felt an urgent sense ofpersonal peril, a torpor of depression fromwhich they longed towake, and afrightening alienation from their parents. The son of an important financier inoneofthemorepowerfulclansdreamedthathisfatherwastryingtopushhimintoapitthatwasfilledwithfire;thenhehadfelttwostronghandspullinghimto safety and realized, at the moment of waking, that his savior wasMuhammad.3Anotheryouth,thisonefromtheprestigiousclanof‘AbdShams,cametoAbuBakrafterdreamingthathehadheardavoicecryingaloudinthedesert “Sleepers, awake!” and proclaiming that a prophet had appeared inMecca.4BoththeseyoungmenbecameMuslims,butthefirstkepthisnewfaitha secret from his father for as long as he could, and the latter’s conversiongreatlydispleased theeldersofhisclan,whowereamong themost influentialmeninMecca.Therevelationshadbroughttolightafaultlineinthecity.Overtheyears,a

worrying divide had opened between young and old, rich and poor, men andwomen. This was dangerous. The scripture that was being revealed toMuhammad,versebyverse,surahbysurah,condemnedthiskindofinequality;one factionwould inevitably suffer at the hands of another.5Any society thatwasdividedagainstitselfwouldbedestroyed,becauseitwasgoingagainsttheverynatureofthings.Thiswasafrighteningperiod.Theincessantwarsbetween

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PersiaandByzantiumseemedtoheraldtheendoftheoldworldorder,andevenwithinArabia, tribalwarfare had reached chronic proportions.During the lasttwenty years, the ghazu, which had traditionally been short and sharp, hadescalated into long,drawnoutmilitarycampaignsasa resultofunprecedenteddroughtandfamine.Therewasanapocalypticsenseof impendingcatastrophe.MuhammadwasconvincedthatunlesstheQurayshreformedtheirattitudesandbehavior, they toowould fall prey to the anarchy that threatened to engulf theworld.Under the inspiration ofAllah,Muhammadwas feeling hisway towards an

entirelynewsolution,convincedthathewasnotspeakinginhisownname,butwas simply repeating the revealed words of God. It was a painful, difficultprocess.Heoncesaid:“NeveroncedidI receivea revelationwithout thinkingthatmysoulhadbeentornawayfromme.”6Sometimesthemessagewasclear.He could almost see and hearGabriel distinctly. Thewords seemed to “comedown”tohim,likeashoweroflife-givingrain.Butoftenthedivinevoicewasmuffledandobscure:“Sometimesitcomesuntomelikethereverberationsofabell,andthatisthehardestuponme;thereverberationsabatewhenIamawareof their message.”7 He had to listen to the undercurrent of events, trying todiscoverwhatwasreallygoingon.Hewouldgrowpalewiththeeffortandcoverhimselfwithhiscloak,asiftoshieldhimselffromthedivineimpact.Hewouldperspireheavily,evenonacoldday,asheturnedinwards,searchinghissoulforasolutiontoaproblem,inratherthesamewayasapoethastoopenhimselftothewordsthathemusthaulfromthedepthsofhimselftotheconsciouslevelofhismind. In theQur’an,God instructedMuhammad to listen intently to eachrevelationasitemerged;hemustbecarefulnottoimposeameaningonaverseprematurely,beforeitsfullsignificancehadbecomeentirelyclear.8In theQur’an, therefore, God spoke directly to the people ofMecca, using

Muhammadashismouthpiece,justashespokethroughtheHebrewprophetsinthe Jewish scriptures. Hence the language of theQur’an is sacred, because—Muslims believe—it records the words spoken in someway by God himself.WhenMuhammad’s converts listened to the divine voice, chanted first by theProphet and later by the skilled Qur’an reciters, they felt that they had animmediate encounter with Allah. Biblical Hebrew is experienced as a holytongue in rather thesameway.Christiansdonothave thisconceptofasacredlanguage, because there is nothing holy about New Testament Greek; theirscriptures presented Jesus as theWord spoken byGod to humanity. Like anyscripture, theQur’an thus provided an encounterwith transcendence, bridging

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theimmensegulfbetweenourfrail,mortalworldandthedivine.Muhammad’s converts eagerly awaited each new revelation; after he had

recited it, they would learn it by heart, and those who were literate wrote itdown.Theyfeltmovedandstirredbytheexquisitelanguageoftheirscripture,which,theywereconvinced,couldonlyhavecomefromGod.Itisdifficultforanon-ArabicspeakertoappreciatethebeautyoftheQur’an,becausethisisrarelyconveyedintranslation.Thetextseemswearyinglyrepetitive;ithasnoapparentstructure,nosustainedargumentororganizingnarrative.ButtheQur’anwasnotdesignedtobereadsequentially.Initsfinalform,thechaptersorsurahsoftheQur’an have been arranged arbitrarily, beginningwith the longest and endingwith the shortest, so the order is not important. Each surah contains essentialteachingsand it ispossible todip into the textatanypointand imbibecruciallessons.IncommonwiththemajorityofArabsatthistime,Muhammadcouldneither

read nor write. The word qur’an means “recitation.” It was not designed forprivateperusal,butlikemostscriptures,itwasmeanttobereadaloud,andthesoundwasanessentialpartof the sense.Poetrywas important inArabia.Thepoetwasthespokesman,socialhistorian,andculturalauthorityofhistribe,andover the years the Arabs had learned how to listen to a recitation and haddeveloped a highly sophisticated critical ear.9 Bards chanted their odes at theannual trade fairs toexcitedaudiences fromallover thepeninsula.Everyyeartherewasan importantpoetrycontestat the fairof ‘Ukaz, justoutsideMecca,andthewinningpoemswereembroideredingoldonfineblackclothandhungonthewallsoftheKabah.Muhammad’sfollowerswould,therefore,havebeenabletopickupverbalsignalsinthetextthatarelostintranslation.Theyfoundthatthemes,words,phrases,andsoundpatternsrecurredagainandagain—likethevariationsinapieceofmusic,whichsubtlyamplifytheoriginalmelody,andadd layerupon layerofcomplexity.TheQur’anwasdeliberatelyrepetitive; itsideas, images,andstorieswereboundtogetherby these internalechoes,whichreinforced its central teachingwith instructive shifts of emphasis.They linkedpassagesthatinitiallyseemedseparate,andintegratedthedifferentstrandsofthetext,asoneversedelicatelyqualifiedandsupplementedothers.TheQur’anwasnot impartingfactual information thatcouldbeconveyed instantaneously.LikeMuhammad, listeners had to absorb its teachings slowly; their understandingwouldgrowmoreprofoundandmatureovertime,andtherich,allusivelanguageandrhythmsoftheQur’anhelpedthemtoslowdowntheirmentalprocessesandenteradifferentmodeofconsciousness.

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TheAmericanscholarMichaelSellsdescribeswhathappenswhenthedriverof a hot, crowded bus in Egypt plays a cassette of Qur’anic recitations: “Ameditativecalmbeginstosetin.Peoplerelax.Thejockeyingforspaceends.Thevoicesofthosewhoaretalkinggrowquieterandlessstrained.Othersaresilent,lost in thought. A sense of shared community overtakes the discomfort.”10Breath control is crucial tomost of the contemplative traditions. Yogins havefound that it brings a feeling of expansiveness, comparable to the effect ofmusic,especiallywhenplayedbyoneself.11Qur’anicreciterschantlongphrasesonaslowexhalationand,whentheyinhale,leavesilentpausesformeditation.Itisnatural for theaudience toadjust theirbreathing tooandfind that thishasacalming, therapeutic effect, which enables them to grasp the more elusiveteachingsofthetext.God was not booming clear instructions from on high. The divine voice

constantly changed the way it referred to itself—as “we,” “he,” “your lord,”“Allah” or “I”—shifting its relationship to both the Prophet and his audience.NorwasGoddistinctivelymale.Eachrecitationbeganwiththeinvocation:“Inthe name of Allah, the Compassionate (al-Rahman) and the Merciful (al-Rahim).”Allahwasamasculinenoun,butthedivinenamesal-Rahmanandal-Rahim are not only grammatically feminine but related etymologically to theword forwomb.Apartiallypersonified female figurewascentral tonearlyalltheearlyrevelations.Wefindveiledallusionstoawomanconceivingachildorgivingbirth;theimageofawomanwhohaslostheronlychild,andthepoignantevocation of a baby girl,murdered by her disappointed parents.12 This strongfemalepresencewasremarkableintheaggressivepatriarchyofMeccaandmayexplain why women were among the first to respond to the message of theQur’an.In each of the early surahs, God spoke intimately to the individual, often

preferringtoposemanyofhisteachingsintheformofaquestion—“Haveyounot heard?” “Doyou consider?” “Haveyounot seen?”Each listenerwas thusinvitedtointerrogatehimorherself.Anyresponsetothesequerieswasusuallygrammaticallyambiguousor indefinite, leaving theaudiencewithan imageonwhich to meditate but with no decisive answer.13 This new religion was notaboutachievingmetaphysicalcertainty:theQur’anwantedpeopletodevelopadifferentkindofawareness.TheChristiannotionoftheLastJudgmentwascentraltotheearlymessageof

theQur’an.MuhammadbelievedthatMeccawasincrisisbecausetheQurayshnolongerfeltaccountablefortheiractions.Inthesteppes,thekarimmayhave

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beenarrogantandegotistic,buthehadfeltresponsibleforallthemembersofhistribe. The Quraysh, however, were busily amassing private fortunes, withoutgivinga thought to theplightof the“weak.”Theydidnotseemtorealize thattheirdeedswouldhavelong-lastingconsequence.Tocounterthisheedlessness,theQur’antaughtthatindividualswouldhavetoexplaintheirbehaviortoGod.There would be a “day of reckoning” (yawm ad-din): the Arabic term alsoimplies a “moment of truth.”14At the endof their lives, humanbeingswouldhave to faceup touncomfortable realities theyhad tried toavoid.Theywouldexperienceaterrifyingontologicalreversal,inwhicheverythingthathadseemedsolid, important, and permanent would prove to be ephemeral. In staccato,lapidaryverses,theearlysurahstorethisveilofdelusionaway.

WhenthesunisoverturnedWhenthestarsfallawayWhenthemountainsaremovedWhentheten-monthpregnantcamelsareabandonedWhenthebeastsofthewildareherdedtogetherWhentheseasareboiledover...Thenasoulwillknowwhatithasprepared.15

Sun,moon,andstarswoulddisappear.Evenapregnantcamel,thedesertArab’smost precious possession, had no lasting value.All that reallymatteredwas aperson’sconduct:

AtthattimepeoplewillstraggleforthtobeshownwhattheyhavedoneWhoeverdoesamote’sweightgoodwillseeitWhoeverdoesamote’sweightwrongwillseeit.16

Deeds that seemed unimportant at the time would prove to have beenmomentous; a tiny act of selfishness and unkindness or, conversely, anunconsideredactofgenerositywouldbecomethemeasureofahumanlife:“Tofree a slave, to feed thedestitute on a dayof hunger, a kinsman, orphan, or astrangeroutofluck,inneed.”17Anybody who had performed these “works of justice” (salihat) would be

rewardedeternallyinParadise(‘illiyyin)butthosewhohadconcentratedontheselfish acquisition ofmaterial possessionswould be punished in the jahim—a

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strangeword,usuallytranslated“ragingfire.”ButtheQur’anwasnotpreachingacrudelyapocalypticvisionofhell.Thepassagesdescribing the jahimaresadrather than angry. Later Muslim tradition would elaborate on the themes ofHeaven, Hell, and Judgment, but the Qur’an remains reticent, its languagecharacteristicallyelusiveandmysterious.Morecrucially,itcompelsthelistenertofaceuptothejudgmentintheimmediatepresent.Thedayofreckoningwasnotmerelyadistantevent; itwasalsoa“momentof truth”hereandnow.Theprobing,intimatequestioningandtheuseofthepresenttenseobligedlistenerstofaceuptotheimplicationsoftheirbehavioronadailybasis.Whatwoulditbeliketoknowthatyouhadwastedyourtimeonearthwhenitwastoolatetodoanythingaboutit?TheQur’anasksinsistently:“Whereareyougoingwithyourlife?”18Humanbeingswerenotinherentlyevil,buttheywereforgetful,all tooeager to push these uncomfortable ideas to the back of their minds. So theyneededaconstantreminder(dhikr).19“Remind them,”GodurgedMuhammad,“Allyoucandoisbeareminder.”20Peoplemust,therefore,becomeself-aware,consciousofwhattheyaredoing.

Theymust cultivate the virtue of taqwa’, aword that is sometimes translated“fear”but isbetter rendered“mindfulness.”Theymustbe continuallyon theirguard against selfishness, greed, and arrogance. Instead of frighteningthemselves with the fear of hell, they should meditate on the signs (ayat) ofGod’sgenerosityinthenaturalworldandimitatehisbenevolence:

LookatthecamelandhowitiscreatedLookattheskyandhowitisraisedLookatthemountainsandhowtheyaresetLookattheearthandhowitisspread.20

The entire cosmos was a veil, which hid the presence of its Creator. The

succession of day and night, sun and moon, the life-giving rains, and themarvellous constructionof the humanbeingwere all signs ofGod’s presence.Bycontemplatingthesesignsinasustainedanddisciplinedmanner,theywouldbecome aware of the inexpressible reality behind them and be filled withgratitude.At present the Quraysh despised the weak; they believed that failure and

povertyrevealedaninherentlackofnobility,sotheyfeltnoobligationtowardsthepoor,theorphan,orthewidow.Butiftheyunderstoodtheirdependenceupon

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Allahateverymomentoftheirlives,theywouldappreciatetheirownfrailty,andtheir arrogancewouldbe temperedby aweandwonder.Theywould lay asidetheir haughty self-reliance and their proudly cultivated refusal to bow to anycreature,humanordivine.Muhammadwantedeveryman,woman,andchildinMecca to develop within themselves the humble thankfulness that shouldcharacterizethehumancondition.Muhammadwasnotcontentsimplytoworkforsocialreform;hebelievedthat

without an interior transformation, a purely political program would besuperficial.Toeffectthis,hetaughthislittlegrouptheritualactionsthatwouldenable them to cultivate this new attitude. First, they would meet for prayer(salat): their devout prostration would be a daily reminder of their truecondition.Salatinterruptedtheirordinarybusinessandhelpedthemtorememberthat Allah was their first priority. It was very difficult for men and womenschooledinthemuruwahethostogrovel likeslaves,andmanyoftheQurayshwere offended by this abject posture. But the physical routine of salatsymbolized the surrender (islam) of their entire being toAllah. It taught theirbodiesataleveldeeperthantherationaltolayasidetheself-regardingimpulsetopranceandpreenarrogantly.AmuslimwasamanorawomanwhohadmadethisactofsubmissionandwasproudtobeGod’sslave.Second,membersoftheMuslimcommunity(ummah)wererequiredtogivea

proportionoftheirincomeinalmstothepoor.This“pureoffering”(zakat)tooktheegotismoutofthetraditionalBedouingenerosity;insteadofexhibitingtheirreckless,excessiveliberality,theymadearegular,undramaticcontributiontotheweakermembersofthetribe.Thenewkarimwasnolongerapersonwhogaveaway his entire fortune in a single night, but onewho tirelessly practiced the“works of justice.” At this stage, the new faith was called tazakka(“purification”).21 By looking after the poor and needy, freeing slaves,performingsmallactsofkindnessonadaily,hourlybasis,theMuslimslearnedtocloakthemselves in thevirtueofcompassionandwouldgraduallyacquirearesponsible,caringspirit,whichimitatedthegenerosityofAllahhimself.Iftheypersevered,theywouldpurgetheirheartsofprideandselfishnessandachieveaspiritualrefinement.

For three years, Muhammad kept a low profile, preaching only to carefullyselected people, but somewhat to his dismay, in 615 Allah instructed him todeliver his message to the whole clan of Hashim.22 “The task is beyond mystrength,” he told ‘Ali, but hewent ahead and invited forty elders to a frugal

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meal. The meagre fare was a message in itself; there was to be no moreexcessivehospitality.23Luxurywasnotsimplyawasteofmoneybutingratitude,a thankless squandering of Allah’s precious bounty.When the elders arrived,theywerenonplussedwhen‘Aliservedthemasimplelegofmuttonandacupofmilk.Whenhetoldthestorylater,‘AlimadeitsoundlikeJesus’miracleoftheloaves and fishes: even though there was scarcely enough for one person,everybodyatehisfill.Afterthemeal,Muhammadrosetoaddressthegathering,told them about his revelations, and started to expound the principles of hisreligion of islam, butAbu Lahab,Abu Talib’s half-brother, rudely interruptedhim:“He’sputaspellonyou!”hecried,andthemeetingbrokeupindisorder.Muhammadhadtoinvitethembackthefollowingdayandthistimehemanagedtofinishhispresentation:“Osonsof‘Abdal-Muttalib,IknowofnoArabwhohascometohispeoplewithanoblermessagethanmine.”Heconcluded,“GodhasorderedmetocallyoutoHim.Sowhichofyouwillcooperatewithmeinthisventure,asmybrother,myexecutor,andmysuccessor?”There was an awkward silence, and the elders looked at one another in

embarrassment.Theycouldall rememberMuhammadasa littleboy, livingonthecharityofhisrelatives.HowdaredheclaimtobetheprophetofAllah?EvenMuhammad’s cousin Ja‘far andhis adopted sonZaydwere reluctant to speak,butfinally‘Ali,agawkythirteenyearold,couldbearitnolonger:“OprophetofGod,”hecried,“Iwillbeyourhelperinthismatter!”Muhammadlaidhishandtenderlyontheboy’sneck:“Thisismybrother,myexecutor,andmysuccessoramongyou,”hesaid.“Hearkentohimandobeyhim.”Thiswastoomuch.Thespellwasbrokenandtheeldersburstoutlaughing.“He’sorderedyoutolistentoyoursonandobeyhim!”theycriedderisivelytoAbuTalibastheystormedoutofthehouse.24Undeterredbythishumiliatingfailure,Muhammadcontinuedtopreachmore

widely in the city, but with very little success. Nobody criticized his socialmessage.Theyknewthatmuruwahrequiredthemtosharetheirwealthwiththepoorermembersofthetribe;itwasonethingtobeselfishandgreedy,butquiteanothertodefendtheseattitudes.Mostpeopleobjectedtothedayofreckoning.This, they argued, was simply an oldwives’ tale. How could bodies that hadrotted away in the earth come to life again? Was Muhammad seriouslysuggestingthattheirvenerableancestorswouldrisefromtheirgravesto“standbeforethelordofallbeings”?25TheQur’anrepliedthatnobodycouldprovethattherewasnolifeafterdeath,andthatifAllahcouldcreateahumanbeingoutofatinydropofsemen,hecouldeasilyresurrectadeadbody.26Italsopointedout

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thatthepeoplewhopouredscornontheideaofafinalreckoningwerepreciselythose who had no intention of changing their oppressive, selfish behavior:27WhenfacedwiththeinsistentquestioningoftheQur’anabouttheultimatevalueoftheir life, theytookrefugeindenialandlevity.Butdespitetheirskepticism,most of the Quraysh were content to leave Muhammad alone. They werebusinessmenwho had little taste for ideological debate, and they knew that aserious internalconflictwouldbebad for trade. Inanycase, this littlebandofslaves, angry young men, and failing merchants was no real threat and theirmovementwouldsurelypeterout.Muhammadhimselfwas anxious to avoid an open rift.He had no desire to

damage Mecca, the “mother of cities.” He knew that some of the Qurayshthought that hewanted to become king—an abhorrent idea to theArabs,whoweredeeplysuspiciousofmonarchy.ButMuhammadhadnopoliticalambitions.Asiftoreassurehiscritics,Godtoldhimfirmlythathemustnotaspiretopublicoffice. He was simply a nadhir, a messenger with a warning, and shouldapproach theQurayshhumbly, avoidprovocation, andbe careful not to attacktheirgods.Thisiswhatthegreatprophetshaddoneinthepast.28Aprophethadtobealtruistic;hemustnottrumpethisownopinionsegotisticallyortrampleonthesensibilitiesofothers,butshouldalwaysput thewelfareof thecommunityfirst. A prophet was first and foremost a muslim, one of “those who havesurrenderedthemselvesunto[Allah].”29Inhisdesiretoavoidaseriousdispute,Muhammad did not, at this stage, emphasize the monotheistic content of hismessage.Likethehanifs,hewasconvincedthatAllahwastheonlyGod,buthedidnotat firstcondemntheworshipof thestoneidolsroundtheKabahor thecult of the three gharaniq. Likemost of the great religious sages, hewas notmuchinterestedinorthodoxy.30Metaphysicalspeculationtendedtomakepeoplequarrelsomeandcouldbedivisive.Itwasmoreimportanttopracticethe“worksofjustice”thantoinsistonatheologicalpositionthatwouldoffendmanyofthepeoplehewastryingtowinover.Buttensionwasgrowing.In616,someoftheQurayshattackedtheMuslims

while theywereperforming their ritualprayers inoneof theglensoutside thecity.TheincidentshockedeverybodyinMecca,andbothsidesdesperatelytriedto reach amodus vivendi. Thismay have led to the notorious incident of the“satanicverses.”31TheepisodeisrecountedbyonlytwoofMuhammad’searlybiographers,andsomescholarsbelieveittobeapocryphal,thoughitishardtoseewhy anybodywouldmake it up. Both historians emphasize the desire forreconciliationinthecityatthistime.IbnSa‘dstartshisaccountbysayingthatin

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his desire to avoid an irrevocable breach with the Quraysh, Muhammad “satdownbyhimself,wishingthatnothingberevealedtohimthatwoulddrivethemaway.”32Tabaribegins,

Whentheapostlesawthathispeoplehadturnedtheirbacksonhimandhewaspainedbytheirestrangementfromwhathehadbrought them fromGod, he longed that there should come tohimfromGodamessagethatwouldreconcilehispeopletohim.Becauseofhisloveforhispeople,andhisanxietyoverthemitwould delight him that the obstacle that made his task sodifficult couldbe removed; sohemeditatedon theprojectandlongedforit,anditwasdeartohim.33

Oneday,Tabaricontinues,MuhammadwassittingbesidetheKabahwithsomeof theelders, recitinganewsurah, inwhichAllah tried to reassurehiscritics:Muhammadhadnotintendedtocauseallthistrouble,thedivinevoiceinsisted;hewasnotdeludednorinspiredbyajinni;hehadexperiencedatruevisionofthedivineandwassimplytellinghispeoplewhathehadseenandheard.34Butthen,tohissurprise,Muhammadfoundhimselfchantingsomeversesaboutthethree “daughters of God”: “Have you, then, ever considered what you areworshipping in Al-Lat and Al-Uzza, as well as Manat, the third, the other?”ImmediatelytheQurayshsatupandlistenedintently.Theylovedthegoddesseswho mediated with Allah on their behalf. “These are the exalted gharaniq,”Muhammadcontinued,“whoseintercessionisapproved.”Tabariclaimsthatthesewordswereputonhislipsbytheshaytan(“tempter”).

This is a very alarming notion to Christians, who regard Satan as a figure ofmonstrousevil.TheQur’aniscertainlyfamiliarwiththestoryofthefallenangelwhodefiedGod:itcallshimIblis(acontractionoftheGreekdiabolos:“devil”).But theshaytanwhoinspired thisgraciouscompliment to thegoddesseswasafarlessthreateningcreature.Shaytansweresimplyaspeciesofjinn;theywere“tempters” who suggested the empty, facile, and self-indulgent yearnings thatdeflected humans from the right path. Like all jinn, the shaytans wereubiquitous, mischievous, and dangerous, but not on a par with the devil.MuhammadhadbeenlongingforpeacewiththeQuraysh;heknewhowdevotedtheyweretothegoddessesandmayhavethoughtthatifhecouldfindawayofincorporatingthegharaniqintohisreligion,theymightlookmorekindlyonhis

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message.Whenherecitedtherogueverses, itwashisowndesire talking—notAllah—andtheendorsementofthegoddessesprovedtobeamistake.LikeanyotherArab,henaturallyattributedhiserrortoashaytan.Muhammad had not implied that the three “daughters ofGod”were on the

same level as Allah. They were simply intermediaries, like the angels whoseintercession isapproved in thesamesurah.35 JewsandChristianshave alwaysfound such mediators compatible with their monotheism. The new versesseemed a truly propitious gesture and their effect on the Quraysh waselectrifying. As soon asMuhammad had finished his recitation, he prostratedhimself in prayer, and to his astonishment, the Qurayshan elders knelt downbesidehim,humblypressingtheirforeheadstotheground.Thenewsspreadlikewildfire through the city: “Muhammad has spoken of our gods in splendidfashion!Heallegedinwhatherecitedthattheyaretheexaltedgharaniqwhoseintercession is approved!”36 The crisiswas over. The elders toldMuhammad:“Weknow thatAllah kills and gives life, creates and preserves, but these ourgoddessespraytoHimforus,andsinceyouhavenowpermittedthemtosharedivinehonorswithHim,wethereforedesiretounitewithyou.”37ButMuhammad was troubled. This was too easy.Were the Quraysh really

goingtoamendtheirbehavior,sharetheirwealthwiththepoor,andbecontentto become the humble “slaves” of God? It did not seem likely. He was alsodisturbedbythejubilantwordsoftheelders:hehadcertainlynotmeanttoimplythatthegoddesses“shareddivinehonors”withAllah.Whileeverybodyelsewascelebrating, Muhammad went home, shut himself away, and meditated. Thatnight Gabriel, the spirit of revelation, came to him: “What have you done,Muhammad?”heasked.“YouhaverecitedtothosepeoplesomethingIdidnotbringyoufromGodandhavesaidwhatHedidnotsaytoyou!”38Muhammad’swish fora compromisehaddistorted thedivinemessage.Hewas immediatelycontrite,butGodconsoledhimwithanewrevelation.Allthepreviousprophetshadmadesimilar“satanic”mistakes.Itwasalwaysastruggletomakesenseoftherevelationsandalltooeasytoconfusethedeepercurrentofinspirationwitha more superficial idea of one’s own. But, the revelation continued, “Godrendersnullandvoidwhateveraspersiontheshaytanmightcast,andGodmakeshismessages clear in and by themselves.”39 An important principle had beenestablished. God could alter his scriptures at the time that they were beingrevealedtoaparticularprophet.Revelationwasprogressive:WemightsaythatMuhammad sometimes saw fresh implications in his message that qualifiedsomeofhisearlierinsights.

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Now Muhammad had to go back to the Quraysh with a new verse thatamended the “satanic” ones. Once again God asked: “Have you, then, everconsidered what you are worshipping in Al-Lat and Al-Uzza, as well as inManat?”Butthistimehisanswerwasscathing.WhydidtheyattributedaughterstoAllah,whentheythemselvespreferredsons?Theseso-calledgoddessesweresimply“emptynames,”humanprojectionsfabricatedby theQurayshand theirforefathers.Thosewhoworshipthemfollow“nothingbutsurmiseandtheirownwishful thinking.”40 This was a slap in the face that not only eliminated thegharaniq but insulted the revered ancestors. Why did the Qur’an find itimpossible to accommodate these three goddesses alongside the angels?Whyruin the chance of peacewith this uncompromising rejection of an apparentlyharmlessdevotion?AfterfouryearsofIslam,Muslimscouldnolongertakethetraditionalreligion

seriously.FormostoftheQuraysh,Allahwasstillaremotehighgod,whodidnot impingeon theirdaily lives.But thiswasno longer true forMuhammad’sconverts. The beauty of the Qur’an had made Allah a vibrant, indeedoverwhelmingreality.Whentheylistenedtotheirscripture,“achillcreepsovertheskinsofthosewhofeartheirLord,andafterawhile, theirskinsandheartssoften at the remembranceofGod.”41ThewordofGodwas experienced as apowerful reality that could shatter the world: “HadWe bestowed this Qur’anfrom on high upon a mountain,” God told Muhammad, “thou wouldst see ithumblingitself,breakingasunderforaweofGod.”42Allahwasnowcompletelydifferent from the deity worshipped by the Quraysh and the “satanic verses”were wrong to suggest that Islam was the same as the old religion. It wasludicroustoimaginethatthethreestoneidolsofthegharaniqcouldinfluencetheGodofIslam.TheQur’annowbegantomakethisdistinctionclear.Theotherdeitieswereas

helpless and ineffective as dangerously weak tribal chiefs. They could notprovidefoodfortheirworshippers,asAllahdid,andtheywouldnotbeabletointercedeonbehalfoftheirdevoteesonthedayofreckoning.43NothingwasonaparwithAllah.

*Shortlyaftertherepudiationofthe“satanicverses,”theSurahofSinceritywasrevealed:

SayheisGod,oneGodforever

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Notbegetting,unbegotten,andhavingasequalnone.44

Theprincipleof tawhid (“unity”) became the crux ofMuslim spirituality. It

was not simply an abstract metaphysical affirmation of the singularity of thedivine, but, like all Qur’anic teaching, a call to action. Because Allah wasincomparable,Muslimsmustnotonlyrefusetoveneratetheidols,butmustalsoensure thatother realitiesdidnotdistract themfrom their commitment toGodalone:Wealth,country,family,materialprosperity,andevensuchnobleidealsaslove or patriotism must take second place. Tawhid demanded that Muslimsintegrate their lives. In the struggle tomakeGod their sole priority, aMuslimwould glimpse, in the properly ordered self, the unity that was God. It wasperhapsatthistimethatnewconvertswerefirstrequiredtouttertheshahadah,thedeclarationoffaithrecitedbyallMuslimstoday:“IbearwitnessthatthereisnogodbutAllahandthatMuhammadishisprophet.”TheQurayshwouldnothavebeenshockedbymonotheismperse,whichwas

not,afterall,anewideatothem.TheyhadlongfoundthereligionofJewsandChristians compatiblewith their own traditions, and had not been particularlydisturbedbythehanifs’attempttocreateanauthenticallyArabianmonotheism.ButMuhammadwasdoingsomethingdifferent.MosthanifshadretainedadeeprespectfortheHaramandhadmadenoattempttoreformthesocialorder.Butinattacking the effigies that surrounded theKabah,Muhammad implied that theHaram,onwhichtheMeccaneconomydepended,wasworthless.TheBedouintribesdidnotmakethehajjtovisitthehouseofAllahbuttopaytheirrespectstotheir own tribal gods, whose cult was now condemned by the Qur’an in thestrongest terms.45 The Quraysh often invoked the “exalted gharaniq” as theycircumambulated the Kabah; now this practice was dismissed as deluded andself-indulgent.Ta’if,whereAl-Lathadhershrine,providedMeccawithitsfood;manyof theQurayshhadsummerhomes in this fertileoasis.HowcouldTa’ifremainonfriendlytermswiththemiftheycondonedtheinsulttotheirgoddess?OvernightMuhammadhadbecometheenemy.TheQurayshanleaderssenta

delegation to Abu Talib, asking him to disown his nephew. Nobody couldsurvive inArabiawithout an official protector.Amanwhohadbeen expelledfromhisclancouldbekilledwithimpunity,withoutfearofvendetta.AbuTalib,whowas genuinely fond ofMuhammad and not himself aMuslim,was in animpossible position. He tried to temporize, but the Quraysh returned with anultimatum. “ByGod,wecannot endure that our fathers shouldbe reviled, our

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customsmocked,andourgods insulted!” theycried.“Untilyouridusofhim,we will fight the pair of you until one side perishes.” Abu Talib summonedMuhammad, begging him to stop this subversive preaching. “Spare me andyourself,”hepleaded.“Donotputuponmeaburdengreater thanIcanbear.”ConvincedthatAbuTalibwasabout toabandonhim,Muhammadrepliedwithtearsinhiseyes:“Omyuncle,byGodiftheyputthesuninmyrighthandandthemooninmyleftonconditionthatIabandonthiscourse,untilGodhasmadeitvictorious,or Iperish therein, Iwouldnotabandon it.”He thenbrokedownandlefttheroom,weepingbitterly.Hisunclecalledhimback.“Goandsaywhatyouplease,forbyGodIwillnevergiveyouuponanyaccount.”46Forawhile,Muhammadwassafe.AslongasAbuTalibremainedhispatronandcouldmakethisprotectioneffective,nobodydaredtotouchhim.AbuTalibwasagiftedpoetandhenowwrotepassionateversesdenouncing

theclanswhohaddesertedHashiminitshourofneed.Theclanofal-Muttalibresponded by declaring their solidarity with Hashim, but this good newswasfollowed by a fateful defection. Abu Lahab, Abu Talib’s half-brother, hadopposedMuhammadandhisrevelationsfromthestart,buttopreventaschismwithin the clan, he had betrothed two of his sons toMuhammad’s daughters,RuqayyahandUmmKulthum.Nowheforcedhissonstorepudiatethewomen.The elegant youngMuslim aristocrat ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan, however, had longadmiredRuqayyah,oneofthemostbeautifulgirlsinMecca,andcouldnowaskMuhammadforherhand.The Qurayshan elders—especially those who had lost family members to

Islam—now mounted a furious offensive against Muhammad. They wouldostentatiously turn theirbackswhenever theyheardMuslimspraisingAllahasthe “one andonly divine being,” and aggressively demonstrate their joywhenotherdeitieswereinvoked.47Theydemandedthateverybodyremainfaithfultothetraditionalfaith.Itwastheonlydecentthingtodo!Allthistalkofrevelationwas outrageous! Muhammad had made the whole thing up. Why should healone, of all theQuraysh, have received a divinemessage?48Muhammadwasmad; he had been led astray by a jinni; he was a sorcerer, who lured youngpeopleawayfromtheirfathers’sunnahbymagicarts.49Whenhewasaskedtovalidate his claims by working a miracle—as Moses or Jesus had done—headmittedthathewasanordinarymortallikethemselves.50Theleadersoftheoppositionincludedsomeofthemostpowerfulclanchiefs

in Mecca. Foremost among them were Abu l-Hakam, an irascible, ambitiousman,who seemeddeeply disturbed by Islam; the elderly, corpulentUmmayah

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ibn Khalaf; and the highly intelligent Abu Sufyan, who had been a personalfriendofMuhammad,togetherwithhisfatherinlaw‘UtbahibnRabi‘ahandhisbrother. As yet Suhayl ibn ‘Amr, chief of Amir—a devout man who, likeMuhammad,madeanannualretreatonMountHira’—hadnotyetmadeuphismindandMuhammadhopedtowinhimover.SomeofthemostableyoungmeninMeccawerealsovirulentlyhostiletoIslam:thewarriors‘Amribnl-‘AsandKhalid ibn al-Walid, and—most zealous of all—‘Umar ibn al-Khattab, thenephewofAbul-Hakam,whowasfanaticallydevotedtotheoldreligion.Whilethe other chiefs were proceeding cautiously against Muhammad, ‘Umar wasreadyformoreextrememethods.MuhammadhadnowgivenuphopeofconvertingtheMeccanestablishment

andrealizedthathemustconcentrateonthedisaffectedpoorerpeople,whowereeager forhismessage.Thiswasan important turningpoint,which is recordedpoignantlyintheQur’an.Muhammadhadbeensoabsorbedinadiscussionwithsome of theMeccan grandees that he impatiently “frowned and turned away”whenablindmanapproachedhimwithaquestion.51GodreprovedMuhammadseverely:aprophetmustapproachallmembersofthecommunitywiththesamerespect.Hemustmove beyond the aristocratic ethos ofmuruwah: theQur’anwasforrichandpooralike.Inbrushingtheblindmanasideasthoughhedidnotmatter,Muhammadhadbehavedlikeakafir.The word kafir is often translated “unbeliever,” but this is extremely

misleading.52Muhammadhadnoquarrelwith thebeliefsofAbu l-HakamandAbuSufyan. In fact,much of their theologywas quite correct. They believedwithoutquestion, forexample, thatAllahwas thecreatorof theworldand thelordoftheKabah.53Thetroublewasthattheydidnottranslatetheirbeliefsintoaction. They were impervious to the true meaning of the signs of God’sbenevolenceinhiscreation,whichrequiredhumanbeingsto imitatehiminalltheir dealings. Instead of despising and oppressing vulnerable people, theyshouldbehavelikeAllahand“spreadoverthemthewingsoftenderness.”54KafirderivesfromtherootKFR(“ingratitude”),whichimpliesadiscourteous

refusal of something that is offeredwith great kindness and generosity.WhenGodhadrevealedhimselftothepeopleofMecca,someofthemhad,asitwere,spatcontemptuouslyinhisface.TheQur’andoesnotberatethekafirunfortheirlack of religious conviction, but for their arrogance.55 They are haughty andsupercilious;theyimaginethattheyaresuperiortothepoorer,humblerpeopleofMecca, whom they consider second-class citizens and therefore worthy ofcontempt.InsteadofrealizingtheirutterdependenceuponGod,theystillregard

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themselves as istighna’—self-reliant—and refuse to bow to Allah or anybodyelse.Thekafirunareburstingwithself-importance;theystrutaroundhaughtily,addressingothersinanoffensive,brayingmanner,andflyintoaviolentrageiftheythinkthattheirhonorhasbeenimpugned.Theyaresoconvincedthattheirwayof life is better thananybodyelse’s that theyareparticularly incensedbyany criticism of their traditional lifestyle.56 They sneer at Allah’s revelation,perverselydistortingthesenseoftheQur’ansimplytodisplaytheircleverness.57They were unable even to consider anything new: their hearts were “veiled,”“rustedover,”“sealed”and“locked.”58Thechiefviceofthekafirunwasjahiliyyah.Muslimshavetraditionallyused

this term to refer to the pre-Islamic period in Arabia and so it is usuallytranslated “the Time of Ignorance.” But although the root JHL has someconnotations of “ignorance,” its primary meaning is “irascibility”: an acutesensitivity to honor and prestige; arrogance, excess, and above all, a chronictendencytoviolenceandretaliation.59Jahilipeopleweretooproudtomakethesurrender of Islam;why should a karimmoderate his behavior and act like aslave(‘abd),prayingwithhisnoseonthegroundandtreatingthebase-bornlikeequals? TheMuslims calledAbu l-Hakam, their chief enemy, “Abu Jahl” notbecausehewasignorantofIslam—heunderstooditalltoowell—butbecausehefought Islamarrogantly,withblind, fierce, and recklesspassion.But the tribalethoswassoengrainedthat,asweshallsee,Muslimscontinuedtoexhibitjahilisymptoms long after they had converted to Islam. Jahiliyyah could not beeradicated overnight, and it remained a latent menace, ready to flare updestructivelyatanymoment.Insteadofsuccumbingtothejahilispirit,theQur’anurgesMuslimstobehave

withhilm, a traditionalArabvirtue.Menandwomenofhilmwere forbearing,patient,andmerciful.60Theycouldcontrol their angerand remaincalm in themostdifficultcircumstances insteadofexplodingwith rage; theywereslow toretaliate; they did not hit back when they suffered injury, but left revenge toAllah.61 Hilm also inspired positive action: if they practiced hilm, Muslimswouldlookaftertheweakanddisadvantaged,liberatetheirslaves,counseleachother topatienceandcompassion,andfeed thedestitute,evenwhentheywerehungrythemselves.62Muslimsmustalwaysbehavewithconsummategentlenessand courtesy. Theyweremen andwomen of peace: “For true servants of theMostGraciousare theywhowalkgentlyon theearth, andwho,whenever thejahilunaddressthem,reply‘Peace’(salam!)”63After the affair of the “satanicverses,” the conflictwith thekafirunbecame

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verynasty.AbuJahlregularlysubjectedanyMuslimshemettovitriolicverbalabuseandslanderedthemwithviciousliesandrumor;hethreatenedmerchantswithruin,andsimplybeatupthe“weaker”Muslims.ThekafiruncouldnothurtMuslimswhohadstrongprotectors,buttheycouldattackslavesandthosewholacked adequate tribal patronage. Ummayah, chief of Jumah, used to tortureBilal,hisAbyssinianslave,bytyinghimupandforcinghimtolieexposedtothegruelling sun, with a huge boulder on his chest. Abu Bakr could not bear towatchBilal suffering, so he bought him fromUmmayah and set him free.HealsoliberatedaMuslimslavegirl,whenhesaw‘Umaribnal-Khattabfloggingher.SomeoftheyoungerMuslimswerelockedupbytheirfamilies,whoeventried to starve them into submission. The situation became so serious thatMuhammad sent the more vulnerable members of the ummah to Abyssinia,wheretheChristiangovernorgavethemasylum.Itwasbecomingpainfullyclearthat,unthinkableasitmightseem,theremightbenofuturefortheMuslimsinMecca.It must have been very difficult indeed for theMuslims, brought up in the

jahili spirit, to practice hilm and turn the other cheek. Even Muhammadsometimeshad to struggle tomaintainhis composure.Oneof theearly surahsexpresseshisrageagainsthisuncleAbuLahabandhiswife,whousedtoscattersharpthornsoutsidehishouse.64Ononeoccasion,Muhammadoverheardsomeof the Qurayshan chiefs jeering at him contemptuously while he wascircumambulatingtheKabah.Forawhilehewasabletokeephisrisingangerincheck,butbythetimehehadcompletedthethirdcircuit,hisfacewasasblackas thunder.Hestoppedinhis tracks, faced thekafirun,and, insteadofwishingthem “Peace,” as theQur’an enjoined, said grimly: “Will you listen tome,OQuraysh. By himwho holdsmy life in His hand, I bring you slaughter!” Heutteredthelastwordsothreateninglythatthechiefsweresilenced.Butthenextday,theyhadrecoveredtheirnerve.TheyleaptonMuhammadwhenhearrivedin theHaram, encircled himmenacingly, and started to rough himup, pullinghimaboutbyhisrobe.Thistime,Muhammaddidnotrespondaggressively,butallowed the chiefs to manhandle him, until Abu Bakr intervened, weeping:“WouldyoukillamanforsayingAllahismylord?”65But this kind of behavior could sometimes be counterproductive. One day,

Abu Jahl came uponMuhammad near the SafaGate, an important site of thehajj,andwassoincensedtoseehimcalmlyoccupyingthissacredspot thatheexplodedintruejahilistyle.Again,Muhammadrefusedtoretaliate,butsatandlistenedtothestringofdevastatinginsultswithoututteringaword.FinallyAbu

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Jahl ended his tirade andwent to join someof the other chiefs in theHaram,while Muhammad went sadly and silently home. But that evening, his uncleHamzah, who had been out hunting, heard what had happened and becameincandescentwith fury. He set off immediately to findAbu Jahl, and hit himhardwithhisbow.“WillyouinsulthimwhenIfollowhisreligion?”heyelled.“Hitmeback if you can!”Loath to take onHamzah,whosephysical strengthwaslegendaryinMecca,AbuJahlhastilyrestrainedhiscompanions,admittingthathehadgrievouslyinsultedMuhammad.66Hamzah became a devout Muslim, but this was not exactly the way that

MuhammadwouldhavewishedhisuncletoenterIslam.Towardtheendof616,therewasanother, evenmoresurprisingconversion. ‘Umar ibnal-Khattabhaddecided that it was time to killMuhammad, and strode through the streets ofMecca,swordinhand,towardahouseatthefootofMountSafa,whereheheardthat the Prophet was spending the afternoon. He did not know that his sisterFatimah bint al-Khattab and her husband had secretly become Muslims.Thinkingthat‘Umarwassafelyoutoftheway,theyhadinvitedoneofthefewliterateMuslims to comeand recite the latest surah.Butonhisway toMountSafa,‘UmarwasinterceptedbyanotherMuslim,whofearingforMuhammad’slife, informed‘Umar thathisownsisterhadconverted to Islam. ‘Umarrushedhome,andwashorrifiedtohearthewordsoftheQur’anissuingfromanupstairswindow. “What is this balderdash!” he roared as he burst into the room. Thereciterfledinterror,droppingthemanuscriptinhishaste,while‘Umarthrewhissister to theground.Butwhenhe saw that shewasbleeding,he felt ashamed,pickedup themanuscript, andbegan to read the surah. ‘Umarwasoneof thejudges of the poetry competition in ‘Ukaz, and realized at once that he waslooking at something unique. This was quite different from a conventionalArabicode.“Howfineandnobleisthisspeech,”heexclaimedwithwonder,andimmediately the beauty of theQur’andiffusedhis rage and touched a core ofreceptivitydeeplyburiedwithinhim.Yetagainhegrabbedhis sword, and ranthroughthestreetstothehousewhereMuhammadwas.“Whathasbroughtyou,Ibnal-Khattab?”askedtheProphet.“IhavecometoyoutobelieveinGodandhisapostleandwhathehasbroughtfromGod,”‘Umarreplied.Muhammadgavethankssoloudlythateverybodyinthehouse,whohaddivedforcoverassoonasthey saw ‘Umar, came out of hiding, scarcely able to believe what hadhappened.67IbnIshaqhasrecordedanother,lessdramaticbutequallysignificantversionof

‘Umar’sconversion.Hehadsetouttojoinsomefriendsforadrinkinthemarket

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oneevening,butwhenhisfriendsfailedtoturnup,decidedtoperformthetawafinstead. The Haram was entirely deserted, except for Muhammad, who wasstanding close to the Kabah, reciting the Qur’an quietly to himself. ‘Umardecidedthathewantedtolisten,sohecreptunderthedamaskcloththatcoveredthe shrine and edged hisway round until hewas standing directly in front ofMuhammad.Ashesaid later:“Therewasnothingbetweenusbut thecoveroftheKabah”—allhisdefensesbutoneweredown.ThenthepoweroftheQur’andiditswork:“WhenIheardtheQur’an,myheartwassoftenedandIwept,andIslam entered into me.”68 ‘Umar’s conversion was a bitter blow to theopposition,butbecausehewasprotectedbyhisclan,therewasnothingthattheycoulddotohurthim.

Abu Jahl now imposed a boycott on the clans of Hashim and al-Muttalib:nobody could marry into them or trade with them—they could not even sellthem food. All the members of Hashim and al-Muttalib, Muslim and non-Muslimalike,movedintoAbuTalib’sstreet,whichbecamealittleghetto.WhenMuhammad’shouseholdarrived,AbuLahabandhisfamilymovedoutandtookupresidenceinthedistrictof‘AbdShams.Thepurposeoftheboycottwasnottostarve the two clans, but to bringhome to them the consequenceof removingthemselvesfromthetribe.IfMuhammadwantedtowithdrawfromthereligiouslife ofMecca, he could not continue to benefit from the economy.69 The bancollapsed after three years. Itwas especially unpopular among thosewho hadrelativesinHashimoral-Muttalib,andcouldnotingoodconscienceallowthemto go hungry.Muslims like Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, who did not belong to theproscribed clans, sent provisionswhenever they could. OneMeccan regularlyloadedacamelwithsupplies, led it toAbuTalib’sstreetundercoverofnight,gave the beast a thwack on its hind-quarters, and sent it lumbering down thealley.Ononeoccasion,AbuJahlaccostedoneofKhadijah’snephews,whowasmaking his way to the ghetto with a bag of flour. There was soon a fierceargument.AnotherQurayshijoinedin,disgustedthatAbuJahlwaspreventingamanfromtakingfoodtohisaunt,andgavehimahugeblowwithacamel’sjawthatknockedhimtotheground.During this ban, the Qur’an reminded the Muslims that other prophets—

Joseph,Noah,Jonah,Moses,andJesus—hadalsowarnedtheirpeopletoreformtheirbehavior,andwhentheyrefused,theirsocietieshadcollapsed,becausetheywerenotactinginaccordancewiththefundamentalprinciplesoftheuniverse.70Unlike animals, fish, or plants, which are natural muslims since they submit

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instinctively to these basic laws, human beings have free will.71 When theyoppress the weak and refuse to share their wealth fairly with the poor, thisviolationofGod’slawisasunnaturalasthoughafishweretotrytoliveondryland.Disasterwas inevitable.But theQur’ancontinued tourgeMuslims tobepatient and not seize this opportunity for a personal vendetta against theirenemies.SomeoftheQurayshtoowereanxiousforpeace.Shortlyaftertheimposition

of theban,asmalldelegationhadapproachedMuhammad, ledbyavenerableelderwhowastooclosetodeathtobepersonallythreatenedbytheProphet.Hesuggestedacompromise: thewholecitycouldworshipAllahoneyearand theother gods the next. ButMuhammad could not accept this offer. Instead, theSurahal-Kafirunproposedpeacefulcoexistence:

Youwhorejectthefaith(kafirun)IdonotworshipwhatyouworshipAndyoudonotworshipwhatIworshipIamnotaworshipperofwhatyouworshipYouarenotaworshipperofwhatIworship.Areckoning(din)foryouandareckoningforme.72

Peopleworshipdifferentthings;theremustbe“nocoercioninmattersoffaith!”(laikrafi’l-din!)73Dinmeant“reckoning,”butalso“religion,”“wayoflife,”or“morallaw.”Eachindividualhadhisorherowndinandtherewasnoneedforforceorcompulsion.Intheend,bloodloyaltyledtotheendoftheboycott.FouroftheQurayshan

establishment,whohadrelativesinHashimandal-Muttalib,solemnlyrequestedanend to theban, anddespite theangryprotestsofAbuJahl, theotherchiefsagreed.TheremusthavebeengreatrejoicingintheMuslimcommunity.Whenthey heard the news, some of the emigrants came home from Abyssinia,convinced that theworstwas over.But they had been too optimistic.Early in619,Khadijahdied.Shewas aging, andher healthmayhavebeen irreparablydamagedbythefoodshortages.ShehadbeenMuhammad’sclosestcompanion,andnobody—notevenAbuBakror thefervent‘Umar—wouldeverbeable toprovideMuhammadwiththesameintimatesupport.Theearlybiographerscall619Muhammad’s “year of sadness.”Not long afterwards, a seconddeath hadevenmorefarreachingimplications.AbuTalibhadbeenruinedfinancially,andmayalsohavebeenphysicallyweakenedbytheboycott.Laterthatyear,hefell

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illanddied.AndthenewchiefofHashimwasAbuLahab.

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ChapterThree

Hijrah

EVERYBODY IN MECCA was immediately aware of Muhammad’s newvulnerability.AbuLahabdidnotrepudiateMuhammad:achiefwasexpectedtogiveallhisclansmenameasureofprotectionandtofailinthisdutyattheverystartofhisofficewouldhavebeenasignofweakness.Butitwasobviousthatheextended his patronage very grudgingly. Muhammad’s neighbors playeddisgusting trickswith a sheep’suterus, thwackinghimwith itwhilehewas atprayer,andonceevendroppingitintothefamilycookingpot.Oneday,ayoungQurayshithrewfilthalloverMuhammadwhilehewaswalkinginthecity.WhenhisdaughterFatimahsawhiminthisstate,sheburstintotears.“Don’tcry,mylittlegirl,”Muhammadreassuredher tenderly,whileshe tried tocleanhimup.“Godwillprotectyourfather.”Buttohimself,headdedgrimly:“QurayshnevertreatedmethuswhileAbuTalibwasalive.”1Hisweaknessprobablyaffected thepositionofsomeof themorevulnerable

Muslims.AbuBakr, for example, had been almost ruined by the boycott. HelivedinthedistrictoftheJumahclan,anditschief,thecorpulentUmmayahibnKhalafwhousedtoexposeBilaltothesun,nowfeltfreetodothesametoAbuBakr,tyinghimtohisyoungcousinandleavingthem,parchedandsick,inthishumiliating position in the sweltering heat. Taym, their clan,was tooweak toprotect them,so,realizingthathehadnofuture inMecca,AbuBakrsetoff tojointheMuslimemigrantcommunityinAbyssinia.Butontheroad,hemetIbnDughunnah,oneoftheBedouinalliesoftheQuraysh,whowashorrifiedtohearwhathadhappened.HeinsistedonreturningtoMecca,andformallytookAbuBakrunderhisownprotection.SincetheQurayshanestablishmentwasanxioustocultivate IbnDughunnah, theyagreed to thisarrangement,butaskedhim tomakesurethatAbuBakrdidnotprayorrecitetheQur’aninpublic.Hewassopopularandcharismatic,theyexplained,thathewouldluretheyoungmenawayfromtheofficialreligion.SoAbuBakrworshippedalone,makingalittlemasjid,

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aplaceforprostration,infrontofhishouse.But the situationwas clearly unsatisfactory.Muhammad tried to find a new

protectorforhimselfinthepleasant,fertileoasisofTa’if,butitwasahopelessventure, which revealed the measure of his desperation, because the tribe ofThaqifhadbeengreatlyoffendedbyMuhammad’srepudiationoftheirgoddessAl-Lat.MuhammadvisitedthreeoftheleadersofThaqif,askingthemtoaccepthisreligionandextendtheirprotectiontohim,buttheyweresoenragedbyhiseffronterythattheyhadtheirslaveschasehimthroughthestreets.Hewasonlyabletoescapebydivingintothegardenof‘UtbahibnRabi‘ah,oneofthechiefMeccan kafirun, who had a summer home in Ta’if. ‘Utbah and his brotherShaybahsawMuhammad’shumiliatingflight,butdidnotwishtohandafellow-tribesman over to theThaqif. So instead of reportingMuhammad, they sent aslavetohimwithaplatterofgrapes.Crouching ignominiouslybehind a tree,Muhammadwas close to despair. It

wascustomaryforArabsto“takerefuge”withagodorajinniintimesofcrisis,sonowMuhammadtookrefugewithAllah.

OhGod,toTheeIcomplainofmyweakness,mylittleresourceandlowlinessbeforemen.OMostMerciful,ThouartlordoftheweakandThouartmylord.TowhomwiltThouconfideme?Tooneafar,whowillmisuseme?OranenemytowhomThouhastgivenpoweroverme?IfThouartnotangrywithme,Icarenot.Thyfavorismorewideforme.ItakerefugeinthelightofThycountenancebywhichthedarknessisillumined,andthethingsof this world and the next are rightly ordered, lest Thy angerdescenduponmeorThywrathlightuponme.ItisforTheetobesatisfieduntilThouartwell-pleased.There isnopowerandnomightsaveinThee.2

It isunusual for IbnIshaq togivesuchan intimateaccountofMuhammad’s

state of mind. It indicates a moment of spiritual truth. In this act of islam,MuhammadrealizedmorefullythaneverbeforethathehadnosecurityandnotrueprotectorbutAllah.Godseemedtoanswerhisprayer,becausenosoonerhadhefinishedspeaking,

than‘Addas,‘Utbah’sslaveboy,arrivedwiththegrapes.HewasaChristian,andMuhammadwasdelighted to learn thathecame fromNineveh, thecityof theprophet Jonah. He told ‘Addas that Jonah was his brother, because he was a

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prophet, too. ‘Addaswas so overwhelmed that, to the disgust of ‘Utbah,whowaswatchingtheencounter,hekissedMuhammad’shead,hands,andfeet.AfterthisunexpectedencounterwithoneofthePeopleoftheBook,Muhammadfeltlessisolated.Itremindedhimthat,eventhoughtheArabshadrejectedhim,therewas amultitude ofworshippers in the greatworld outsideArabiawhowouldunderstandhismission.Hefeltcheeredashebeganhishomewardjourney,andstopped to pray in the small oasis of Nakhlah, where he was overheard by agroup of “unseen beings” (jinn). The word jinn did not always refer to thewhimsical spritesofArabia; it could alsobeused for “strangers,”peoplewhohadhithertobeenunseen.TheQur’an indicates that the travellers,who lurkedout of sight in Nakhlah, listening toMuhammad’s recitation, may have beenJews.TheyweresoovercomebythebeautyandfelicityoftheArabicscripturethat when they returned home, they told their people that they had heard “arevelationbestowedfromonhigh,after[thatof]Moses,”whichconfirmedthetruthoftheTorahandwouldguidehumanbeingstotherightpath.3Muhammad’shorizonswerebeginningtoexpand.Hehadbeencertainthathe

hadbeensentsimplyasa“warner”(nadhir)tohisowntribeandthatIslamwasonlyforthepeopleofMecca.Butnowhewasbeginningtolookfurtherafieldtothe People of the Book, who had received earlier revelations. Despite theconfidence that this gave him, he was now desperate. Once the kafirun hadlearnedofhisattempttofindsupportinTa’if,hispositionwouldbeevenmoreprecarious,sobeforeenteringMecca,hesentword to threeclanchiefs,askingfor theirpatronage.Tworefused,but the third—Mu’tim,chiefofNawfal,whohad been one of thosewho had campaigned to end the boycott—promised toprotectMuhammad,andhewasnowabletoreturnhome.Butthiscouldnotbealong-termsolution.SomehowMuhammadhadtowin

overtheQuraysh.In619,hebegantopreachtothepilgrimsandmerchantswhoattended the trade fairs thatculminated in thehajj.Perhaps, likeAbuBakr,hewouldfindaBedouinprotector,andiftheQurayshanestablishmentsawthathewasrespectedbytheirBedouinconfederates,theymightlearntoaccommodatehim.But theBedouin pilgrimswere hostile and insulting. The last thing theywantedwasareligionthatpreachedsubmissionandhumility.Muhammadmusthavefeltthathehadcometotheendofhisresources.HewasstillgrievingforKhadijah;hispositioninMeccawasdesperatelyprecarious;andafterpreachingforsevenyears,hehadmadenorealheadway.Yetatthislowpointofhiscareer,hehadthegreatestpersonalmysticalexperienceofhislife.He had been visiting one of his cousins who lived near the Haram, so he

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decided to spend the night in prayer beside the Kabah, as he loved to do.Eventuallyhewenttosleepforawhileintheenclosedareatothenorthwestofthe shrine,whichhoused the tombsof Ishmael andHagar.Then, it seemed tohimthathewasawakenedbyGabrielandconveyedmiraculouslytoJerusalem,the holy city of the Jews and Christians—an experience that may have beenrecordedbythisobliqueverseoftheQur’an:

Limitless in His glory is He who transported His servant bynight from the Inviolable House of Worship (al masjid al-haram) to theRemoteHouseofWorship(al-masjidal-aqsa)—theenvironsofwhichWehadblessed—sothatWemightshowhimsomeofOursymbols(ayat).4

Jerusalem is not mentioned by name, but later tradition associated the

“RemoteHouse”withtheholycityofthePeopleoftheBook,theJewsandtheChristians.According to thehistorianTabari,Muhammad toldhis companionsthat he had once been taken by the angels Gabriel and Michael to meet his“fathers”:Adam(inthefirstheaven)andAbraham(intheseventh),andthathealsosawhis“brothers”:Jesus,Enoch,Aaron,Moses,andJoseph.5TheQur’analsoclaimedthatMuhammadhadavisionbesidethe“lotetree”whichmarkedthelimitofhumanknowledge:

HesawitdescendinganothertimeatthelotetreeofthefurthestlimitTherewasthegardenofsanctuaryWhensomethingcamedownoverthelotetreeenfoldingHisgazedidnotturnasidenorgotoofarHehadseenthesightofhislord,greatsigns(ayat)6

TheQur’anisreticentaboutthisvision.HesawonlyGod’ssignsandsymbols

—not God himself, and later mystics emphasized the paradox of thistranscendentinsight, inwhichMuhammadbothsawanddidnotseethedivineessence.LaterMuslimsbegantopiecetogetherthesefragmentaryreferencestocreatea

coherentnarrative. Influencedperhapsby thestories toldbyJewishmysticsoftheirascentthroughthesevenheavenstothethroneofGod,theyimaginedtheirprophet making a similar spiritual flight. The first account of this “night

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journey”(‘isra) is found in the eighth-century biographyby Ibn Ishaq. In thisextended story, Gabriel lifted the Prophet onto a heavenly steed and togethertheyflewthroughthenighttoJerusalem,wheretheyalightedonthesiteoftheancient Jewish Temple, the “Remote House” of the Qur’an. There they weregreetedbyAbraham,Moses, Jesus,andall thegreatprophetsof thepast,whowelcomedMuhammadintotheirfellowshipandinvitedhimtopreachtothem.Afterwards the prophets all prayed together. Then a ladder was brought andMuhammad and Gabriel climbed to the first of the seven heavens and begantheirascenttothedivinethrone.Ateachstage,Muhammadmetandconversedwithsomeofthegreatestoftheprophets.Adampresidedoverthefirstheaven,whereMuhammadwasshownavisionofHell;JesusandJohntheBaptistwereinthesecondheaven;Josephinthethird;Enochinthefourth;MosesandAaroninthefifthandsixth,andfinallyMuhammadmetAbrahamintheseventh,onthethresholdofthedivinerealm.MostwritersleavethefinalvisionofGodinreverentobscurity,becauseitwas

literallyineffable,lyingbeyondthereachofspeech.Muhammadhadtoabandonordinaryhumanconcepts,goingbeyondthelotetree,theboundaryofmundaneknowledge. Even Gabriel could not accompany him on this last stage of hisjourney. He had to leave everybody and—the later mystics insisted—evenhimself behind to losehimself inGod.The storyof thenight journey and theheavenlyascentisaneventthat—insomesense—happenedonce,butwhichalsohappensall the time. It representedaperfectactof islam,aself-surrender thatwas also a return to the source of being. The story became the paradigm ofMuslim spirituality, outlining the path that all human beingsmust take, awayfromtheirpreconceptions,theirprejudices,andthelimitationsofegotism.ThevisiondidnotresultinaQur’anicrevelation;itwasapersonalexperience

for the Prophet himself. But placed as it is by the early biographers at thisparticularmoment ofMuhammad’s life, it is a wonderful commentary on thedeeper subtext of these external events.Muhammad was being compelled bycircumstances overwhich he had little control to leaveMecca and everythingthatwasdearandfamiliartohim—atleastforawhile.Hehadtomovebeyondhis original expectations, and transcend the received ideas of his time. In thetraditionalArabianode,thepoetusuallybeganwithadhikr,a“remembrance”ofhislostbeloved,whowastravellingwithhertribefurtherandfurtherawayfromhim.Inthenextsection,thebardembarkedona“nightjourney,”breakingoutofhis nostalgic reverie, and setting off alone across the steppes on his camel—afearfultrekduringwhichhehadtoconfronthisownmortality.Finally,thepoet

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wasreunitedwithhistribe.Inthefinalsectionoftheode,heproudlyboastedoftheheroicvaluesofhispeople, theirprowess inbattle,and theirceaselesswaragainst all strangers who threatened their survival.7 In Muhammad’s nightjourney, these old muruwah values were reversed. Instead of returning to histribe,theprophettravelledfarawayfromittoJerusalem;insteadofassertinghistribal identity with the arrogant chauvinism of jahiliyyah, Muhammadsurrenderedhisego.Insteadofrejoicinginfightingandwarfare,Muhammad’sjourneycelebratedharmony, transcendenceof thebloodgroup,and integrationwiththerestofhumanity.ThestoryofthenightjourneyrevealsMuhammad’slongingtobringtheArabs

oftheHijaz,whohadfeltthattheyhadbeenleftoutofthedivineplan,intotheheartof themonotheistic family.This is a storyofpluralism.Muhammadwasabandoning thepaganpluralismofMecca,because ithaddegenerated into theself-destructive arrogance and violence of jahiliyyah, but hewas beginning toembrace monotheistic pluralism. In Jerusalem, he discovered that all theprophets, sent by God to all peoples, are “brothers.” Muhammad’s propheticpredecessorsdonotspurnhimasapretender,butwelcomehimintotheirfamily.The prophets do not revile or try to convert each other; instead they listen toeachother’sinsights.Theyinvitethenewprophettopreachtothem,and,inoneversion of the story,Muhammad asksMoses for advice about how frequentlyMuslimsshouldpray.Originally,Godwantedsalatfiftytimesaday,butMoseskept sendingMuhammad back toGod until the number of prescribed prayershadbeenreducedtofive(whichMosesstillfoundexcessive).8Thefactthatthisappreciation of other traditions is written into the archetypalmyth ofMuslimspiritualityshowshowcentralthispluralismwastoearlyIslam.From this point, the Qur’an began to emphasize this shared vision. In one

remarkable passage, Allah makes it clear that the faithful must believeindiscriminatelyintherevelationsofeverysingleoneofGod’smessengers:

Say:Webelieve inGod, and in thatwhichhasbeenbestowedfromonhighuponus,andthatwhichhasbeenbestoweduponAbraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and theirdescendents, and that which has been vouchsafed by theirSustaineruntoMosesandJesusandallthe[other]prophets:wemakenodistinctionbetweenanyofthem.AnduntoHimdowesurrenderourselves(lahumuslimun).9

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You could not be amuslim unless you also reveredMoses and Jesus. Truefaith required surrender to God, not to an established faith. Indeed, exclusiveloyaltytoonlyonetraditioncouldbecomeshirk,anidolatrywhichputsahumaninstitution on the same level as God. This is one of the first passages in theQur’antoemphasizethewords“islam”and“muslim,”whichbothderivefromtheverbaslama: “surrendering oneself entirely to someone else’swill.”10Theversecontinues:

Forifonegoesinsearchofareligionotherthanself-surrender(islam)untoGod,itwillneverbeacceptedfromhim,andinthelifetocome,heshallbeamongthelost.11

This verse is often quoted to “prove” that theQur’an claims that Islam is theone,truefaithandthatonlyMuslimswillbesaved.But“Islam”wasnotyettheofficialnameforMuhammad’sreligion,andwhenthisverseisreadcorrectlyinitspluralisticcontext,itclearlymeanstheexactopposite.The Qur’an depicts one prophet handing on the revelation to another. The

messagepasses fromAbraham to Ishmaeland Isaac toMoses,andsoon, inacontinuous narrative. The Qur’an is simply a “confirmation” of the previousscriptures,12and theTorah, theGospel,andtheQur’anaresimplymoments inGod’s continuous self-disclosure: “Verily, thosewho have attained to faith [inthisdivinewrit],aswellasthosewhofollowtheJewishfaith,andtheSabians,*andtheChristians—allwhobelieveinGodandtheLastDayanddorighteousdeeds—nofearneed theyhave,andneithershall theygrieve.”13Therewasnothought of forcing everybody into the Muslim ummah. Each of the revealedtraditionshad its owndin, its ownpractices, and insights. “Unto everyoneofyouhaveWeappointeda[different]lawandwayoflife,”GodtoldMuhammad:

And ifGodhad sowilled,Hecould surelyhavemadeyouallonesinglecommunity:but [Hewilled itotherwise] inorder totest you by means of what he has vouchsafed unto you. Vie,then,withoneanotherindoinggoodworks!UntoGodyoumustallreturn;andthenHewillmakeyoutrulyunderstandallthatonwhichyouwerewonttodiffer.14

Godwasnottheexclusivepropertyofonetradition,butwasthesourceofall

human knowledge: “God is the light of the heavens and the earth,” Allah

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explained in one of the most mystical verses in the Qur’an. The divine lightcould not be confined to any individual lamp, but was common to them all,enshrinedineveryoneofthem:

The parable (ayah) of this light is, as it were, that of a nichecontaining a lamp; the lamp is [enclosed in glass], the glass[shining]likearadiantstar:[alamp]litfromablessedtree—anolivetreethatisneitheroftheeastnorthewest—theoilwhereof[issobrightthatit]wouldwell-nighgivelight[ofitself],eventhoughfirehadnottouchedit—lightuponlight.15

Theolive tree signifies the continuityof revelation,which springs fromone

rootbutbranchesintoamultitudinousvarietyofreligiousexperiencethatcannotbeconfinedtoasinglefaithorlocality,andisneitheroftheeastnorthewest.

Muhammad’spositioninMeccaremaineddangerouslyinsecure.Duringthehajjof620,heagainvisited thepilgrimswhowerecamping in thevalleyofMina,going from tent to tent in the hope of attracting support and protection. Thistime,insteadofwholesalerejection,hemetagroupofsixArabsfromYathrib,whohadcampedinthegullyof‘Aqabah.Asusual,Muhammadsatwiththem,explainedhismissionandrecitedtheQur’an,but this time,henoticedthat thepilgrimswere attentive andexcited.Whenhehad finished, they turned tooneanother and said that this must be the prophet expected by their Jewish andhanifineighbors.IfMuhammadreallywasthemessengerofAllah,hemightbejustthepersontosolvetheseeminglyinsuperableproblemsofYathrib.YathribwasnotacitylikeMecca,butaseriesofhamlets,eachoccupiedbya

differenttribalgroup,andeachheavilyfortified.16Thesettlementwassituatedinanoasis, a fertile islandof about twenty squaremiles, surroundedbyvolcanicrocksanduncultivablestonyground.Someof its inhabitantsengaged in trade,butmostwere farmers,making a livingout of their dates, palmorchards, andarable fields. Unlike the Quraysh, they were not wholly dependent uponcommerce, and had retained more of the old badawah values, including,unfortunately,anentrenchedhostilitytoothertribalgroups.Asaresult,theoasiswas engulfed in an escalating series of apparently unstoppablewars.The areahad originally been cultivated by pioneering Jewish settlers and by the sixthcentury there were about twenty Jewish tribes in Yathrib, many of whosemembers may have been Arabs who had assimilated to Judaism.17 They

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preserved a separate religious identity, but otherwise were almostindistinguishablefromtheirpaganneighbors.Clanandtriballoyaltycamefirst,andtherewasnounited“Jewishcommunity.”TheJewishtribesformedseparateallegianceswithArabgroupsandwereoftenatwarwithoneanother.Theirdatecrophadmadethemrich,buttheywerealsoskilledjewellers,manufacturersofweapons, and craftsmen. The five largest Jewish clans—Thalabah, Hudl,Qurayzah,Nadir,andQaynuqa‘,thelastofwhichcontrolledtheonlymarketinYathrib—hadachievedanalmostcompletemonopolyoftheeconomythattheyhadpioneered.Butduringthesixthcentury,theArabtribeoftheBaniQaylahhademigrated

fromSouthArabiaandsettledintheoasis,alongsidetheJews.Theythenformedtwo distinct clans—Aws andKhazraj—which eventually became two separatetribes.Gradually theArabsacquired theirown land,built theirown fortresses,and by the early seventh centurywere in a slightly stronger position than theJews. But despite the inevitable competition over resources, Jews and paganswereabletocoexist.TheJewsoftenemployedtheArabstotransporttheirdates,whiletheArabsrespectedtheskillsandheritageoftheJews,seeingthemas“apeopleofhighlineageandproperties,whereaswewerebutanArabtribe,whodidnot possess anypalm trees nor vineyards, beingpeople of only sheep andcamels.”18Butbythetimeofthepilgrims’meetingwithMuhammadin620,thesituation

haddeteriorated.Theengrainedtribalrivalryhadsurfaced,andAwsandKhazrajwerenowengagedinabloodyconflictwithoneanother.TheJewishclanshadbecome involved in their struggle,Nadir andQurayzah supportingAws,whileQaynuqa‘wasalliedtoKhazraj.By617,therewasstalemate:neithersidecouldgain ascendancy. Everybody was exhausted by the violence. At certain keymoments, ‘Abdullah ibnUbayy, a chief ofKhazraj, had stood aloof from thefighting and thus acquired a reputation for impartiality. Some saw him as apossiblekingorsupremechief,whocouldenforcelawandorder.ButtheArabswereaversetomonarchy,andthistypeofexperimenthadneverworkedwellinthe peninsula. The Aws were naturally reluctant to hand the leadership to amemberofKhazraj,whiletheotherchiefsofKhazrajwereequallyunwillingtorelinquishtheirpowertoIbnUbayy.The six pilgrims immediately realized that, as the spokesman of Allah,

Muhammadwouldbe a farmore effective arbitrator (hakam) than IbnUbayy.They had no problemswith his religiousmessage, because for some time theArabsofYathribhadbeendriftingtowardsmonotheism.TheAwsandKhazraj

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hadlongfeltinferiortotheJewsbecausetheyhadnoscriptureoftheirown,andthe pilgrims were thrilled to hear that God had finally sent a prophet to theArabs.Theymade their formalsurrender toGodon thespot,withhighhopes.“Wehaveleftourpeople,fornotribeissodividedbyhatredandrancorasthey.PerhapsGodwillunitethemthroughyou.Soletusgotothemandinvitethemto this religion of yours; and if God unites them in it, then no man will bemightierthanyou.”19Buttheyadmittedthattheyhadlittleinfluenceintheoasis,and needed to consult their chiefs andwisemen. If hewas to be an effectivehakam,itwasessentialthathehavewidesupport.TheypromisedtoreportbacktoMuhammad in ayear’s time. Itwas adecisivemoment.Circumstanceshadforced Muhammad to look beyond Mecca and even to entertain theextraordinaryideaofabandoninghistribetotakeuppermanentresidencewithanother.

WhileawaitingdevelopmentsinYathrib,Muhammadmadesomechangesinhishousehold.Heneededawife,anditwassuggestedthatheshouldmarrySawdah,thecousinandsister-in-lawofSuhayl,thedevoutpaganchiefoftheQurayshanclanofAmir.ShehadbeenmarriedtooneoftheMuslimswhohadmigratedtoAbyssiniain616,butwasnowawidowandthiswasagoodmatchforher.AbuBakrwasalsoanxioustoforgeacloserlinkwiththeProphet,andproposedthatheshouldmarryhisdaughter‘A’isha,whowasthensixyearsold.‘A’ishawasformallybetrothedtoMuhammadinaceremonyatwhichthelittlegirlwasnotpresent.Inlateryears,sherecalledthatthefirstinklingshehadofhernewstatuswas when her mother explained to her that she could no longer play in thestreets,butmustinviteherfriendsintothefamilyhome.Muhammad’s harem has excited a good deal of prurient and ill-natured

speculationintheWest,butinArabia,wherepolygamywasmorecommonthanthemonogamousmarriagethatMuhammadhadenjoyedwithKhadijah,itwouldhave been commonplace. These marriages were not romantic or sexual loveaffairs butwere under-taken largely for practical ends. Sawdah seems to havebeenaratherhomelywoman,whowaspastherfirstyouth;butshecouldtakecareofMuhammad’sdomesticneeds.Muhammadmayalsohavehopedtowinover Suhayl, who was still undecided about the revelations. There was noimpropriety in Muhammad’s betrothal to ‘A’isha. Marriages conducted inabsentiatosealanalliancewereoftencontractedatthistimebetweenadultsandminorswhowereevenyoungerthan‘A’isha.ThispracticecontinuedinEuropewellintotheearlymodernperiod.Therewasnoquestionofconsummatingthe

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marriageuntil ‘A’ishareachedpuberty,whenshewouldhavebeenmarriedofflikeanyothergirl.Muhammad’smarriagesusuallyhadapoliticalaim.Hewasstarting toestablishanentirelydifferentkindofclan,basedon ideologyratherthankinship,butthebloodtiewasstillasacredvalueandhelpedtocementthisexperimentalcommunity.Duringthehajjof621,thesixconvertsfromYathribdulyreturnedtoMecca,

bringing seven otherswith them.Again, theymetMuhammad in the gully of‘Aqabahand,inwhatwouldbecomeknownasthePledgeof‘Aqabah,promisedto worship Allah alone, to refrain from stealing, lying, and infanticide, andpledged to obey Muhammad’s directives concerning social justice. In return,Muhammadpromised themParadise.20 In this first pact, the emphasiswas onreligion and ethics and there was as yet no political commitment. When thepilgrimsreturnedtoYathrib,theytookwiththemMus‘abibn‘Umayr,atrustedMuslim,toinstructthepeopleofYathribintheirnewfaith.Thiswasawisemove.Tribalhatredwasso intense in theoasis, thatneither

AwsnorKhazraj could bear to hear a rival leading the prayers or reciting theQur’an, so it was important that these offices were performed by a neutraloutsider.Atfirst,theAwswereantagonistictothefaith,butgraduallythepoweroftheQur’anbrokedowntheirreserves.Oneday,Sa‘dibnMu‘adh,chiefofoneoftheleadingAwsclans,washorrifiedtohearthatMus‘abwaspreachinginhisterritory,sohedispatchedhissecond-in-commandtodrivehimaway,whoboredownon the littlegroup,brandishinghis lance,andasked theMuslimhowhehadthetemeritytospreadtheseliesamongweak,foolishpeople.Butinsteadofretaliatingwithjahilirage,Mus‘abquietlyaskedhimtositdownandjudgeforhimself.Thedeputyagreed,stuckhislanceintheground,and,ashelistenedtothe recitation, his face changed. “Whatwonderful and beautiful discourse thisis!”hecried,“Whatdoesonedotoenterthisreligion?”AfterhehadproclaimedhisfaithinAllahandprostratedhimselfinprayer,hewentbacktoreporttohischief. Sa‘d was furious, grasped his own lance, and marched off to confrontMus‘ab himself, only to be overwhelmed in his turn by the Qur’an. He thensummoned his people and asked them to follow him; trusting his leadershipimplicitly, the entire clan converted enmasse.21 The news of Sa‘d’s dramaticabout-facemadeagreatimpressiononotherchiefs,whobegantotakeMus‘abmoreseriously.ItwasnotlongbeforetherewereMuslimsinalmosteveryfamilyintheoasis.

In Mecca, Muhammad’s preaching mission had stalled largely because theQuraysh could not believe that such an ordinary person could become the

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messengerofAllah.ButconditionsinYathribweredifferent.22Muhammadwasnocommonplacefellow,whocouldbeseenstrollingaroundthemarketplaceandeating anddrinking like anybody else, but a remote,mysterious figure,whosecomingwaseagerlyanticipated.InMecca,Muhammad’steachingthreatenedtodamagethecultoftheHaram,whichwascrucialtotheeconomy,buttherewasnosanctuaryfullof idols inYathrib.Noteverybodywasenamoredof thenewfaith, however. Ibn Ubayy naturally feared that his position was beingundermined; others were still committed either to the old paganism or to thehanifiyyah,butatthisstagetheoppositionwasmuted.IfthenewprophetreallycouldsolvetheproblemsofYathrib,theremightbesomematerialadvantagetobegained fromhim.TheJewish tribeswerealsoprepared togiveMuhammadthebenefitofthedoubt,especiallysincetheMuslimshonoredtheirprophetsandhadadoptedsomeoftheirowncustoms.Muhammad had recently introduced some new practices.As a result of the

night journey, perhaps, Muslims now prayed facing the direction (qiblah) ofJerusalem,reachingouttotheholycityofthePeopleoftheBook.MuhammadhadalsoinstructedMus‘abtoholdaspecialprayermeetingonFridayafternoonwhile the Jewswerepreparing for theirSabbath, and to fastwith the JewsonYomKippur.Muslimswouldnowprayinthemiddleoftheday,astheJewsdid,and observe a modified version of the Jewish dietary laws, similar to thoseadopted by the early Christians.23 Scholars used to think that MuhammadintroducedthesenewdevotionsinordertoappealtotheJewsofYathrib,butthisview has recently been challenged.Muhammad would not have expected theJewstoconverttohisreligion,becausetheyhadtheirownrevealeddin.Godhaddecreed that each community should have its own messenger.24 But it wasnaturalforMuslimstoprayandfastinthesamewayastheothermembersoftheAbrahamicfamily.In622a largepartyofpilgrims leftYathrib for thehajj.Somewerepagans,

but seventy-threeof themenand twoof thewomenwereMuslims.Yetagain,Muhammadwentout togreet themat ‘Aqabah,but this timethemeeting tookplace at dead of night.On this occasion, therewas a sense ofmenace and ofbridgesbeing irrevocablyburned.TheQur’anspeaksof the“scheming”of theQuraysh: perhaps Muhammad had reason to believe that the kafirun wereplotting to expel him and bar the Muslims from the Haram.25 At all events,Muhammadwasnowtakingpracticalsteps to leavehis tribe. IbnIshaqclaimsthat thiswas a positive decision on his part, but theQur’an repeatedly claimsthattheMuslimswere“expelled”or“drivenout”ofMecca.26Themeetingwas

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conductedindeadlysecrecy.TheMuslimsfromYathribdidnotevenmentionitto the pagans in their party, in case they gossiped and alerted theQuraysh towhatwasafoot.

Muhammad was about to do something absolutely unprecedented.27 He wasaskingtheMuslimsofMeccatomakeahijrah(migration)toYathrib.Thisdidnotmerely involve a change of address. TheMuslimswere about to abandontheirkinsfolkandacceptthepermanentprotectionofstrangers.InArabia,wherethetribewasthemostsacredvalueofall,thisamountedtoblasphemy;itwasfarmoreshocking than theQur’anic rejectionof thegoddesses.Therehadalwaysbeenasystemofconfederation,wherebyanindividualoranentiregroupcouldbecome honorarymembers of another tribe, but thesewere usually temporaryarrangementsandhadneverentailedalienationfromone’sownpeople.Theverywordhijrahsuggestsapainfulseverance.TherootHJRhasbeentranslated:“hecut himself off from friendly or loving communication or intercourse . . . heceased . . . to associatewith them.”28 Henceforth theMuslimswhomade thehijrah toYathribwouldbecalled theMuhajirah, theEmigrants: this traumaticdislocationwascentraltotheirnewidentity.The Muslims of Yathrib were also embarking on a dangerous experiment.

Even if a foreigner was adopted by a tribe, he always remained a zalim(“outsider”),awordwhichcarriedtheconnotation“base,ignoble,evil.”29Poetsdescribed the zalim as a useless, super-fluous accretion. Tribal loyalty wasexperienced as burning love of kinsfolk and harsh contempt for the alien.Anybody who put a despised zalim before his own people invited passionatescorn and revulsion. But now the Aws and Khazraj were about to swearallegiance to the QurayshiMuhammad, and promising to give protection andhelp(nasr)toalargegroupofoutsiderswhowouldinevitablyputastrainonthelimited resources of the oasis. Henceforth the Muslims of Yathrib would beknown as theAnsar. This is usually translated “theHelpers,” but this gives asomewhatanemicimpressionofwhatwasinvolved.Nasrmeantthatyouhadtobereadytobackupyouraidwithforce.WhentheymetMuhammadthatnightin‘Aqabah, the Helpers had decided to make a second pact with Muhammad,whichwouldbeknownasthePledgeofWar.Whenthetimecame,theAnsarlefttheirpagancompanionssleepingintheir

tentsandstole“softlylikesandgrouse”to‘Aqabah,wheretheymetMuhammadandhisuncle‘Abbas,whoactedashisspokesman.‘AbbashadnotconvertedtoIslamandhemusthavebeenshockedbyMuhammad’sdecisiontoleaveMecca,

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but hewanted tomake sure that hewouldbe safe inYathrib.Muhammad, hesaid,wasprotectedbytheHashiminMecca,butwasreadytoforgothissecurityinorder to join theAnsar. If theyhadthesmallestdoubtabouthissafety, theyshouldgiveup theentireproject immediately.But theAnsarstoodfirm.Bara’IbnMar‘ur, a chief ofKhazraj, tookMuhammad by the hand, and swore thatAwsandKhazrajwouldbothextendtoMuhammadexactlythesameprotectionas they gave to their own women and children. But while he was speaking,another Helper interrupted. What if Muhammad went back to Mecca andabandonedYathribtothewrathoftheQuraysh?Muhammadsmiledandreplied:“Iamofyouandyouareofme.Iwillwaragainstthemthatwaragainstyouandbeatpeacewiththoseatpeacewithyou.”30AndsotheAnsarmadethissolemnoath:“Wepledgedourselvestowarincompleteobediencetotheapostle,inwealorwoe, ineaseandhardshipandevilcircumstances; thatwewouldnotwronganyone;thatwewouldspeakthetruthatalltimes;andthatinGod’sservicewewouldfearthecensureofnone.”31The pact was couched in tribal terminology, and concentrated on mutual

defense.32Therewasasyetnothoughtofasingle,unitedummah.Aws,Khazraj,andQurayshwouldstilloperateseparately.MuhammadwouldnotgotoYathribasheadofstate,butsimplyas thearbitrator (hakam)ofdisputesbetweenAwsandKhazrajandasthechiefoftheEmigrantsfromMecca.TheAnsarwouldberuledbytwelve“overseers”fromthevariousclans.EventhoughIslamhadmadegreat strides inYathrib—after a singleyear, theMuslimcommunity therewasalmost as large as the beleaguered ummah inMecca—the fact remained thateven after the hijrah, theMuslimswould remain a tinyminority in the oasis,dwarfedinsizebythealoof,appraisingpagans,hanifs,andJews.33ThePledgeofWarmarkedamajorexpansionofIslam:thenewreligionhadspreadtoothertribal groups, but it hadnot yet transcended the tribal ethos.Thehijrahwas arisky enterprise, an irrevocable, frightening step. Nobody knew how it wouldworkout,becausenothingquitelikeithadeverhappenedinArabiabefore.Afterthehajj,theAnsarreturnedtoYathribtoawaitthearrivaloftheMuslim

fugitives.TheQur’annowadoptedtheAramaicnamethattheJewsgavetothesettlement of Yathrib:medinta (“the city”). Yathrib was about to become al-Madinat, the city of the Prophet. In Mecca, Muhammad began to persuadeMuslimstomakethehijrah,buthedidnotcommandit.Anybodywhofeltittobe beyondhis or her strengthwas free to remain behind.But during July andAugust622,aboutseventyMuslimssetoffwiththeirfamiliestoMedina,wheretheywere lodged in thehousesof theAnsaruntil theycould setup theirown

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homes.TheQurayshdonotseemtohavemadeaconcertedefforttodetainthemthoughsomewomenandchildrenwereforciblypreventedfromleaving,andonemanwascartedback in triumph, tied tohiscamel.For theirpart, theMuslimswerecarefulnottodrawattentiontotheirflight,andusuallyagreedtomeetupoutsidethecitylimitsandtotravelinsmall,unobtrusivegroups.‘Umarleftwithhisfamily;‘Uthmanibn‘AffanandRuqayyahmadethejourneywithZaydandHamzah, butMuhammad andAbuBakr stayed behind until nearly everybodyhadleft.But itwasnot longbefore thismajordefectionleftdisturbinggaps inthe city, revealing the openwound thatMuhammadhad inflicted on his tribe.ThebighousesinthemiddleofMeccalookeddesolateandportentoustopassersby,“doorsblowingtoandfro,emptyofinhabitants.”34InAugust,shortlybeforehewasduetoleave,Mu‘tim,Muhammad’sMeccan

protector,died.Muhammad’spositioninMeccawasnowuntenable,becausehewasfairgameforassassination.Therewasaspecialmeetingtodiscusshisfateintheassembly,fromwhichAbuLahabpointedlyabsentedhimself.Someoftheelders simply wanted to throw Muhammad out of Mecca, but they wereoverruled by those who felt that to allow him to join those unprincipledrenegadesinYathribwouldbedangerous.AbuJahlcameupwithaplan:eachclan would select a strong and well-protected young man. Collectively, theywould represent the entire tribe, and would kill Muhammad together. Therewould be no vendetta, because the Hashim could not take on the whole ofQuraysh.SothatnightabandofcarefullychosenyouthsgatheredoutsideMuhammad’s

home, but were disturbed to hear the voices of Sawdah and some of theProphet’sdaughtersthroughthewindow.Itwouldbeshamefultokillamaninthepresenceofhiswomen, so theydecided towaituntilhe left thehouse thefollowing morning. One of them peered in and saw a figure lying in bed,wrappedinMuhammad’scloak.Unbeknownsttothem,Muhammadhadalreadyescaped throughabackwindow, leaving ‘Ali lyingapparentlyasleep,wearinghisclothes.When‘Alistrolledoutsidethenextmorning,theyoungmenrealizedthattheyhadbeentricked,andtheQurayshofferedarewardofahundredcamelmarestoanybodywhowouldbringMuhammadback,deadoralive.Bythistime,MuhammadandAbuBakrwerehidinginamountaincavejust

outside thecity.Theystayed there for threedays, and from time to time, theirsupportersslippedout tobring themnewsandprovisions.Atonepoint, itwassaid, a searchpartyactuallypassed thecave,butdidnotbother to look insidebecauseanenormousspider’swebcovered theentranceanda rockdove,who

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hadclearlybeensittingonhereggsforsometime,hadhernestinanacaciatreeinexactlytheplacewhereamanwouldhavetoputhisfootwhenclimbingintothecave.Allthewhile,MuhammadexperiencedadeepcalmandastrongsenseofGod’s presence.TheQur’an recalls howhe comfortedAbuBakr: “ ‘grievenot:verilyGodiswithus.’AndthereuponGodbestoweduponhimfromonhighHis [gift of ] inner peace.”35 Increasingly the Qur’an would insist that whenMuslims found themselves in frightening or disturbing circumstances, theyshouldbesereneandtranquil,andshouldneverfallpreytotheimpetuousrageandvengefulfuryofjahiliyyah.Whenthehueandcryhaddieddown,MuhammadandAbuBakrclimbedout

of the cave, taking care not to disturb the rock dove, and mounted the twocamelsthatAbuBakrhadpreparedfortheirjourney.AbuBakrwantedtogivethebettercameltoMuhammad,butheinsistedonpayingforher.Thiswashispersonalhijrah,his sacrifice toAllah,and itwas important tomake thewholeevent entirely his own. Muhammad called the camel mare Qaswa’, and sheremained his favorite mount for the rest of his life. It was a dangerous trip,because while he was on the road, Muhammad did not enjoy anybody’sprotection, so their guide took themby a circuitous route, and they zigzaggedbackandforthtothrowanypursuersoffthescent.Inthemeantime,theMuslimswereanxiouslyawaitingtheirarrivalinMedina.

Several of theEmigrants fromMeccawere living inQuba’, the southernmostpointof theoasis,andeverydayaftermorningprayers theyused toclimb thevolcanicrocksandscanthebarrenterrainoutsidethesettlement.OnthemorningofSeptember4,622,oneoftheJewsspottedacloudofdustonthehorizonandcalled out to theAnsar: “Sons ofQaylah!He is come!He is come!”At oncemen, women, and children surged out to meet the travellers and found themrestingunderapalmtree.MuhammadandAbuBakrstayedinQuba’forthreedays,buttheMuslimsin

the “city” (as the most densely populated part of the oasis was called) wereimpatienttoseehim,sohesetofftomeetthemanddecidewherehewasgoingtolive.Alongtheway,severalpeoplebeggedhimtoalightandmakehishomewith them, but Muhammad courteously refused because he was anxious toremain independent of the warring groups within Medina. Instead, he gaveQaswa’herhead,andaskedGodtoguideher.Eventually,shefelltoherkneesoutsideamirbad,aplacefordryingdates,whichbelongedtooneoftheAnsar.Muhammadgotdown,allowedhisluggagetobecarriedintothenearesthouseand then began to negotiatewith the owner for the sale of the land.Once the

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price was agreed upon, all the Muslims got to work to build the Prophet’sresidence,whichwouldalsoserveasaplace forprayer.Thiswashard for theEmigrants,becausetheQurayshwerenotusedtomanuallabor,andthestylish‘Uthmanfoundtheworkparticularlygrueling.The firstMuslimbuildingwasnot imposingbut itbecame themodel forall

future mosques. It was primarily a masjid, “a place of prostration,” an openspaceroomyenoughfortheentirecommunitytoperformthesalattogether,anditexpressedtheausterityof theearlyIslamicideal.Theroofwassupportedbytree trunks, and therewas no elaborate pulpit;Muhammad stood on a simplestooltoaddressthecongregation.Muhammadandhiswiveslivedinlittlehutsroundtheedgeofthebigcourtyardinfrontofthemosque.Thiswasaplaceforpublic and political meetings; the poor of Medina were also invited tocongregatethereforalms,foodandcare.ThishumblebuildinginMedinaexpressedtheidealoftawhid.36Muhammad

wantedtoshowthatthesexual,thesacred,andthedomesticcould—and,indeed,must—be integrated.Similarlypolitics,welfare, and theorderingof social lifemustbebroughtintotheambitofholiness.Inhousinghiswiveswithinastone’sthrowofthemosque,Muhammadwastacitlyproclaimingthattheremustbenodistinction between public and private life, and no discrimination between thesexes. Holiness in Islam was inclusive rather than exclusive. If they wished,JewsandChristianscouldworshipinthemosque,becausetheytoowerepartofGod’sfamily.ThebuildingwascompletedinApril,623,aboutsevenmonthsafterthehijrah.

Inthenorthernwall,astonemarkedtheqiblah,thedirectionofprayer,orientingthepeople towards Jerusalem.At first therewasnoofficial summons to salat,but this was obviously unsatisfactory, as everybody came at different times.Muhammadthoughtofusingaram’shorn,liketheJews,orawoodenclapper,like the localChristians, but oneof theEmigrants had an important dream.Aman, clad in agreen cloak, had toldhim that somebodywith a loud, resonantvoiceshouldannouncetheservice,cryingAllahuAkhbar(“Godisgreater”)asareminderof aMuslim’s first priority.Muhammad liked the idea andBilal, theformer Abyssinian slave with the big voice, was an obvious choice. Everymorningheclimbedtothetopofthetallesthouseinthevicinityofthemosque,andsatontherooftopwaitingfordawn.Thenhewouldstretchouthisarms,andbeforebeginningthecall,wouldpray:“OGod,IpraiseTheeandaskThyhelpfor Quraysh that they may accept Thy religion.”37 The Muslims may havechanged their qiblah to Jerusalem, but they had not forgotten Mecca. When

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Muhammad learned that many of the Emigrants were deeply homesick, heprayed:“Lord,makeuslovethistownasmuchasyoumadeusloveMecca,andevenmoreso.”38Theimmenseuprootingofthehijrahmeantthateventhoughtheystillusedthe

old tribal terminology, theMuslims had to create an entirely different type ofcommunity. One of the first things Muhammad did was set up a system of“brothering” whereby each Meccan was assigned an Ansar “brother” to helpMuslims to bond across the lines of kinship. The political separation ofEmigrants andHelperswas soondropped:when the first of the twelveAnsari“overseers” died, Muhammad simply took over his position.39 The Muslimswere gradually creating a “neo-tribe,” which interpreted the old kinshiprelationships differently. Those who had made the hijrah were to regardthemselves as distinct from theMuslimswho had remained behind inMecca,eventhoughtheyallbelongedtothesamebloodgroup.Whatevertheirtribeorclan, Muslims must never fight one another. Emigrants and Helpers mustbecomeassolidlyunitedasanyconventionaltribe.40Likethetribe,theummahwas “one community to the exclusion of all men,” and would make“confederates”ofnon-Muslimalliesintheusualway.41Aschieftainoftheummah,Muhammadcouldnowimplementhismoraland

social reforms in a way that had been impossible inMecca. His goal was tocreate a society of hilm. Thosewho kept the faith (mu’min) were not simply“believers.”Their faithmustbeexpressed inpracticalactions: theymustpray,sharetheirwealth,andinmattersthatconcernedthecommunity,“consultamongthemselves”topreservetheunityoftheummah.Ifattacked,theycoulddefendthemselves, but insteadof lashingout in theold, uncontrolled jahiliway, theymustalwaysbepreparedtoforgiveaninjury.Automatic,vengefulretaliation—thecardinaldutyofmuruwah—couldbeagreatevil.“Hence,whoeverpardons[his foe] and makes peace, his reward rests with God,” the Qur’an insistedtirelessly. “If one is patient in adversity and forgives—this, behold, is indeedsomethingtosetone’sheartupon.”42Butthistransformationcouldnotbeachievedovernight,becausetheoldspirit

of jahiliyyah still lurked inMuslimhearts. Shortly after the hijrah, one of thepaganArabsnoticedacrowdofMuslims,whichincludedmembersofbothAwsandKhazraj, chatting together amicably as though their tribes had never beenswornenemies.Hewasfurious.ClearlyIslamwasmakingthemsoftandfeeble!He ordered a young Jewish man to sit near the group and recite poems thatremindedthemoftheoldbitterfeuds.Itwasnotlongbeforetheengrainedtribal

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chauvinism flared up, and the Muslims were soon at one another’s throats.Muhammadhurriedtothesceneingreatdistress.“Areyoustilltemptedbythecallof jahiliyyahwhen Iamhereamongyou?”hedemanded,“whenGodhasguidedyou . . . honoredyou, and cut off thereby the bondof jahiliyyah fromyou, delivered you from a state of defiant ingratitude (kufr), and made youfriendsofeachother?”Deeplyashamed,theAnsarweptandembraced.43Not all the Muslims of Medina were committed to change. Some had

embraced Islam purely for material gain, and they were sitting on the fence,waiting to see how this new venturewould turn out. TheQur’an called thesepeoplethe“waverers”or the“Hypocrites,”(munafiqun)because theywerenotsincereandkeptchangingtheirminds.44WhentheywerewithdevoutMuslims,theycried:“Webelieve[asyoubelieve],”butinthecompanyofotherdoubters,theyassured them:“Verily,wearewithyou;wewereonlymocking!”45Theirleaderwas IbnUbayy,whohad become aMuslimbut remained resentful andcritical of the new faith.Muhammad always behaved respectfully to him, andallowed him to address the community everyweek during the Friday prayers,butfromtimetotimehisburiedhostilitycametothesurface.“Don’tbehardonhim,” one of the Helpers begged Muhammad after a particularly unpleasantincident,“forbeforeGodsentyoutousweweremakingadiademtocrownhim,andbyGod,hethinksyouhaverobbedhimofakingdom.”46SomeoftheJewswerealsobecominghostiletothenewcomers.Muhammad

did not expect them to convert to Islam, and their quarrel with him was notprimarily religious but political and economic.The Jews’ position in the oasishaddeteriorated,andifMuhammadsucceededinunitingAwsandKhazraj,theywouldhavenochanceofregainingtheirformersupremacy.HencethreeofthelargerJewishtribesthoughtitwisertosupportIbnUbbayandthepaganArabsin the oasis who remained opposed to Muhammad.47 The early MuslimhistorianstellusthattheymountedascholarlypolemicagainstthetheologyoftheQur’an,butthisprobablyreflectedJewish-Muslimdebateduringtheeighthandninthcenturies.48The Jewsof seventh centuryMedinahadonly a limitedknowledge of Torah and Talmud, were not strictly observant, and most wereused to seeing their faith as a variant of Arabian religion.49 The idea of anArabianprophetwasnotastrangeideatothem:theyhadaprophetoftheirowncalled IbnSayyad,who, likeMuhammad,wrapped himself in a cloak, recitedinspiredverses,andclaimedtobetheapostleofGod.50But if there were no learned rabbinical debates, the Muslims probably

encounteredagooddealofpopulistreligiouschauvinisminMedina.IbnIshaq

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tellsusthatwhentheycametothemosque,someoftheJewswould“laughandscoff ” at the Qur’an.51 Many Jews were friendly and Muhammad probablylearnedagreatdeal from them,but someof thePeopleof theBookhad ideasthathefoundverystrangeindeed.TheideaofanexclusivereligionwasalientoMuhammad; he hated sectarian quarrels,52 andwas offended by the idea of a“chosen people” or the conviction that only Jews or Christians could get toParadise.53Hewasalsobewildered to learn that someChristiansbelieved thatGod was a trinity and that Jesus was the son of Allah.54 But he remainedconvincedthatthesepeculiarnotionswerethehereticaldeviationsofadeludedminority.55TheQur’anremindedMuslimsthatmanyofthePeopleoftheBookwere“uprightpeople,”who

recite God’s messages throughout the night and prostratethemselves[beforehim].TheybelieveinGodandtheLastDay,and enjoin the doing of what is right and forbid the doing ofwhatiswrong,andviewithoneanotherindoingGod’sworks;andtheseareamongtherighteous.56

Muslimsmustrememberthateverycommunityhaditsownspeciallyrevealed

din,sotheymustnottakepartinthesepointlesssquabbles;ifthePeopleoftheBook attacked their faith, Muslims must behave with hilm, and courteouslyreply:“Godknowsbestwhatyouaredoing.”57Toavoidthissterilecontroversy,Muhammad,likethehanifs,decidedtoreturn

to the “religion of Abraham,” who was neither a “Jew” nor a “Christian,”because he had lived long before either the Torah or the Gospel.58 After thehijrah, theQur’an started to apply thewords “hanif ” and “hanifiyyah” to theMuslims and Islam, but gave them a new interpretation. For Muhammad,hanifiyyah simply meant total submission to God; this had been the original,unadulteratedmessageoftheprophets,beforeithadbeencorruptedbysectarianchauvinism.Abraham, for example,hadnotbelonged to anexclusive cult.Hehadsimplybeenamuslim,“onewhosurrenderedhimself”anda“manofpurefaith”(hanif).59When Abraham and Ishmael had rebuilt the Kabah together, they had not

developed an exclusive theology, but had simply wanted to give their livesentirely to Allah. “O our Sustainer!” they had prayed, “Make us surrenderourselves unto Thee, and show us our ways of worship.” Muslims had beendriven out of Mecca because of religious intolerance, so they must avoid all

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exclusivity.60Insteadofstridentlyinsistingthattheyalonehadthemonopolyoftruth, the trueMuslimsmerely said: “Behold,my prayer, and [all]my acts ofworshipandmylivingandmydyingareforGod[alone],theSustainerofalltheworlds.”61 It was idolatry to take pride in belonging to a particular religioustraditionratherthanconcentratinguponAllahhimself.Towards theendof January624,Muhammad receiveda revelationwhilehe

wasleadingtheFridayprayers,andmadethecongregationturnaroundandprayinthedirectionofMeccainsteadofJerusalem.TheywouldnowfacethehousebuiltbyAbraham,themanofpurefaith.

We have seen thee [O Prophet] often turn thy face towardsheaven[forguidance],andnowWeshallindeedmaketheeturntooinprayerinadirectionwhichwillfulfilthydesire.TurnthenthyfacetowardstheInviolableHouseofWorship;andwhereveryouallmaybe,turnyourfacestowardsit[inprayer].62

Itwasareminderthattheywerenotfollowinganyoftheestablishedreligions,

butGodhimself.Itwasadeclarationofindependence.Muslimsneednolongerfeel that theywere following lamely in the footstepsof theolder faiths.“Holdthemnotinawe,”Godsaid,“butstandinaweofmeand[obeyme].”63ThenewqiblahdelightedboththeEmigrantsandtheHelpers,andwouldbindthemmoreclosely together. They all loved theKabah,whichwasmore deeply rooted inArabtraditionthanthedistantcityofJerusalem.Buttherewasaproblem.TheKabahwasinMecca,andrelationswiththeQurayshhadrecentlybecomemorestrainedthaneverbefore.

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ChapterFour

Jihad

THE CHANGE OF QIBLAH had occurred at the end of a period of uncertainty.Muhammadandthecommunityhadbeenrestlessly“turningthiswayandthat,”searchingforguidanceintheirconfusion.Muhammadknewthataprophethadto make a difference to the world. He could not simply withdraw from themainstream.Hehad to putGod’s revealedwill into practice and create a just,egalitariansociety.ButthehijrahhadpushedtheMuslimsintoaperipheralandanomalousposition.EventhoughMuhammadhadbeguntoimplementhissocialreforms,heknewthathewouldmakenolastingimpressiononArabiaaslongashewasconfinedtoandisolatedinMedina.Mecca, the“motherofcities,”wascrucial to the development of the peninsula. Arabia needed the commercialgeniusof theQuraysh.Meccawasnow thecenterof theMuslimworld.Theyyearnedtowardsitinprayerseveraltimesaday,butitwascomingtoseemlikeanabsent,inaccessiblelover.1Muslimscouldnotevenmakethehajj,likeotherArabs.MuhammadrealizedthatMeccawasthekeytohismission.ThehostilityoftheQurayshhaderadicatedtheummahfromthetribalmapandpusheditintoapolitical limbo.WithoutMecca, Islamwasdoomed tomarginality.SomehowMuhammadwouldhavetomakepeacewithhispeople.Butafterthefirstshockof the hijrah, most of the Quraysh seemed to have forgotten all about theMuslims.BeforeMuhammad could seek reconciliationwithMecca, he had tomaketheQurayshtakenoticeofhim.HealsohadtosecurehispositioninMedina.Heknewthat,asfarasmostof

theMedinesewereconcerned,hewasstillontrial.Theyhaddefiedthemightofthe Quraysh by taking the migrants in because they expected some materialadvantage,andheretoo,Muhammadhadtodeliver.Attheveryleast,hehadtoensurethattheEmigrantsdidnotbecomeadrainupontheeconomy.Butitwasdifficultforthemtoearnaliving.Mostofthemweremerchantsorbankers,buttherewasverylittleopportunityfortradeinMedina,wherethewealthierArab

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andJewishtribeshadachievedamonopoly.TheEmigrantshadnoexperienceoffarming, and in any case all the available land had already been taken. TheywouldbecomeaburdentotheHelpers,unlesstheyfoundanindependentsourceofincome,andtherewasoneobviouswaytoachievethis.Medinawaswell placed to attack theMeccan caravanson theirway to and

fromSyria,andshortlyafterMuhammadhadarrivedinMedina,hehadstartedtosendbandsofEmigrantsonraidingexpeditions.2Theiraimwasnot toshedblood,buttosecureanincomebycapturingcamels,merchandise,andprisoners,whocouldbeheldforransom.Nobodywouldhavebeenparticularlyshockedbythis development. The ghazu was a normal expedient in times of hardship,thoughsomeoftheArabswouldhavebeensurprisedbytheMuslims’temerityintakingonthemightyQuraysh,especiallyastheywereclearlyinexperiencedwarriors.Duringthefirsttwoyearsafterthehijrah,Muhammaddispatchedeightof these expeditions.He did not usually go himself but commissioned peoplesuchasHamzahand‘Ubaydahibnal-Harith,butitwasdifficulttogetaccurateinformation about the caravans’ itinerary, and none of these early raids wassuccessful.TheQurayshwerenotawarlikepeople.Theyhadleftthenomadiclifebehind

longagoandhad lostboth thehabit and skillof theghazu; theQur’an showsthat some of the Emigrants found the very idea of fighting distasteful.3 ButMuhammad was not discouraged. Even though the Emigrants desperatelyneededanincome,plunderwasnothisprimaryobjective.Theraidersmayhavecome back empty handed, but they had at least brought the Muslims to theattentionofMecca.TheQurayshwererattled.Theyhadtotakeprecautionsthathad never been necessary before. Merchants complained that they felt morevulnerable;theyhadtomakeinconvenientdetoursandtheflowoftradeinandoutofMeccawasslightlydisrupted.InSeptember623,MuhammadhimselfledaghazuagainstalargecaravanledbyUmmayahibnKhalaf;thespoilslookedsopromisingthatarecord200Muslimsvolunteeredfortheexpedition.Butyetagainthecaravaneludedtheraidersandtherewasnofighting.Inthesteppes,theghazuneedednotheoreticaljustification;itwasseenasan

unavoidablenecessityintimeofscarcity.ButMuhammadhadbeendeterminedto transcend the old tribal norms. The Qur’an had instructedMuslims to say“Peacebewithyou!”tothekafirun,notattackthemwhiletheyweregoingabouttheir business. Shortly after Muhammad arrived in Medina, he received arevelationthattookamoremilitantline.

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Permission [to fight] is given to those against whom war isbeingwrongfullywaged—and,verily,Godhasindeedthepowerto succor them—those who have been driven from theirhomelandsagainstallrightfornootherreasonthantheirsaying“OurSustainerisGod!”For if God had not enabled people to defend themselves

against one another, [all] monasteries and churches andsynagogues and mosques—in [all of ] which God’s name isabundantly extolled—would surely have been destroyed [erenow].4

TheQur’an had begun to develop a primitive justwar theory. In the steppes,aggressive warfare was praiseworthy; but in the Qur’an, self-defense was theonly possible justification for hostilities and the preemptive strike wascondemned.5Warwasalwaysaterribleevil,butitwassometimesnecessaryinorder to preserve decent values, such as freedom of worship. Even here, theQur’an did not abandon its pluralism: synagogues and churches as well asmosquesshouldbeprotected.TheMuslimsfeltthattheyhadsufferedafearfulassault; their expulsion fromMeccawasanact thathadno justification.ExilefromthetribeviolatedthedeepestsanctionofArabia;ithadattackedthecoreoftheMuslims’identity.ButMuhammadhadembarkeduponadangerouscourse.Hewas living ina

chronically violent society and he saw these raids not simply as a means ofbringinginmuch-neededincome,butasawayofresolvinghisquarrelwiththeQuraysh.Wehavediscovered inourownday, thatwagingwar for thesakeofpeace isahigh-riskventure.The ruthlessnessofbattlecan lead toactions thatflout the very principles that the warriors are fighting for, so that in the endneithersidecanclaimthehighmoralground.Muhammadtriedtogivehisghazuethical grounding but he had no experience of a longmilitary campaign, andwouldlearnthat,onceithasstarted,acycleofviolenceachievesanindependentmomentum,andcanspintragicallyoutofcontrol.At first,Muhammadfoughtaccording to the traditional rules,but inJanuary

624, just before the change of the qiblah, he had his first experience of theunpredictability of warfare.6 The Emigrants were becoming more confident.During the winter months, the Quraysh sent their caravans south, so they nolonger had to pass Medina. But ever anxious to attract their attention,Muhammad sent a small raiding party of nine men to attack one of these

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southboundcaravans.ItwastheendofRajab,oneofthe“sacredmonths”whenallfightingwasforbidden.OnthelastdayofRajab,theMuslimscameuponasmallcaravanencampedinNakhlah.Whatshouldtheydo?Iftheywaiteduntilthe following day,when the truce ended, the caravanwould be able to returnunscathed toMecca.They decided to attack.The first arrowkilled one of themerchants,mostof theothers fled, but theMuslims took twoprisonerswhomtheybroughtbacktoMedinawiththecapturedmerchandise.But instead of greeting the raiders as conquering heroes, theMuslimswere

horrified to hear that the raid had violated the sacredmonth. For a few days,Muhammaddidnotknowhow to respond.Hehad, after all, abandonedmuchMeccan religion and may have imagined that he could jettison the forbiddenmonthstoo.Theraidhadbeenasuccess.Notonlywerethererichpickings,buthe had shown the Quraysh that he could attack them almost on their owndoorstep. He had also impressed many of the Medinese. But there wassomethingdubiousaboutthewholebusiness.Muhammadhadnevercondemnedthepracticeoftheforbiddenmonthsbefore;thesourcesseemuneasyabouttheincident.Muhammadhaddiscoveredthathoweveridealisticyourwarmightbeattheoutset,somethingdistastefulislikelytooccursoonerratherthanlater.EventuallyMuhammad received a new revelation that reiterated the central

principleofhisjustwar.Yes,ithadbeenwrongtobreakthesacredtruce,butthepolicyof theQuraysh indriving theMuslimsfromtheirhomeshadbeenevenmoreheinous.“Theywillnotceasetofightagainstyoutilltheyhaveturnedyouawayfromyourfaith,”theQur’anwarnedMuhammad.Astofightingduringtheforbiddenmonth,thiswasindeedan“awesomething,”

But turningmenaway from thepathofGodanddenyingHimand[turningthemawayfrom]theInviolableHouseofWorshipand expelling its people therefrom—[all this] is far moreawesomeinthesightofGod,sinceoppressionismoreawesomethankilling.7

Muhammad, therefore, accepted the booty and reassured the community; he

dividedthespoilsequallyamongtheEmigrantsandbegannegotiationswiththeQurayshforanexchangeofprisoners:hewould trade theMeccancaptivesfortwoMuslimsstilllivinginMeccawhowantedtomakethehijrah.ButoneoftheprisonerswassoimpressedbywhathesawinMedinathathedecidedtoremainand convert to Islam.The incident is a good example of thewayMuhammad

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was beginning towork. In his novel position, he could not rely on customaryprocedure.Hewasfeelinghiswayforwardstepbystep,respondingtoeventsasthey unfolded. He had no fixed master plan and, unlike some of his moreimpetuous companions, he rarely responded to a crisis immediately but tooktime to reflect until finally—sometimes pale and sweatingwith the effort—hewouldbringforthwhatseemedaninspiredsolution.A fewweeks later, during themonthofRamadan (March624),Muhammad

led a largeMuslimcontingent to intercept aMeccancaravan thatAbuSufyanwasbringingbackfromSyria.8Thiswasoneofthemostimportantcaravansofthe year and, encouraged by the success of Nakhlah, a large contingent ofHelpersvolunteered to join the raid.About314Muslims setout fromMedinaand rode to the well of Badr, near the Red Sea coast, where they hoped toambushthecaravan.ThisexpeditionwouldbeoneofthemostformativeeventsintheearlyhistoryofIslam,butattheoutsetitseemedjustanotherghazuandseveralofthemostcommittedMuslimsstayedathome,including‘Uthmanibn‘Affan,whosewifeRuqayyah,theProphet’sdaughter,wasdangerouslyill.Atfirst it lookedasthoughthecaravanwould,asusual,escape.AbuSufyan

gotwindof theMuslims’planand insteadof takinghisusual routeacross theHijaz,heturnedsharplyawayfromthecoastanddispatchedalocaltribesmantoMeccatogethelp.TheQurayshwereincensedatMuhammad’sinsolence,whichtheyregardedasaslurontheirhonor,andalltheleadingmenweredeterminedto rescue the caravan.Abu Jahl, of course,was eager for the fray. The obeseUmmayah ibn Khalaf was crammed into his armor, and even members ofMuhammad’sownfamilyrodeoutagainsthim,convincedthatthistimehehadgonetoofar.AbuLahabwassick,buttwoofAbuTalib’ssons,hisuncle‘Abbas,andKhadijah’snephewHakimjoinedthethousandmenwhorodeoutofMeccathatnightandtooktheroadtoBadr.Inthemeantime,AbuSufyanhadmanagedtoeludetheMuslimsandtakenthe

caravanbeyondtheirreach.Hesentwordthatthemerchandisewassafeandthatthearmyshould turnback.Thesourcesmake itclear thatwhen itcame to thepointmanyoftheQurayshwerereluctant tofight theirkinsmen.ButAbuJahlwouldhavenoneof this.“ByAllah!”hecried.“Wewillnotgobackuntilwehavebeen toBadr.Wewillspendthreedays there,slaughtercamels,andfeastanddrinkwine;andthegirlsshallplayforus.TheArabswillhearthatwehavecomeandwill respect us in the future.”9But thesedefiantwords showed thatevenAbuJahldidnotexpectabattle.Hehadlittleconceptionofthehorrorofwar, which he seemed to envisage as a kind of party, complete with dancing

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girls. The Quraysh were so far removed from the steppes that warfare hadbecomeachivalricsportthatwouldenhancetheprestigeofMecca.Therewas a verydifferent spirit in theMuslim camp.After the trauma and

terror of the hijrah, the Emigrants could not view the situation in such aconfident, carefree light.As soon asMuhammad heard that theMeccan armywas approaching, he consulted the other chiefs. The Muslims were vastlyoutnumbered. They had expected an ordinary ghazu, not a full-scale battle,whichwasaverydifferentmatter.Muhammadwasnotthecommander-in-chief;hecouldnotcommandobedience,but themendecidedtofight itout.AsSa‘dibnMu‘adhsaidonbehalfoftheHelpers:

Wehavegivenyouourwordandagreementtohearandobey;sogowhere youwish andwe arewith you, and byGod, if youwere to ask us to cross this sea and you plunged into it, wewould plunge into it with you.We do not dislike the idea ofmeeting your enemy tomorrow. We are experienced in war,trustworthyincombat.10

UnliketheQuraysh,theAwsandKhazrajwerepracticedsoldiers,afteryearsoftribal warfare inYathrib. But even so, the oddswere overwhelmingly againstthemandalltheMuslimshopedthattheywouldnothavetofight.Fortwodays,thetwoarmiesgazedbleaklyatoneanotherfromoppositeends

ofthevalley.TheQurayshlookedimpressiveintheirwhitetunicsandglitteringarmoranddespiteSa‘d’sstirringwords,someoftheMuslimswantedtoretreat.Therewasgreatfearinthecamp.TheProphettriedtorousetheirspirits.Hetoldthem that in a dream God had promised to send a thousand angels to fightalongsidethem.11ButwhiletheQurayshwerefeastinganddrinking,certainthattheMuslimswould surrender,Muhammadwasmaking practical preparations.Helineduphis troops incloseformationandpositionedhismenbythewells,depriving the Quraysh of water and forcing them, when the time came, toadvanceuphill, fightingwith the sun in their eyes.Butwhenhe lookedat thehugeMeccanarmy,hewept.“OAllah,”heprayed,“Ifthisbandthatiswithmeperishes, therewill be no one afterme toworshipYou; all the believers willabandonthetruereligion.”12Herealizedthatthisbattlewouldbedecisive.IftheMuslimsallowedtheQurayshtoforcethembacktoMedina,theummahwouldmake no lasting impact onArabia. Something of his determined resolvemusthave been conveyed to his men. The Qur’an describes the great peace that

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descended upon the soldiers at this frightening moment. There was a suddenrainstorm,whichseemedagoodomen.13MeanwhiletheQurayshhadbecomemorealarmed.Thechiefshaddispatched

aspytoreportontheenemytroops.Hewasaghasttoseethegrimresolutiononthe faces of theMuslims and begged theQuraysh not to fight. He had “seencamelscarryingDeath—thecamelsofYathribladenwithcertaindeath.”NotoneoftheMuslimswoulddiebeforehehadkilledatleastoneoftheMeccans,and,the spy concluded despairingly, how could the Quraysh live with themselvesafterthat?Theywouldconstantlybelookingintothefaceofaneighborwhohadkilledoneoftheirkinsfolk.ButAbuJahlwasbeyondreasonandaccusedhimofcowardice—ajibethatnoArabcouldignore.Hethenturnedtothebrotheroftheman slain by theMuslim raiders at Nakhlah, who emitted a savage war cry.Immediately,saidIbnIshaq,“warwaskindledandallwasmarredandthefolkheld stubbornly to their evil course.”14 TheQuraysh began to advance slowlyoverthesanddunes.ObservingthecommandoftheQur’an,Muhammadrefusedto strike first, and even after the battle commenced, he seemed reluctant tounleash hismen untilAbuBakr told him to leave his prayers and engage histroops,becauseGodwouldcertainlygivethemvictory.In the fierce skirmish that followed, theQuraysh soon found that theywere

gettingtheworstofit.Theyfoughtwithcarelessbravado,asthoughthiswasaknightlytournament,andhadnoconcertedstrategy.ButtheMuslimsdidhaveadisciplined plan. They began by bombarding the enemywith arrows, drawingtheir swords for hand-to-hand combat only at the lastminute.Bymidday, theQurayshhadfledindisarray,leavingsomefiftyoftheirleadingmen,includingAbuJahlhimself,deadonthefield.TherewereonlyfourteenMuslimcasualties.Jubilantly,theMuslimsbegantorounduptheprisonersanddrawtheirswords.

In tribal warfare, there was no quarter for the vanquished. Casualties weremutilated and captives were either slain or tortured.Muhammad immediatelyorderedhistroopstodesist.Arevelationcamedowntoensurethattheprisonersof war must either be released or ransomed.15 Even in war, Muslims wouldabjurethesavagecustomsofthepast.

Constantly the Qur’an insists upon the importance of mercy and forgiveness,evenduringarmedconflict.16Whileengagedinhostilities,Muslimsmustfightwithcourageandsteadfastnessinordertobringtheconflicttoanendasquicklyaspossible.Butthemomenttheenemyasksforpeace,Muslimsmustlaydowntheir arms.17 They must accept any offer of truce, whatever conditions are

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imposed,even if theysuspect theenemyofdouble-dealing.Andalthough it isimportant to fight persecution and oppression, the Qur’an constantly remindsMuslimsthat it ismuchbetter tositdownandsolvetheproblembycourteousdiscussion.18True,GodpermittedretaliationintheTorah—eyeforeye,toothfortooth—“buthewhoshallforgoitoutofcharitywillatonebetterforsomeofhispast sins.”19 Retaliation would be strictly confined to those who had actuallyperpetratedtheatrocity,agreatadvanceonthelawofvendetta,whichpermittedrevenge against any member of the killer’s tribe. The Qur’an reminded theMuslimsthattheywerenotfightingthewholetribeofQuraysh;thosewhohadremainedneutralthroughouttheconflictandthoseMuslimswhohadchosentoremaininMeccamustnotbeattackedorinjuredinanyway.20Muhammad was not a pacifist. He believed that warfare was sometimes

inevitableandevennecessary.AfterthebattleofBadr,theMuslimsknewthatitwasonly amatter of timebeforeMecca tookher revenge, and theydedicatedthemselves to a long, gruelling jihad. But the primarymeaning of that word,whichwehear sooften today, isnot “holywar”but the “effort”or “struggle”necessarytoputthewillofGodintopractice.Muslimsareexhortedtostriveinthisendeavoronallfronts:intellectual,social,economic,spiritual,anddomestic.Sometimestheywouldhavetofight,butthiswasnottheirchiefduty.OntheirwayhomefromBadr,Muhammadutteredanimportantandoft-quotedmaxim:“We are returning from the Lesser Jihad (the battle) and going to theGreaterJihad,”—theimmeasurablymoreimportantanddifficultstruggletoreformtheirownsocietyandtheirownhearts.BadrhadgivenMuhammadafarhigherprofileintheoasis.Astheyprepared

for the inevitable Qurayshan riposte, a covenant was drawn up between theProphetandtheArabandJewishtribesofMedina,whoagreedtolivepeaceablybesidetheMuslimsandpromisednottomakeaseparatetreatywithMecca.Allthe inhabitants were required to defend the oasis against attack. The newconstitutionwascarefultoguaranteethereligiousfreedomoftheJewishclans,butexpectedthemtoprovideaidto“whosoeverwarsagainstthepeopleofthisdocument.”21Muhammad needed to knowwho was on his side and some ofthosewhowereunwillingtoacceptthetermsofthistreatyleft theoasis.Theyincluded several of the hanifs,whose devotion to theKabah required them toremainloyaltotheQuraysh.Muhammadwasstillacontroversialfigure,butasaresultofhisvictoryatBadr,someoftheBedouintribeswerewillingtobecomealliesofMedinaintheforthcomingstruggle.TherewerealsochangesinMuhammad’sfamilylife.OnhisreturnfromBadr,

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helearnedthathisdaughterRuqayyahhaddied.‘Uthmanwassincerelygrieved,butwasgladtoacceptthehandofhislatewife’ssisterUmmKulthumandretainhis close relationship with the Prophet. One of the prisoners of war wasMuhammad’s pagan son-in-law, Abu l-‘As, who had remained true to thetraditionalfaith.HiswifeZaynab,whowasstilllivinginMecca,senttheransommoneytoMedinatogetherwithasilverbraceletthathadbelongedtoKhadijah.Muhammad recognized it at once and became momentarily distraught withsorrow. He let Abu l-‘As go free without taking the ransom, hoping that thiswouldencouragehimtoacceptIslam.HerefusedconversionbutsadlyagreedtotheProphet’s request thathesendZaynaband their littledaughterUmamah tohiminMedina,becauselifewouldnowbeimpossiblefortheminMecca.Itwasalso time for Muhammad’s youngest daughter, Fatimah, to be married, andMuhammadgaveherto‘Ali.Thecouplesetuphousenearthemosque.Muhammad also took a newwife: ‘Umar’s daughterHafsah,who had been

recentlywidowed.Shewasbeautifulandaccomplished,andat the timeofhermarriagetotheProphetwasabouteighteenyearsold.Likeherfather,shecouldread andwrite, but she also had ‘Umar’s quick temper. ‘A’ishawas happy towelcomeherintothehousehold.‘A’ishawouldbejealousofMuhammad’sotherwives, but the growing bond between their fathersmade these two girls firmfriends. They particularly enjoyed ganging up together against the stolid,unimaginativeSawdah.‘A’isha may by this time have moved into the apartment that had been

preparedforherinthemosque,thoughTabarisaysthatbecauseofheryouthshewasallowedtoremainforawhilelongerinherparents’house.Muhammadwasanindulgenthusband.Heinsistedthathiswiveslivefrugallyintheirtiny,sparsehuts,buthealwayshelpedthemwiththehouseholdchoresandlookedafterhisownpersonalneeds,mendingandpatchinghisclothes,cobblinghisshoes,andtending the family goats. With ‘A’isha particularly he was able to unwind,challenginghertofootracesandthelike.Shehadasharptongueandwasbynomeansashyorsubmissivewife,butshelikedtospoilMuhammad,anointinghishairwithhisfavoriteperfume,anddrinkingfromthesamecup.Oneday,whiletheyweresittingtogether, theProphetbusilyrepairinghissandals,shesawhisface light up at a passing thought. Watching him for a moment, shecomplimentedhimonhisbright,happyexpression,andMuhammadgotupandkissedherforehead,saying“Oh‘A’isha,mayAllahrewardyouwell. Iamnotthesourceofjoytoyouthatyouaretome.”22Muhammadlivedcheekbyjowlwithhisfamilyandcompanionsandsawno

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oppositionbetweenhispublicandprivatelife.23Itwaspossibleforhiswivestohear every word that was spoken in the mosque from their apartments. TheEmigrants had immediately noticed that thewomenofMedinawere different,less rigorouslycontrolled than inMecca, and soon found that theirownwiveswere picking up the free and easyways of theMedinesewomen: ‘Umarwasfuriouswhenhiswife started to answerhimback insteadofmeeklyacceptinghis reproaches, and when he rebuked her she simply replied that the Prophetallowed his wives to argue with him.24 Trouble was brewing. Muhammad’sdeliberateconflationofprivateandpublicwasablowtomalesupremacy,whichcanonlyexistifthisdistinctionismaintained.

Aftertheeuphoriaofvictoryhadfaded,Muhammadfoundthateventhoughhisprestige had increased inArabia as awhole, the fear of an imminentMeccanattack was swelling the opposition party in Medina. Ibn Ubayy and hissupporterswerebackedby threeof the largest Jewish tribes—Nadir,QurayzahandQaynuqa‘—who depended upon their commercial linkswith theQurayshandwantednopartinanywaragainstMecca.Athirdcolumnwasopeningupinthe oasis. About tenweeks after Badr, Abu Sufyan led a token ghazu of twohundredmentothefieldsoutsideMedina,andundercoverofnightslippedintotheterritoryofNadir,wherehewasentertainedbyitschief,SallamibnMishkan,who, according to Ibn Ishaq, “gave him secret information about theMuslims.”25Muhammad’s scouts kept him informed of these developments. These three

Jewish tribes were clearly a security risk. They had large armies and wereexperiencedsoldiers. If aMeccanarmywere tocampsouthofMedina,whereNadirandQurayzahhadtheirterritories,itwouldbeeasyforthemtojoinforceswiththeQurayshandbreachthecity’sdefences.IftheQurayshdecidedtoattackfrom the north, which would be their best option, Nadir and Qurayzah couldattack theMuslims from the south.But amoreurgent concernwasQaynuqa‘,the wealthiest of the Jewish tribes and former allies of Ibn Ubayy, whocontrolledthemarketinthecenterofMedina.26TheMuslimshadestablishedalittle market of their own, and for religious reasons did not charge interest.Takingthisasadirectchallenge,theQaynuqa‘decidedtobreaktheiragreementwith theProphet and join the opposition.Muhammadvisited their district andasked them, in the name of their common religion, to keep the peace. Theylistenedinmutinoussilenceandthenreplied:

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OMuhammad,youseem to think thatweareyourpeople.Donotdeceiveyourself, becauseyouhave encountered a tribe [atBadr]withnoknowledgeofwarandgotthebetterofthem;forbyAllah,ifwefightyou,youwillfindthatwearerealmen!27

Muhammadwithdrewandgrimlyawaiteddevelopments.Afewdays later fightingbrokeout in themarketofQaynuqa‘,whenoneof

the Jewish goldsmiths insulted aMuslimwoman. As the hakam,Muhammadwas called in to arbitrate, but the chiefs of Qaynuqa‘ refused to accept hisjudgment, barricaded themselves into their fortress and calledupon theirAraballiesforaid.Qaynuqa‘hadanarmyofsevenhundredmen,andhadtheiralliesresponded, they would certainly have defeated and probably eliminated theummah.But theArabs remainedstaunchlybehind theProphet,and IbnUbayyfound thathewaspowerless tohelphisoldconfederates.Afterasiegeof twoweeks, the Qaynuqa‘ were forced to surrender unconditionally. Muhammadwouldhavebeenexpectedtomassacrethemenandsellthewomenandchildrenintoslavery—thetraditionalpunishmentmetedouttotraitors—butheaccededtoIbnUbayy’splea forclemencyandspared them,provided that thewhole tribeleftMedinaimmediately.Qaynuqa‘werereadytogo.Theyhadtakenagamble,buthadunderestimatedMuhammad’snewpopularity.Neither theirAraballiesnortheotherJewsprotested.Tribeshadoftenbeendrivenoutoftheoasisduringthe internecinewars before the hijrah, so this expulsionwas part of a processthathadstartedlongbeforeMuhammad’sarrival.28Bloodshedwasavoided,butMuhammadwascaughtinatragicmoraldilemma:thejustificationforthejihadagainst the Quraysh had been the Muslims’ exclusion from their native city,which was condemned by the Qur’an as a great evil. Now, trapped in theaggressive conventions of Arabia, he was compelled to eject another peoplefromtheirhomeland.The people of Medina anxiously waited for the inevitable Meccan attack.

Since Abu Jahl had been killed at Badr and Abu Lahab had died shortlyafterwards,AbuSufyanwasnowtheleadingchieftainoftheQurayshandafarmore formidableopponent. In the late summer, a contingentofMuslimghaziscaptureda largeMeccancaravan.AbuJahlwouldhaveretaliated immediately,but Abu Sufyan did not allow this defeat to interfere with his long-termobjectives. He simply intensified his preparations, building up a largeconfederacyofBedouinallies.Oncethewinterrainswereover,threethousand

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menwith three thousandcamelsand twohundredhorses leftMeccaonMarch11, 625 and began their journey northward. After a journey of a little over aweek, theycamped to thenorthwestofMedinaon theplain in frontofMountUhud.29TheMedinesehadonlyaweek’snoticeoftheMeccanadvance.Therewasno

time to get the crops from the field, but Muhammad and the other chiefsmanagedtobringinthepeoplefromtheoutlyingareasandbarricadethemintothe “city.” The experienced warriors urged caution. It was very difficult tosustainasiegeinArabia;andtheysuggestedthateverybodyshouldstaybehindthebarricadesandrefusetoengagewiththeQuraysh,whowouldeventuallybeforced to retire. But after the victory at Badr, the younger generation wantedaction and managed to carry the day.Muhammad, who was not the supremecommander, had to bow to this disastrous decision. The main Jewish tribesrefused to fight and Ibn Ubayy withdrew his men from the army, so on thefollowingmorning,MuhammadfacedtheQurayshoutnumberedthreetoone.Asthe two armies began their advance,AbuSufyan’swifeHindmarched behindthe Meccans with the other women, singing war songs and beating theirtambourines. The Muslims were routed almost immediately with a brilliantcharge by the Meccan cavalry. Muhammad was knocked senseless and wordspreadthathehadbeenkilled.Infact,hehadonlybeenstunned,buttheQurayshdidnotbothertocheckthe

rumorandfailedtofollowuptheiradvantage.TheMuslimsurvivorswerethusabletoretreatinfairlygoodorder.Twenty-twoMeccansandsixty-fiveMuslimshadbeenkilled,includingMuhammad’suncleHamzah,arenownedfighter.TheQurayshranontothebattlefieldandmutilatedthecorpses;oneofthemcutoutHamzah’sliverandcarriedthegruesometrophytoHind,whoateamorselofittoavengeherbrother,whohaddiedbyHamzah’shandatBadr.Shethencutoffhisnose,ears,andgenitals,urgingtheotherwomentofollowherexample,andtothedisgustofsomeoftheirBedouinallies,theyleftthefieldsportinggrislybracelets,pendants,andcollars.Beforehisarmymovedoff,AbuSufyanheardthe disappointing news that Muhammad had not after all been among thecasualties.“NextyearatBadr!”hecried,asapartingchallenge.“Yes!”oneofthe Muslims shouted on Muhammad’s behalf, “It is an appointment betweenus!”30TheMuslimdefeatcouldhavebeenworse.HadtheQurayshfolloweduptheir

charge,theycouldhavedestroyedtheummah.ButthepsychologicalimpactofUhudwas catastrophic.WhenMuhammad returnedhomeafter thebattle, sick

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andshaken,heheardloudlamentationoutsidethemosque:itwasthewivesofthe Helpers mourning their dead. TheMuslims fiercely resented Ibn Ubayy’srefusal tofight.Whenherose tospeakin themosqueonthefollowingFriday,oneoftheHelpersgrabbedhimandtoldhimtokeephismouthshut.Hestrodefrom the mosque in fury and refused to ask for Muhammad’s forgiveness.Hitherto theHypocrites, as theQur’an calls IbnUbayy’s supporters, hadbeenwavering,waiting to seehow thingswould turnout; theynowbecameopenlyhostile.Muhammad’svictoryatBadr,theyclaimed,hadbeenaflashinthepan.HehadbroughtdeathanddestructiontoMedina.Each of the Muslim dead had left wives and daughters without protectors.

Afterthedefeat,arevelationcametoMuhammadgivingMuslimspermissiontotakefourwives.MuslimsmustrememberthatGodhadcreatedmenandwomenfromasinglelivingentity,sothatbothsexeswereequallypreciousinhissight.

Hence render unto the orphans their possessions and do notsubstitute bad things [of your own] for the good things [thatbelongto them]anddonotconsumetheirpossessions togetherwithyourown;this,verily,isagreatcrime.

Andifyouhavereasontofearthatyoumightnotactequitablytowardsorphans,thenmarryfromamong[other]womensuchasarelawfultoyou—[even]twoorthreeorfour:butifyouhavereasontofearthatyoumightnotbeabletotreatthemwithequalfairness, then [only] one—or from among those whom yourightfullypossess.Thiswillmakeitmorelikelythatyouwillnotdeviatefromtherightcourse.31

The institution of polygamy has been much criticized as the source ofconsiderable suffering forMuslimwomen, but at the timeof this revelation itconstitutedasocialadvance.32 In thepre-Islamicperiod,bothmenandwomenwereallowedseveralspouses.Aftermarriage,awomanremainedatthehomeofher family, andwas visited by all her “husbands.” Itwas, in effect, a formoflicensed prostitution. Paternity was, therefore, uncertain, so children wereusually identified as the descendants of their mothers. Men did not need toprovidefortheirwivesandtooknoresponsibilityfortheiroffspring.ButArabiawas in transition. The new spirit of individualism in the peninsulameant thatmenwerebecomingmoreinterestedintheirownchildren,weremoreassertive

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about personal property, and wanted their sons to inherit their wealth. TheQur’an encouraged this trend toward a more patriarchal society. Muhammadendorseditbytakinghiswivesintohisownhouseholdandprovidingforthem,andtheversesinstitutingpolygamytakeitforgrantedthatMuslimmenwilldothe same. But the Qur’an was also aware of a social problem that this newrevelationsoughttoredress.Inthepre-Islamicperiod,awomancouldnotownproperty.Anywealth that

came her way belonged to her family and was administered by her malerelatives. But in Mecca, where individualism was more pronounced thanelsewhere in Arabia, some of the more aristocratic women had been able toinheritandadministertheirownfortunes.Khadijahwasacaseinpoint,butthiswasstill rare inMeccaandalmostunheardof inMedina.Mostmenfoundtheidea that women could inherit and manage their property quite ludicrous.Women had no individual rights. How could they? Apart from a few notableexceptions,theydidnothingtocontributetotheeconomy;andbecausetheytookno part in the ghazu, they brought nowealth to the community. Traditionallywomenwere consideredpart of aman’s estate.After his death, hiswives anddaughters passed to his male heirs, who often kept them unmarried andimpoverishedinordertocontroltheirinheritance.TheQur’anicinstitutionofpolygamywasapieceofsociallegislation.Itwas

designednottogratifythemalesexualappetite,buttocorrecttheinjusticesdoneto widows, orphans, and other female dependants, who were especiallyvulnerable. All too often, unscrupulous people seized everything and left theweakermembersofthefamilywithnothing.33Theywereoftensexuallyabusedby theirmale guardians or converted into a financial asset by being sold intoslavery.IbnUbayy,forexample,forcedhiswomenslavesintoprostitutionandpocketedtheproceeds.TheQur’anbluntlyrefutesthisbehaviorandtakesitforgrantedthatawomanhasaninalienablerighttoherinheritance.Polygamywasdesigned toensure thatunprotectedwomenwouldbedecentlymarried,and toabolishtheoldloose,irresponsibleliaisons;mencouldhaveonlyfourwivesandmust treat them equitably; it was an unjustifiably wicked act to devour theirproperty.TheQur’anwas attempting to givewomen a legal status thatmostWestern

women would not enjoy until the nineteenth century. The emancipation ofwomenwasaprojectdeartotheProphet’sheart,butitwasresolutelyopposedbymanymen in the ummah, including some of his closest companions. In asociety of scarcity, it took courage and compassion to take financial

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responsibilityforfourwomenandtheirchildren.MuslimsmusthaveconfidencethatGodwouldprovide:

Marrythespouselessamongyou,andyourslavesandhandmaidensthatarerighteous;iftheyarepoor,Godwillenrichthemofhisbounty,Godisall-embracingAllknowing.34

Muhammadledtheway.AfterUhud,hetookanotherwife,providingahomeforZaynab bintKhuzaymah, awidowwhose husband had died atBadr. ShewasalsothedaughteroftheBedouinchiefof‘Amir,andsothematchforgedanewpolitical alliance. An apartment was built for her beside the mosque and shejoinedher“sisters”—Sawdah,‘A’ishaandHafsah—there.The Prophet did not regard his women as chattel. They were his

“companions”—justlikethemen.Heusuallytookoneofhiswivesalongonamilitaryexpeditionanddisappointedhiscommandersbyspendingthewholeofevery evening in their tent, insteadofbondingwithhismen. In the camp, thewomen did not remainmeekly secluded, but walked around freely, taking aninterestineverythingthatwasgoingon.Thistypeoffreedomhadbeencommonforelitewomen inpre-IslamicArabia,but it infuriated ‘Umar.“Yourboldnessborderson insolence!”heyelledwhenhecameonedayupon‘A’ishastrollingalongthefrontlines.“Whatifdisasterovertakesus?Whatifthereisadefeatandpeople are taken captive?”35 Muhammad’s domestic arrangements gave hiswivesanewaccesstopolitics,andtheyseemedquiteathomeinthissphere.Itwouldnotbelongbeforeotherwomenbegantofeelsimilarlyempowered,andhisenemieswouldusethiswomen’smovementtodiscredittheProphet.MuhammadhadtorecovertheprestigehehadlostatUhud.Hecouldnotrisk

anotheropenconfrontationwiththeQuraysh,butnorcouldheaffordtoshowhisweakness.Twoincidentsinthesummerof625showedhowvulnerablehewas.TwooftheBedouintribesofNajd,aregiontothewestofMedina,hadaskedforinstruction in Islam, so Muhammad sent six of his ablest men. During theirjourney they were attacked by one of the chiefs of Qudayd, the city of thegoddessManat,oneofthethreegharaniq.ThreeoftheMuslimswerekilled;theotherstakenprisoner.Onewasstonedtodeathwhenhetriedtoescapeandtheother two were sold as slaves in Mecca, and afterwards taken outside thesanctuaryandcrucified.

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Ataboutthesametime,Muhammad’snewfather-in-law,AbuBara’,chiefof‘Amir,askedforhelpagainstwarringfactions inhisowntribe.FortyMuslimswere dispatched, and nearly all of them were massacred just outside ‘Amir’sterritory,bymembersofthetribeofSulaym.WhenoneoftheMuslimsurvivorscame across two ‘Amiris lying peacefully asleep under a tree, he killed them,assumingthattheirtribehadbeenresponsibleforthekillingandtakingrevengeinthetraditionalfashion.WhenhereturnedtoMedina,Muhammadtoldhimthathehaddonewrong,but the traditionof retaliationwas sodeeplyengrained inArabiathatitwasnearlyimpossibletoeradicate.MuhammadinsistedonpayingtheusualcompensationtoAbuBara’.Hiswillingnesstodosoinspiteofthefactthat the crime had technically been committed by tribesmen of Sulaymmadesome of the Bedouinmore kindly disposed towards the ummah. Some of theSulaymiteshadbeenso impressedby thecourageof theirMuslimvictims thattheyenteredIslamthemselves.Muhammad’spositioninMedinaremainedprecarious,andhecouldnotafford

todrophisguard.WhenhecalledupontheJewishtribeofNadirtocollecttheblood money for ‘Amir, he narrowly escaped an assassination attempt: somemembersofNadirhadplannedtodropaboulderontheProphetfromanearbyroof top. IbnUbayyhadpromised tosupport themand theyprobablyassumedthatMuhammadhadbeensodiscreditedbyUhudthattheMedinesewouldrallybehind them. So they were astonished to receive a grim message from theirformerally,thetribeofAws:theyhadbrokentheirtreatywiththeProphetandcouldnolongerremaininthecity.LikeQaynuqa‘beforethem,theNadiriswithdrewtotheirfortressandwaited

for their allies to relieve them, but again no help was forthcoming. Even thepowerfulJewishtribeofQurayzah,whichwasalsohostiletoMuhammad,toldthemthattheywereontheirown.Aftertwoweeks,Nadirknewthattheycouldno longer sustain the siege, andwhenMuhammadgave theorder to cutdowntheir palm trees—an unmistakable sign of war in Arabia—they surrendered,begging only that their lives be spared.Muhammad agreed, on condition thatthey left the oasis immediately, taking with them only those goods that theycouldcarryontheircamels.SoNadirpackeduptheirpossessions,eventakingdown the lintels of their doors rather than leave them toMuhammad, and leftMedina in a proud procession, as though they were going in triumph. Thewomendressedinalltheirjewelsandfinery,beatingtambourinesandsingingtotheaccompanimentofpipesanddrums.Weavingtheirwaythroughtheorchardsandhamletsoftheoasis,theyfinallytooktheroadtoSyria,thoughsomestayed

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inthenearbyJewishsettlementofKhaybar,wheretheyhelpedAbuSufyanbuildhis confederacy against the Muslims by drumming up support among thenortherntribes.36Inthespaceoftwoshortyears,Muhammadhadexpelledtwopowerfultribes

fromMedina,andtheMuslimsnowmanagedthemarketvacatedbyQaynuqa‘.Aswehaveseen,thiswasnotMuhammad’sintention.Hehadwantedtocutthecycleofviolenceanddispossession,notcontinueit.Muhammadhadshownthathewasstillamantobereckonedwith,buthemustalsohavereflectedonthemoralandpoliticalsterilityofthistypeofsuccess,becauseNadirremainedjustasmuchofathreatinnearbyKhaybar.Itwas nearly time tomake good onAbu Sufyan’s parting shot afterUhud:

“NextyearatBadr!”butMuhammadwasplayingaverydangerousgame.Hehadtomakeashowofstrength,buthistroopsweresodispiritedthathecouldnotriskanotherpitchedbattle.Nevertheless,during theweekofBadr’sannualsuq,herodetherewith1,500men.FortunatelyfortheProphet,AbuSufyandidnotappear.HehadnotexpectedtheMuslimstokeeptheappointmentandhadsetoutwithhisarmyasamereshow,planningtoturnbackassoonasheheardthatMuhammadhadfailedtoleaveMedina.Itwasayearofseveredroughtandtherewasnotabladeofgrasstofeedthecamelsduringthejourney,sowithonlya few days’ supplies packed,Abu Sufyan had to lead hismen home.HewasbitterlyreproachedbytheMeccans,becausetheBedouinwerefullofadmirationfortheMuslims’courage.37InMedina,Muhammad’spositionwasstillweak.38Butinthepeninsulaasa

whole, the tidewas beginning to turn in his favor.Whenever he heard that aBedouin tribe had joined theMeccan confederacy, he would lead a ghazu tocaptureitsflocksandherds—evenifitmeantatrekoffivehundredmilestotheSyrianborder. InJune626,he learned that someclansof theBedouin tribeofGhatafan were planning a raid against Medina, so he set out to repel theexpedition.When theMuslims came face to facewith the enemy at Dhat al-Riqa, he once again avoided a direct confrontation, but for three days theMuslimsremainedfacetofacewiththeenemy.BothTabariandIbnIshaqmakeit clear that the Muslim troops were terrified. But so, it seems, were theGhatafan. In this atmosphere of terror, the Prophet received a revelation thatinstitutedthePrayerofFear,anabridgedformoftheusualprostrationsadaptedfor a military emergency.39 Instead of making themselves vulnerable to theenemy by praying en masse at the appointed times, Muslims should pray inrelays, with their arms at the ready. In the end, the battle simply fizzled out

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before it began; Ghatafan withdrew andMuhammad could return toMedina,havingachievedasymbolicvictory.

ThePrayerofFearshowedhowbeleagueredanddefensivethenewreligionhadbecome.ItisinthiscontextthatwemustseetheQur’an’sapparentretreatfromgenderequality.InJanuary626,hisnewwifeZaynabhaddied,justeightmonthsafter their wedding. Not long afterwards, he approached Hind bint AbiUmayyah, the widow of his cousin Abu Salamah, who had died after Uhud,leaving her with four children. Hind—or Umm Salamah, as she was usuallyknown—was twenty-nine years old; beautiful, sophisticated, and extremelyintelligent, shewould provide the Prophetwith the kind of companionship hehad enjoyed with Khadijah. She was also the sister of a leading member ofMakhzum,oneofthemostpowerfulMeccantribes.Atfirst,shewasreluctanttomarryMuhammad.Shehad lovedher husbandverymuch, she explained; shewasnolongeryoung,hadajealousdisposition,andwasnotsurethatshecouldadapt to life in the harem. Muhammad smiled—he had a smile of greatsweetness,whichalmosteverybody founddisarm-ing—andassuredher that inhislatefifties,hewasevenolderthanshe,andthatGodwouldcureherjealousy.She was right to be wary, because life in the mosque was not easy.40 The

apartmentsofMuhammad’swivesweresotinythatitwasalmostimpossibletostand upright inside them. Muhammad did not have a house of his own. Hepassedthenightwitheachofhiswivesinturnandherhutbecamehisofficialresidence for the day. There was practically no privacy, as Muhammad wasconstantly surrounded by crowds of people. He had frequent visits from hisdaughtersandgrandchildren.HewasdevotedtoHasanandHusayn,thesonsof‘AliandFatimah,andwasespeciallyfondofhislittlegranddaughterUmamah,whom he would carry into the mosque on his shoulders. He was constantlycloseted with his closest companions: Abu Bakr, Zayd, ‘Ali, ‘Uthman, and—increasingly—‘Umar.As he becamemorewidely respected inArabia, he alsoreceiveddelegations from theBedouin tribes,who crowded into the courtyardwiththeircamels.When he left themosque after prayers, hordes of petitioners herded around

theirProphet, pulling at his garments andyelling their questions anddemandsintohisface.41Theywouldfollowhimintohiswife’shut,throngingroundthetablesotightlythatitwassometimesimpossibletopickupamorseloffood.42This was stressful for Muhammad, who was shy, fastidious, and sensitive tounpleasantbodilyodorsandbadbreath.Hewasalsogettingolder.Hestillhad

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onlyafewgreyhairsandwalkedsoenergeticallythathisfeetseemedscarcelytotouchtheground,buthewasnearlysixty—anotinconsiderableageinArabia,hehadbeeninjuredatUhud,andtheconstantpressurewasbeginningtotellonhimatatimewhenthewholeofMedinawaswaitinginterrorfortheinevitablereturnoftheMeccanarmyandtheummahwasmoredividedthaneverbefore.43This internaldissensionbecameapparent as soonasUmmSalamah tookup

residence in the mosque. ‘A’isha fiercely resented the arrival of thisdistinguished,superiorwoman,andariftdevelopedintheharemthatreflectedtensions within the ummah itself. Umm Salamah represented the morearistocraticEmigrants,while‘A’ishaandHafsah,thedaughtersofAbuBakrand‘Umar, came from the more plebeian party in power. Each of Muhammad’swives sided with one of these two rival factions. Umm Salamah often relieduponthesupportofathirdgroup,theahlal-beit,the“peopleofthehousehold,”who were members of Muhammad’s immediate family. At the time of hermarriagetoMuhammad,thesedivisionswereonlyintheirinfancy,butitwouldsoon become clear that the ummah was not a monolithic group, and that thepeoplewhoenteredIslamhaddonesowithverydifferentexpectations.UmmSalamahquicklybecamethespokespersonforthewomenofMedina.44

Muhammad’slivingarrangements,whichhadphysicallypositionedhiswivesattheepicenterofthecommunity,hadgivenMuslimwomenanewvisionoftheirrole.‘A’ishaandHafsahwerestillyounggirls,andweresometimesflightyandselfish, but Umm Salamahwas a very different proposition. Shortly after hermarriage,adeputationofwomenaskedherwhytheywerementionedsorarelyin the Qur’an. Umm Salamah brought their question to the Prophet, who, asusual, took time to reflect upon it seriously. A few days later, while she wascombing her hair in her apartment, she heard Muhammad reciting arevolutionarynewsurahinthemosque:

Menandwomenwhohavesurrendered,BelievingmenandbelievingwomenObedientmenandobedientwomenTruthfulmenandtruthfulwomenEnduringmenandenduringwomenMenandwomenwhogiveincharityMenwhofastandwomenwhofast,MenandwomenwhoguardtheirprivatepartsMenandwomenwhorememberGodoft—

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ForthemGodhaspreparedforgivenessAndamightywage.45

Inotherwords,therewastobecompletesexualequalityinIslam;bothmenandwomenhad thesamedutiesandresponsibilities.When thewomenheard theseverses,theyweredeterminedtomakethisvisionaconcreterealityintheirdailylives.God seemed to be on their side. Shortly afterwards, a whole surah was

dedicatedtowomen.Womenwerenolongertobebequeathedtomaleheirsasthough they were camels or date palms. They could themselves inherit andcompetewithmenforashareinanestate.46Noorphangirlshouldbemarriedtoherguardianagainstherwill, as thoughshewere simplymoveableproperty.47Ashadbeencustomaryduringthepre-Islamicperiod,womenretainedthepowerto initiatedivorceproceedings, though thehusbandcould refuse to comply. InArabia, thegroom traditionally presented a dowry to his bride, but in practicethisgifthadbelongedtoherfamily.Nowthedowrywastobegivendirectlytothewomanasherinalienableproperty,andintheeventofdivorce,amancouldnotreclaimit,sohersecuritywasassured.48Qur’aniclegislationinsistedthattheindividualwasfreeandsovereign—andthatalsoappliedtowomen.InseventhcenturyArabia,thiswasashockinginnovation,andthemenofthe

ummahwerefurious.Godwastakingawaytheirprivileges!Theywerereadytofightforhimtothedeath,butnowhewasdemandingsacrificeintheirpersonallives! TheMedinesewere particularly incensed;were they expected to dividetheirfarmstogivewomenashare?“How,”theyasked,“canonegivetherightofinheritance to women and children, who do not work and do not earn theirliving?Aretheynowgoingtoinheritjustlikemenwhohaveworkedtoearnthatmoney?”AndwastheProphetseriouslytellingthemthatevenanuglygirlcouldinheritafortune?“Yes,absolutely,”repliedMuhammad.49Sometriedtofindaloophole in the legislation, but thewomen complained toMuhammad and theQur’ansupportedthem.50The women made another demand: since raiding was so crucial to the

economy, why could they not bear arms, too? Once again, Umm SalamahbroughttheirquestiontotheProphet.51Thiswentrighttotheheartoftheghazueconomy.Awomanwhowas takenprisonerduringa raidwasvaluablebooty;shecouldbesold,married,usedforlabor,orforcedintoprostitution.Ifwomenwere allowed to fight instead of waiting passively to be taken prisoner, therewould be a huge reduction of ghazu income. The controversy split the

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communityandMuhammadwasbesiegedbyangrymenwhofeltthatAllahwasemasculating them. ‘Umar especially could not understand the Prophet’sridiculousleniencytowardswomen.ButMuhammadstoodfirmandinsistedthatGodhadmadehiswillclear.Butthewomenhadchosenthewrongmomenttomaketheirmove.Therewas

no way that the men would accept this at a time when the ummah facedextinction. The laws of inheritance and divorce remained in place, butMuhammadfoundthathisenemiesinMedinaweremakingpoliticalcapitaloutof this radical legislation and that he was opposed at this crucial juncture bysome of his closest companions.Matters came to a head over the question ofwife-beating.52 The Qur’an forbade Muslims to inflict violence upon oneanother,andthewomenbegantocomplaintotheProphetwhentheirhusbandshitthem,demandingthattheybepunishedastheQur’anprescribed.Someevenstartedtorefusesextotheirabusivehusbands.Muhammadwasrevoltedbythevery idea of violence towards women. “The Prophet never raised his handagainstoneofhiswives,oragainstaslave,noragainstanypersonatall,” IbnSa‘d recalled. He “was always against the beating of women.”53 But he wasaheadofhis time.Men like ‘Umar, IbnUbayy, andeven thegentleAbuBakrbeattheirwiveswithoutgivingthematterasecondthought.KnowingthatAbuSufyanwasmusteringamassivearmyagainstMedina,Muhammadhadtogivewayinordertoretaintheloyaltyofhismen.“Verywell,”hetoldhisindignantcompanions, “beat them,butonly theworstofyouwillhave recourse to suchmethods.”54ArevelationseemedtogivehusbandspermissiontobeattheirwivesbutMuhammaddid not like it.55 “I cannot bear seeing a quick-temperedmanbeathiswifeinafitofanger,”hesaid.56Yetagain,theconflictwithMeccahadcompromisedhisvisionandforcedhimtoadoptacourseofactionthat,inmorenormal circumstances, he would have preferred to avoid. The Qur’aniclegislation about women is intertwined with verses about the war, whichinevitablyaffectedeverythingthathappenedinMedinaatthistime;Muhammadknew that he had no hope of surviving a Meccan onslaught with disaffectedtroops.

*In March 627, a massive army of ten thousand men—the Quraysh and theirconfederates—were on the march toward Medina.57 Muhammad could raiseonlyapaltrythreethousandwarriorsfromMedinaandhisBedouinallies.Thistime therewasno stupidbravado; theMuslimsbarricaded themselves into the“city”inthecenteroftheoasis.Surroundedonthreesidesbycliffsandplainsof

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volcanicrock,Medinawasnotdifficulttodefend.Itwasmostvulnerablefromthenorth,butMuhammadadoptedastratagemsuggestedtohimbySalmanal-Farsi, a Persian convert. The Quraysh were in no hurry, making their waygrandlyandconfidentlyineasystages,sotheMuslimshadplentyoftime.Theygathered in the crops from the outlying fields, so that this time theMeccanswouldfindnofodder,andthentheentirecommunitysettoworkdiggingahugetrench around the northern part of the oasis. This was nothing short ofastonishing—even shocking—to Arab sensibilities. No self-respecting jahiliwarriorwould dream of putting a barrier between himself and the enemy.Hewouldconsideritdegradingtoshovelearthlikeaslave.ButMuhammadworkedalongsidehis companions, laughing, joking, and singingwithhismen.Moralewashigh.WhentheQuraysharrivedwiththeirarmy, theystaredblanklyat thetrench.

The earth from the ditch had been used to build a high escarpment, whicheffectively shielded the Medinese in their camp and gave them a superiorvantagepointfromwhichtohurlmissiles.TheQurayshwerebewildered.Theyhadneverseenanythingsoun-sportingintheirlives!58Theircavalry,whichwastheirprideandjoy,wasuseless.Fromtimetotime,oneoftheirhorsemenwouldtrytoleadadashingchargetowardstheenemylines,onlytoscreechabsurdlytoahaltwhenhearrivedatthedugout.Thesiegelastedonlyamonth,butitseemedendless.Feedingandsupplying

thealliesofMedinaaswellastheirownpeopleputagreatstrainonthecity’sresources. IbnUbayyandhispartyaccusedMuhammadofbringing ruinuponthem59 and the Jewish tribe of Qurayzah openly supported the Quraysh. TheJewsofKhaybarhadcontributeda large squadron to theMeccanarmy,whichincludedmany of the exiled tribe of Nadir. Before the arrival of theMeccanarmy,HuyayibnAkhtab,chiefofNadir,hadtriedtopersuadeQurayzaheithertoattack theMuslims from the rear or to smuggle two thousandNadiris into theoasis to slaughter thewomenandchildren in the fortresses. InitiallyQurayzahwerehesitant,butwhentheysawthevastMeccanarmyfillingtheplaininfrontofthecityasfarastheeyecouldsee,theirchiefagreedtohelptheconfederacyandprovidetheQurayshwithweaponsandsupplies.WhenMuhammadheardofthistreachery,hewasvisiblydistressed.HesentSa‘dibnMu‘adh,whohadbeenQurayzah’schiefAraballybeforethehijrah,tonegotiate,buttonoavail.Atonepoint, theQurayzahactuallystarted toattack the fortresseson thesoutheastofthe settlement, but the effort petered out. For about threeweeks, it was quiteunclearwhichwaytheywouldgo.

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ThroughouttheBattleoftheTrench,asthesiegebecameknown,theMuslimswere terrified. Faced with the prospect of extermination, some came close todespair.“Youreyesswervedandyourheartsreachedyour throats,” theQur’anrecalled, “while you thought strange thoughts aboutGod; here itwas that thebelieverswere triedandshakenmostmightily.”60Butevenas those inside thecity trembled, on the other side of the ditch, the Quraysh were becomingexhausted. They had inadequate provisions and their inexperience in militaryaffairs meant that they were easily demoralized by a sudden reversal. Theirresolve finally snapped when a violent rainstorm devastated their camp. AbuSufyan recognized defeat. Horses and camels were dying, the Qurayzah hadfailedtodeliver,andhistroopshadnotents,fires,orcookingpots.“Beoff,”heannounced tohismen,“for Iamgoing.”61When theMuslimspeeredover theescarpmentthenextmorning,theplainwascompletelydeserted.But what was Muhammad to do about Qurayzah? The departure of the

QurayshhadnotweakenedthebitteroppositiontohisleadershipwithinMedina:His opponents were convinced that theMeccans would return in the not toodistant future and wreak terrible vengeance for their humiliation, so theyintensifiedtheircampaignagainsthim.Thesettlementwasonthebrinkofcivilwar and in this explosive climate, theQurayzahcouldnot remainunpunished.The day after the departure of the Meccan army, Muhammad’s troopssurroundedthefortressofQurayzah,whoaskedthattheybepermittedtoleaveon the same terms asQaynuqa‘ andNadir.But this timeMuhammad refused:Nadirhadprovedtobe justasdangerous to theummahinexile.TheeldersofQurayzahagreedtoacceptthearbitrationoftheirformerallySa‘dibnMu‘adh,who had been severely wounded during the siege and was carried to theQurayzahvillageonalitter.Eventhoughsomeoftheothertribesaskedhimtobemerciful,Sa‘dbelievedthattheQurayzahwereanunacceptablesecurityriskandmadetheconventionaljudgment:allsevenhundredmenofthetribeshouldbe executed, their wives and children sold into slavery, and their propertydividedamongtheMuslims.Whenheheardtheverdict,Muhammadisreportedtohavecried:“YouhavejudgedaccordingtotherulingofAllahabovethesevenskies!”62Thenextday,thesentencewascarriedout.Revolting as it seems to us today, almost everybody in Arabia would have

expectedSa‘d’s judgment.According to the texts,noteven theQurayzahweresurprised by the decision. The executions sent a grimmessage to the Jews ofKhaybar, and the Bedouin would have noted that Muhammad did not shrinkfromretaliation.Hehadstagedadefiantshowofstrength,which,itwashoped,

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would bring the conflict to an end. Change was coming to this desperate,primitivesociety,butforthetimebeing,violenceandkillingonthisscalewerethenorm.63Nevertheless, the incident marks the nadir of Muhammad’s career. It is,

however, important to note that the Qurayzah were not killed on religious orracial grounds.None of the other Jewish tribes in the oasis either objected orattemptedtointervene,clearlyregardingitasapurelypoliticalandtribalmatter.Asignificantnumberof theArab tribeofKilab, theclientsofQurayzah,werealso executed alongside the Jews.Muhammadhadno ideological quarrelwiththe Jewish people. He once said, “He who wrongs or destroys a Jew or aChristian will have me to answer on the Day of Judgment.” The men ofQurayzah were executed for treason. The seventeen other Jewish tribes ofMedina remained in the oasis, living on friendly terms with theMuslims formany years, and the Qur’an continued to insist thatMuslims remember theirspiritualkinshipwiththePeopleoftheBook:

Donotarguewith the followersofearlier revelationotherwisethaninamostkindlymanner—unlessitbesuchofthemasarebent upon evil-doing—and say: “Webelieve in thatwhichhasbeenbestowedfromonhighuponus,aswellasthatwhichhasbeenbestoweduponyou:forourGodandyourgodisoneandthesame,anditisuntoHimthatWeallsurrenderourselves.”64

Later in the Islamic empires, Jewswould enjoy full religious liberty and anti-Semitism would not become a Muslim vice until the Arab/Israeli conflictbecameacuteinthemid-twentiethcentury.The tragedy of Qurayzah may have seemed expedient to the Arabs of

Muhammad’s time, but it is not acceptable to us today. Nor was it whatMuhammadhadsetouttodo.Hisoriginalaimhadbeentoendtheviolenceofjahiliyyah,buthewasnowbehavinglikeanordinaryArabchieftain.Hehadfeltimpelled to go to war in order to achieve a final peace, but the fighting hadunleashed a grim and vicious cycle of strike and counterstrike, atrocity, andretaliation,whichviolatedessentialprinciplesof Islam.Ashe rodeaway fromthevillageofQurayzah towardsa city thatwas still seethingwith resentment,Muhammadmusthaverealized thathewouldhave to findanotherway toendthe conflict. Somehowhehad to abandon this jahili behavior once and for allandfindanentirelydifferentsolution.

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ChapterFive

Salam

MUHAMMAD’SVICTORY over theQuraysh greatly enhanced his prestige in thepeninsula. During the next few months, he capitalized on this, dispatchingraidingpartiesagainsttribeswhobelongedtotheMeccanconfederacy,hopingtotighten the economicblockade thatwasdamagingQurayshan trade andattractsomeof theSyriancaravans toMedina.HiscontinuingsuccessmademanyoftheArabs question the validity of their traditional faith. Theywere pragmaticpeople, less interested in abstract speculation than in the effectiveness of areligious system.When theMeccan army had leftMedina after the siege, thecommanderKhalidibnal-Walidhadcried:“EverymanofsensenowknowsthatMuhammadhasnotlied!”1Eventhemostcommittedadherentsoftheoldfaithwere beginning to agree. During a raid against one of the Meccan caravans,Muhammad’sformerson-in-lawAbul-‘As,whohadbeenreadytogiveuphisfamilyratherthanacceptIslam,wastakenprisoner;Muhammadorderedthathebe released and his merchandise returned to him, and this second act ofgenerosity so impressed Abu l-‘As that after he had taken the goods back toMecca,hemade thehijrah, converted to Islam,andwas reunitedwithZaynabandtheirlittledaughter.InArabia as awhole, the tide had turned inMuhammad’s favor, butwithin

Medina the oppositewas true.There the conflict hadbecomemorevenomousthanever;everyday IbnUbayy insinuated thathadhe retained the leadership,Yathribcouldhavebeenpacifiedwithoutincurringthelethalenmityofthemostpowerfulcity inArabia.Muhammad’senemiesrarelyattackedhimopenly,butconductedasomewhatunderhandedsmearcampaign.Hiscontroversialattemptto improve the status of women was a godsend to them, and they began tocirculatemaliciousandsalaciousrumorsabouthiswives.Somemadeitknownthattheyhadtheireyeonsomeofthemoreattractivemembersofhisharemandintended tomarry themafter his death—a suggestion that carriedmore than a

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hint of assassination.2 It was whispered thatMuhammad was now too old tosatisfyhiswivesor that hehad a testicular hernia.3Therewas a gooddeal ofspiteful gossip about ‘A’isha and a youngman called Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal.When people crowded into his family quarters to put their questions andcomplaints to Muhammad, some of the men had actually insulted his wivesbeforehisveryeyes.Thesituationwasgettingoutofhand.Atnight,whenitwascooler, Medina came to life, and people liked to walk about and socializeoutside,enjoyingthefresherair,butsincethesiege,womenhadbeenattackedonthestreets.WhentheProphet’swiveswentouttogether,theHypocriteshadstartedtofollowthem,yellingobscenesuggestionsandmakinglewdgestures.4When challenged, they protested that in the darkness they had mistaken thewomen for slave girls, who were considered fair game for this type ofharassment.Muhammadwasemotionallyandphysicallydrainedby the strainof the last

fewyears.Hehadalwaysbeenemotionallydependentuponhiswomenandthismadehimvulnerable.Whenhedecidedtotakeanotherwife,tonguesstartedtowagagain.5Zaynabbint Jahshhadalwaysbeenclose toMuhammad; shewashiscousin,butshewasalsothewifeofZayd,hisadoptedson.Muhammadhadarranged the match himself shortly after the hijrah, even though Zaynab hadbeenfarfromenthusiastic:Zaydwasnotphysicallypre-possessingandshemayeventhenhavebeeninterestedinMuhammadhimself.Zaynabwasnowinherlatethirties,but,despitetheharshclimateandconditionsofArabia,shewasstillextremelybeautiful.Apiouswoman,shewasaskilledleather-workerandgavealltheproceedsofhercrafttothepoor.Muhammadseemstohaveseenherwithneweyes and tohave fallen in lovequite suddenlywhenhehad called at herhouseoneafternoon tospeak toZayd,whohappened tobeout.Notexpectingany visitors, Zaynab had come to the door in dishabille, more revealinglydressed than usual, and Muhammad had averted his eyes hastily, muttering“PraisebetoAllah,whochangesmen’shearts!”Shortlyafterwards,ZaynabandZaydweredivorced.ThemarriagehadneverbeenhappyandZaydwasgladtoreleaseher.This storyhas shocked someofMuhammad’sWesterncriticswhoareusedtomoreascetic,Christianheroes,buttheMuslimsourcesseemtofindnothinguntoward in thisdemonstrationof theirProphet’svirility.Norare theydisturbedthatMuhammadhadmorethanfourwives:whyshouldGodnotgivehisprophetafewprivileges?WhatscandalizedhisopponentsinMedinawasthefact that Zaynab had been married to Zayd: Arabs regarded adoption asconferringanalmostbiologicalrelationshipandtherewasmuchscandalizedtalk

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aboutincest.MuhammadwasreassuredonthispointbyarevelationthatassuredhimthatAllahhimselfdesiredthematchandthatitwasnotsinfultomarrythespouse of an adopted child.6 ‘A’isha, who was always prone to jealousy,happened to bewithMuhammadwhen he received this divinemessage.Howvery convenient! she remarked tartly, “Truly thy Lord makes haste to do thybidding!”Asusual, tensionsintheharemreflecteddivisionsinthecommunityasawhole:Muhammad’smarriagetooneofhisowncousinswouldfurtherthepoliticalendsoftheProphet’sfamily,advancingthecauseoftheahlal-beit.Becauseofthescandal,Muhammadinsistedthattheentirecommunityattend

theweddingcelebrations.Thecourtyardwascrowdedwithguests,manyofthemhostile to the Prophet, and the atmosphere would not have been pleasant.Eventually thepartybegan tobreakup,but a small group remainedbehind inZaynab’snewapartment,apparentlyblissfullyunaware that itwas timefor thebride andgroom tobe alone.Muhammad left the roomand satwithhis otherwives,hoping that these tactlessguestswould take thehint.“Howdoyou likeyournewcompanion?”‘A’ishainquiredacidly,whenhedroppedinonher.Heeventually returned to Zaynab’s hut, where the revellers were finally beingusheredoutbyhisfriendAnasibnMalik.Asheenteredtheroom,Muhammadsomewhatimpatientlydrewacurtain(hijab)betweenhimselfandAnas,utteringthewordsofanewrevelation:

O youwho have attained to faith! Do not enter the Prophet’sdwellings unless you are given leave; [andwhen invited] to ameal,donotcome[soearlyas]towaitforittobereadied:butwheneveryouare invited,enter[at theproper time];andwhenyouhavepartakenofthemeal,dispersewithoutlingeringforthesake of mere talk: that, behold, might give of-fence to theProphet,andyethemightfeelshyof[asking]you[toleave]:butGodisnotshyof[teachingyou]whatisright.And as for the Prophet’swives,whenever you ask them for

anythingthatyouneed,askthemfrombehindascreen:thiswillbutdeepenthepurityofyourheartsandtheirs.7

The revelationwent on to ordain thatMuhammad’swives should not remarryafter his death, and ordered them to wear their jilbab (which could refer tovariousgarments) inadistinctiveway, so that theycouldbe recognized in thestreetandavoidharassment.8

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The hijab verses have become extremely controversial.9 They wouldeventually—aboutthreegenerationsaftertheProphet’sdeath—beusedtojustifytheveilingof allwomenand their segregation in a separatepartof thehouse.Buttheymustbeseenincontext.TheyoccurinSurah33,whichalsodealswiththe siege, and must be considered against this frightening backdrop. ThesedirectivesdidnotapplytoallMuslimwomen,butonlytoMuhammad’swives.Theywere prompted by the thinly disguised threats ofMuhammad’s enemies,theaggressiveencroachmentuponhispersonalspace,andtheabusetowhichhiswiveswere subjectedalmostdaily.ThepoisonousatmosphereofMedinaafterthe siege had compelled Muhammad to change his personal arrangements.Henceforth therewouldbenoopenhouse; insteadof crowding freely intohiswives’ apartments, Muslims must approach them from behind a protectivescreen. The word hijab comes from the root HJB: to hide. The curtainestablishedathreshold;itshieldeda“forbidden”or“sacred”(haram)object,likethe damask cloth that covered the Kabah. In times of vulnerability, women’sbodiesoftensymbolizetheendangeredcommunity,andinourownday,thehijabhasacquirednewimportanceinseemingtoprotecttheummahfromthethreatoftheWest.Muhammadhadnotwantedtoseparatehisprivatelifefromhispublicduties.

Hecontinuedtotakehiswivesonmilitaryexpeditions,thoughtheywouldnowremain in their tent. But the other women of the ummah continued to movearound theoasis freely.Thehijabwasnotdevised todivide the sexes. In fact,when the revelationhadcomedown, thecurtainhadbeendrawnbetween twomen—the Prophet andAnas—to separate themarried couple from the hostilecommunity.Theintroductionofthehijabwasavictoryfor‘Umar,whohadbeenurgingtheProphettosegregatehiswivesforsometime—asomewhatsuperficialsolution to a complex problem. Muhammad had wanted to change people’sattitudes,andtheimpositionofthisexternalbarrierwasacompromise,becauseitdidnotrequireMuslimstoexerciseaninternalcontrolovertheiractions.Buthegaveinto‘Umar,becauseofthecrisisthatwastearingMedinaapart.

But the situation did not improve. A few weeks after the introduction of thehijab, Muhammad’s enemies orchestrated a vicious attack on ‘A’isha, whichdevastated the Prophet and almost succeeded in dividing the community.10‘A’ishawasaneasytarget.EverybodyknewthatshewasMuhammad’sfavorite.Shewasbeautiful,spirited,proudofherprominentposition,jealous,outspoken,notwithoutegotism,andhaddoubtlessmademanyenemies.Onthisoccasion,

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Muhammadhadchosen‘A’ishatoaccompanyhimonanexpeditionagainstanallyof theQurayshwhohadsomewhatmenacinglyencampeda littlecloser toMedinathanusual.AccordingtoMuhammad’sspies,theQurayshhadpersuadedthemtoattacktheoasis.Itwasasuccessfulraid:theMuslimsinterceptedthemat the Well of Muraysi on the Red Sea coast and managed to carry off twohundred camels, five hundred sheep, and two hundred of their women.Juwayriyyah bint al-Harith, daughter of the chief, was among the captives.‘A’isha’sheartsankassoonassheseteyesonher,becauseJuwayriyyahwassopretty, and, sure enough, during the negotiations that followed the raid,Muhammadproposedmarriagetosealthealliancewithherfather.The Muslims camped at Muraysi for three days, but, despite the positive

outcome of the ghazu, the simmering tension between the Emigrants and theHelpersescalatedintoaseriousincident.WhiletheMuslimswerewateringtheircamelsatawell,localpeoplefromtwodifferenttribes—oneconfederatedtotheQuraysh,theothertotheKhazraj—startedtoquarrelaboutafairlytrivialmatter.Before long there was a full-scale brawl, and the combatants called upon theMuslimbystanders forhelp.TheEmigrants rushed to the aidof the tribesmenwhowereallied to theQuraysh,while theHelpers fromKhazraj rallied roundtheir opponents. In a matter of moments, in direct violation of the Qur’an,Muslimwas fightingMuslim.When theyheard thenews, ‘Umar and someofMuhammad’sothercompanionsrushedintostopthisunseemlyfighting,butIbnUbayywas enraged: howdared ‘Umarprevent theKhazraj fromhelping theirownallies!“Theyseektotakeprecedenceoverus!”hecried.“ByAllah,whenwereturntoMedina,thehigherandmightierofuswilldriveoutthelowerandthe weaker.” A bystander ran immediately to report this toMuhammad, whopaled when he heard this latest threat. ‘Umar wanted to have Ibn Ubayyexecuted immediately,butMuhammad restrainedhim:didhewant it said thatthe Prophet killed his own companions?11 But he gave theMuslims orders todecampimmediatelyandbeginthetrekhome,eventhoughthismeanttravellingthroughtheworstheatoftheday—somethinghehadneverdonebefore.Duringoneofthehalts,‘A’ishaslippedawaytorelieveherself,andwhenshe

returned, found that she hadmislaid her necklace. It had been awedding giftfromhermother,andshecouldnotbeartoloseit,soshewentbacktosearchforit.Whileshewasgone,themenliftedherlitter—dulyshroudedwiththehijab—onto her camel, assuming that shewas safely inside, and the partymoved offwithout her. ‘A’isha was not too distressed when she discovered the desertedcampsite,becausesheknewthatitwasonlyamatteroftimebeforesomebody

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missedher.Shesatdowntowaitandsureenough,heroldfriendSafwanibnal-Mu‘attal,whohadfallenbehindtheothers,turnedupandputheronthebackofhisowncamel.When‘A’isharejoinedtheexpeditionwithSafwan,theoldrumorabout their illicit relationship started up again, and Muhammad’s enemiesgleefully imagined theworst. It was not surprising that ‘A’isha had fallen forSafwan,IbnUbayyremarkedloudly,becausehewassomuchyoungerandmoreattractivethanherhusband.ThescandalrockedMedina,andthestoryseemedsoplausible that some of the Emigrants began to believe it and evenAbu Bakr,‘A’isha’sfather,begantosuspectthatitmightbetrue.More seriously,Muhammad himself began to doubt ‘A’isha’s innocence—a

tellingsignofhiswaningconfidenceduringthisdifficultperiod.Forafewdaysheseemedconfusedanduncertain.Hisneedfor‘A’ishawassogreatthat,facedwiththepossibilityoflosingher,heseemedconfusedandhesitant.HenolongerreceivedanymessagesfromGod;itwasthefirsttime,sincetheverybeginningof his prophetic career, that the divine voice had fallen silent. Ibn Ubayycontinued toexploit thesituation,andold tribalhatreds flared,as theKhazraj,IbnUbayy’stribe,threatenedtofighttheAws,whoarguedthatthepeoplewhowerestirringthescandalshouldbeimmediatelyexecuted.Thesituationwassograve that Muhammad was forced to summon all the chiefs of Medina to ameeting and ask for their support should he find it necessary to take actionagainstIbnUbayy,whowasthreateninghisfamily.FinallyMuhammad went to confront ‘A’isha, who had taken refuge in her

parents’home.Shehadweptfortwodaysbuthertearsdriedlikemagicassoonasherhusbandenteredthehouseandshefacedhimcalmly.Muhammadurgedhertoconfesshersinhonestly;ifsherepented,Godwouldforgiveher.Butwithgreatdignity,thefourteen-year-oldgirlstoodhergroundandgazedsteadfastlyather husband as she made her reply. There seemed little point in her sayinganythingatall,shesaid.Shecouldnotadmittosomethingshehadnotdone,andif she protested her innocence, nobody—not even her own parents—wouldbelieveher.ShecouldonlyrepeatthewordsoftheprophetJacob:“PatienceinadversityismostgoodlyinthesightofGod;anditistoGod[alone]thatIpraytogivemestrengthtobearthemisfortunewhichyouhavedescribedtome.”12Shethenturnedsilentlyandlaydownonherbed.Muhammadknew‘A’ishathroughandthrough,andshemusthaveconvinced

him,becauseassoonasshehadfinishedspeaking,hefell intothedeeptrancethatwassooftenapreludetorevelation.HeswoonedandAbuBakrputaleathercushion under his head, while he and his wife waited, terrified, for God’s

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judgment.“Goodnews,‘A’isha!”Muhammadcriedatlast:Godhadconfirmedherinnocence.Overcomewithrelief,herparentsurgedhertogetupandcometoherhusbandbut‘A’isharemainedimplacable.“Ishallneithercometohimnorthankhim,”shereplied.“Norwill I thankthebothofyou,wholistenedto theslanderanddidnotdenyit.IshallriseandgivethankstoAllahalone!”13Dulychastened,Muhammadhumblyacceptedtherebuke,andwenttorecitethenewrevelation to the crowd that had gathered outside.14 A personal and politicaltragedy had been averted, but doubts remained. The distressing incident hadshownhowvulnerableMuhammadwas.Washe—asIbnUbayyhadsocruellysuggested—aspentfire?

ButinMarch628,themonthofthehajjpilgrimagetoMecca,Muhammadmadeastartlingannouncementthatprovedtobeanextraordinarydemonstrationofhispropheticgenius.15Itseemsthathehadnoclearlydefinedplanattheoutset,butonlyadimlyperceivedinsight.HetoldtheMuslimsthathehadhadastrange,numinousdream:hehadseenhimselfstandingintheHaramofMecca,withtheshavenheadofthepilgrim,wearingthetraditionalhajjicostumeandholdingthekeytotheKabah,filledwithasereneassuranceofvictory.Thenextmorning,heannounced that he intended to make the hajj and invited his companions toaccompanyhim. It is easy to imagine the fear,wonder, and uncertain joy thatfilledtheMuslimswhentheyheardthisstartlinginvitation.Muhammadmadeitclear that thiswould not be amilitary expedition. Pilgrimswere forbidden tocarryweaponsduringthehajjandhehadnointentionofviolatingtheMeccansanctuarywhereallfightingwasforbidden.‘Umarobjected.TheMuslimswouldgo like lambs to the slaughter! It was essential that theywere able to defendthemselves! But Muhammad was adamant. “I will not carry arms,” he saidfirmly. “I amsettingoutwithnootherend than tomake thepilgrimage.”Thepilgrimswouldwear no armour, but simply the traditional white robes of thehajji;at thebeginningofthejourney,theycouldcarryasmallhuntingknifetokill game, but they would have to lay these aside once they had made theirformalconsecration.Theywouldhavetomarchunarmedintoenemyterritory.NoneoftheBedouinwhohadjoinedMuhammad’sconfederacywasprepared

totaketherisk,butaboutathousandEmigrantsandHelpersvolunteered.EvenIbnUbayyandsomeoftheHypocritesdecidedtogo;twowomenHelpers,whohadbeenpresentat thePledgeof‘Aqabah,wereallowedtojointheparty,andUmmSalamahaccompaniedMuhammad.TheMuslimssetoffwiththecamelsthattheywouldsacrificeattheclimaxof

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the hajj.At the first stop,Muhammad consecrated one of these camels in thetraditionalway,makingspecialmarksonit,hangingtheritualgarmentsarounditsneck,andturningitinthedirectionofMecca.Hethenutteredthepilgrimcry:“Here I am, OGod, at your service!” The news of this audacious expeditionspread quickly from one tribe to another, and the Bedouin followed theirprogress intently as the hajjismade the long journey south.Muhammadknewthathewasplacing theQuraysh inanextremelydifficultposition.EveryArabhadtheright tomake thehajjand if theQuraysh, theguardiansof theHaram,forbadeathousandpilgrimswhowerepunctiliouslyobservingtheritestoenterthesanctuary, theywouldbeguiltyofagrossderelictionofduty.But itwouldalsobeintolerablyhumiliatingfortheQurayshifMuhammaddidenterthecity,anditsoonbecameclearthattheQurayshanleadershipwasdeterminedtostopMuhammadatanyprice.InanemergencymeetingoftheAssembly,Khalidibnal-Walid was dispatched with two hundred cavalry to attack the defenselesspilgrims.Whenheheard thisgravenews,Muhammadwas filledwithanguish forhis

tribe. The Qurayshwere so blinded by the sterile hatred of warfare that theywerepreparedtoviolate thesacredprinciplesonwhichtheirentirewayof lifedepended.Whatwasthepointofsuchintransigence?“AlasQuraysh!”hecried,“Warhasdevouredthem!WhatharmwouldtheyhavesufferediftheyhadleftmeandtherestoftheArabstogoourownways?”Theexpeditionwasgoingtobe quite different from what he had imagined. Because of his dream,Muhammad had probably expected to be admitted to Mecca, and have theopportunity to explain the principles of Islam to the Quraysh in the peacefulconditionsimposedbythehajj.Buthecouldnotturnbacknow.“ByAllah,”heresolved,“IwillnotceasetostriveforthemissionwithwhichGodhasentrustedme until he makes it victorious or I perish.”16 His first task was to get thepilgrimssafelyintothesanctuary.TheMuslimsfoundaguidefromthefriendlyBedouintribeofAslam,wholedthepartybyacircuitous,ruggedpathintotheareawhereallviolencewas forbidden.Assoonasheentered thesacredzone,Muhammadremindedthepilgrimsthattheywereengagedinastrictlyreligiousactivity.Theymustnotallowthemselvestobecarriedawaybytheexcitementofhomecoming; there must be no facile triumph; and they must put their sinsbehind them. Now they should make their way to the nearby well ofHudaybiyyah, getting their camels to kick up the sand so thatKhalid and hismenwouldknowexactlywheretheywere.When they reached Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad’s camel Qaswa’ fell to her

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kneesandrefusedtobudge.Thepilgrimsyelledather,tryingtomakehergetup,butMuhammadremindedthemoftheelephantwhohadkneltbeforetheKabahduring the Abyssinian invasion all those years ago—a divine “sign” that hadpersuadedtheenemyarmytoturnbackwithoutafight.Somethingsimilarwashappeningtoday.“TheOnewhorestrainedtheelephantfromenteringMeccaiskeepingQaswa’back,”heexplained,andyetagainheremindedthepilgrimsthattheywerecominginaspiritofreconciliation:“WhateverconditiontheQurayshmake in which they askme to show kindness to kindred, I shall agree to.”17MuhammadhadneverplannedtooverthrowtheQurayshbuthadsimplywantedto reform the social system,which,hewasconvinced,wouldbring thecity toruin.TheQurayshthoughtthattheirpilgrimageamountedtoadeclarationofwarbut, like Qaswa’, Muhammad was determined to prostrate himself humblybeforetheholinessofMecca.Thewarhadachievednothingoflastingvalueandbothsideshadcommittedatrocities.Thiswastobeapeacefuloffensive,notaninvasion.But very few of theMuslims tookMuhammad seriously. Keyed up by the

excitement and drama of the occasion, they were expecting somethingspectacular.Perhapstherewouldbeamiracle!MaybetheywouldenterMeccain triumph and drive the Quraysh from the city! Instead, Muhammad calmlyordered them towater their camels and sit down beside them.What followedwaswhatusedtobecalleda“sit-in.”Waitingobedientlyforpermissiontoenterthe city, refraining from violence,Muhammadwas demonstrating that hewasmoreinlinewithArabtraditionthantheQuraysh,whohadbeenpreparedtokillhimwhilehewasmakinghiswayunarmedtowardthesacredground.And, indeed, the Bedouin got the message. A chief of Khuza’ah who was

visiting Mecca rode out to Hudaybiyyah to see what was going on. He washorrifiedtohearthatthepilgrimshadbeendeniedaccesstotheholyplaces,andwentbacktothecitytoprotestangrilytotheQuraysh.Meccahadalwaysbeenaninclusivecity;ithadwelcomedallArabstotheHaramandthispluralismhadbeenthesourceofitscommercialsuccess.Whatdidtheythinktheyweredoing?Theyhadnorighttobaramanwhohadclearlycomeinpeace,hecomplained.But the Qurayshan elders laughed in his face. They were prepared to standbetweenMuhammadandtheKabahandfighthimuntiltheirlastmanhadbeenkilled.“Hemaynothavecomewantingwar,”theycried,“butbyAllahheshallnevercomeinagainstourwill,norshalltheArabseversaythatwehaveallowedit.”18At this point, theMeccan resistance toMuhammadwas led by Suhayl, the

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pious paganwhomMuhammadhadhoped to attract to Islam, and the sons ofsomeofIslam’searliestopponents:‘Ikrimah,wholikehisfather,AbuJahl,wasimplacablyopposedtoanycompromise;andSafwanibnUmayyah,whosefatherhaddiedatBadr.Interestingly,AbuSufyanseemstohaveplayednopartintheeventsofHudaybiyyah.Amanofoutstandingintelligence,heprobablyrealizedthat Muhammad had wrong-footed the Quraysh and that it was no longerpossibletodealwithhimwiththeconventionaldefianceofjahiliyyah.TheMeccanshadtriedtokillthepilgrims,butMuhammadhadeludedthem;

theirnextploywas to try tocausedissensionamong theMuslims,by invitingIbnUbayy to perform the rites at theKabah.But to everybody’s surprise, IbnUbayyrepliedthathecouldnotpossiblyperformthetawafbeforetheProphet.HewouldclashwithMuhammadagain in the future,but atHudaybiyyah, IbnUbayywasaloyalMuslim.SafwanandSuhaylpersuaded‘Ikrimahtoagreetonegotiation, and sentoneof theirBedouinallies,Hulays, chiefof al-Harih, anextremely devout man, as their representative. When Muhammad saw himcoming, he sent the sacrificial camels out to greet him, andwhenHulays sawthem trotting towardshim, beautifully deckedout in their garlands, hewas soimpressed that he did not even bother to interrogateMuhammad but returnedimmediatelytothecity.Thesewerebonafidepilgrims,hereported,whomustbeadmitted at once to the Haram. Safwan was furious. How dared Hulays—anignorantBedouin—givethemorders!Thiswasagravemistake.Hulaysroseandrepliedwithgreatdignity:

YoumenofQuraysh,itwasnotforthisthatwemadeanalliancewithyou.IsamanwhocomestodohonortothehouseofAllahtobeexcludedfromit?ByHimwhoholdsmylifeinhishand,eitheryouletMuhammaddowhathehascometodoorIshalltakeawaymytroopstothelastman.19

SafwanhastilyapologizedandaskedHulaystobearwiththemuntiltheyfoundasolutionthatwassatisfactorytoeverybody.Their next envoywas ‘Urwah ibnMas‘udofTa’if, a crucial ally ofMecca.

‘Urwah immediately put his finger onMuhammad’sweak spot. “So you havegathered this medley of people, O Muhammad, by whom you came back tobreak themightofyourown tribe,” said ‘Urwah,gesturingcontemptuously atthepilgrims.“ByAllah,Icouldseethesedisbandingagainstyoutomorrow!”20Muhammadknewthatdespitethisapparentshowofstrengthandunity,hehad

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very few dependable allies. His Bedouin confederates, who had refused toaccompanyhimonthepilgrimage,hadonlyasuperficialcommitmenttoIslam;hispositioninMedinawasstilldesperatelyinsecure;andheknewthatsomeofhis closest companions would not understand what he was about to do. Howcould he realistically oppose the Quraysh—his own tribe—with this motleyrabble?TheQuraysh,on theotherhand,were solidlyunitedandarmed to theteeth,‘Urwahtoldhim;eventhewomenandchildrenhadvowedtopreventhimenteringMecca.Nevertheless,almostinspiteofhimself,‘Urwahwasimpressedby the Muslims’ devotion to the Prophet during this crisis, and he told theQuraysh that—at least for the timebeing—Muhammadheld thewinningcardsandtheywouldhavetomakesomekindofagreementwithhim.Muhammaddecided to sendanambassadorofhisown intoMecca.Firsthe

dispatchedoneoftheHelpers,thinkingthatthiswouldbelessinflammatory,butthe Quraysh hamstrung the man’s camel and would have killed him had notHulays’stribesmenintervened.NextMuhammadapproached‘Umar,butnoneofhisclansmeninthecitywasstrongenoughtoprotecthim,soitwasdecidedthatthe well-connected ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan should undertake the mission. TheQuraysh heard him out, but were not convinced by his exposition of Islam,though they gave him permission to perform the rites of the pilgrimage.‘Uthman,ofcourse, refusedso theQurayshdecided tokeephimasahostage,butsentwordtotheMuslimsthathehadbeenkilled.Thiswasaterriblemoment.Itseemedasthoughtheexpeditionhadhorribly

misfired.Inthisextremity,Muhammadfellintoatrancebutthistimetherewasnomessage fromAllah, andhehad to finda solutionhimself, listening, ashealwaysdid,totheunder-currentofthesefearfuleventsinordertodiscoverwhatwas really goingon.Finally, he asked thepilgrims to swear anoathof fealty.One by one, they took his hand and swore the Oath of Good Pleasure. Thesources all havedifferent interpretationsof this event, butWaqidi’s account isprobably the most persuasive. He says that the Muslims vowed to obeyMuhammadimplicitlyandtofollowwhatwas“inhissoul”duringthiscrisis.21Muhammadhadneverbeenabletocommandabsoluteobedience,but,shakenbythereportof‘Uthman’smurder,evenIbnUbayyandtheHypocriteswerereadytotaketheoath.Muhammadhadresolved,atadeepinstinctuallevel,totakeacourse of action that he knewmanywould find intolerable and he wanted toensure their loyalty in advance. After everybody had taken the pledge, thingsbegan to improve.Firstcame thegoodnews that ‘Uthmanhadnotbeenkilledafter all, and then Muhammad saw Suhayl, whom he had always respected,

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approaching the camp, and realized that the Quraysh were now seriouslypreparedtonegotiate.This in itself was an important achievement. At last Muhammad had

compelledtheQurayshtotakehimseriously,andtherewasarealpossibilityofapeacefulsolution.MuhammadsatwithSuhaylforalongtimebutthetermsthatwere agreed filledmany of his companionswith dismay. First he promised toreturn toMedinawithoutvisiting theHaram, thoughSuhaylpromised that thefollowingyeartheMuslimscouldreturnandperformthetraditionalritesofthehajjwithinthecity limits.Therewouldbea trucebetweenMeccaandMedinafor tenyears;Muhammadpromisedtoreturnanymemberof theQurayshwhoconverted to Islam andmade the hijrah toMedinawithout the consent of hisguardians,butagreedthattheQurayshwouldnothavetoreturnaMuslimwhodefected toMecca.TheBedouin tribeswere released from their former treatyobligationsandcouldchoosetoformanalliancewitheitherMedinaorMecca.TheQur’anhad long stipulated that in the interestsofpeace,Muslimsmust

agree to any conditions that the enemy proposed, even if they seemeddisadvantageous.22 But many of the pilgrims found these terms dishonorable.The trucemeant thatMuslimscouldno longer raid theMeccancaravans;whywasMuhammadabandoning theeconomicblockade thatwas really starting tobite?WhyhadheconsentedtoreturnnewconvertstoMecca,whentheQurayshdidnothavetoreciprocate?Duringthelastfiveyears,manyMuslimshaddiedfortheirreligion;othershadriskedeverythingandgivenupfamilyandfriends.YetnowMuhammadhadcalmlyhandedtheadvantagebacktotheQuraysh,andthepilgrimsmustagreetogohomemeekly,withoutevenforcingthepilgrimageissue.Thetreatyassaultedeverysinglejahiliinstinct.“Theapostle’scompanionshadgoneoutwithoutanydoubtofoccupyingMecca,becauseofthevisiontheapostle had seen,” explained Ibn Ishaq. “When they saw the negotiations forpeaceandawithdrawalgoingonandwhattheapostlehadtakenonhimself,theyfeltdepressed,almosttothepointofdeath.”23Mutiny was in the air. The fragile solidarity that had united the pilgrims

throughout thisdangerous expeditionwas shatteredand thedeep rifts thathadalwaysexistedwithintheummahbecamesuddenlyapparent.‘UmarleapttohisfeetandstrodeovertoAbuBakr.“ArewenotMuslimsandtheypolytheists?”hedemanded.“Whyshouldweagree towhat isdemeaning toourreligion?”24AbuBakrwasalsodisturbed,butmanagedtoreplythat,inspiteofeverything,hestillhadfaithintheProphet.Later‘Umarsaidthatifhecouldhavefoundahundred companions to followhim, hewouldhavedefected.At this point, he

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couldnotshareMuhammad’svision.25LikemanyoftheMedineseMuslimsandthoseEmigrantswhocamefromthemoreperipheral,disadvantagedQurayshanclans, he did not want merely to reform the social order of Mecca but tooverthrow it and replace it with a purely Qur’anic regime. ‘Umar wascourageous, unselfish, and passionately committed to the ideals of justice andequity,whichhadbeensolackingintheMeccanpolity.Buthewasnotamanofhilm and was still fired by the fierce impetuosity of jahiliyyah. He did notunderstandthatthevaluesofgentlenessandnonviolencewerealsocentraltotheIslamicideal.Hewasamanofaction,pronetoreach,jahili-like,forhisswordwithout thinkingmatters through.26 Faced withMuhammad’s apparent about-faceatHudaybiyyah,hewasbewilderedandconfused.After defeating the Quraysh at the Battle of the Trench, the obvious plan

wouldhavebeen topressonanddestroy themunilaterally.But thishadneverbeenMuhammad’sintention.ThedownfallofMeccawouldbeaninconceivablecatastrophe for Arabia, a backward region that sorely needed the commercialgeniusof theQuraysh,whowouldnever see thepoint of Islamwhile thewarcontinuedtofueldestructiveangerandhatredonbothsides.Byabandoningtheeconomicblockade,Muhammadhoped towin themover.HecouldseefurtherthananybodyelseatHudaybiyyah.Farfromcavinginweakly,heknewexactlywhat he was doing. He was moving toward an unprecedented political andreligious solution for the Arabs, and that meant that he could never do theexpectedthing,becausethatwouldbindhimtotheunhappystatusquo.Whenhe lookedat thestunned,miserablefacesof thepilgrims,Muhammad

hadtotellthemthattheymustacceptthetermsofthetreatybecauseAllahhaddictatedthem.Thisdidnotsatisfytherankandfile,whohadexpectedsomekindofmiracle,anditwasintenselydisappointingtotheHypocrites,whohadjoinedtheummahsimplyforworldlygain.TheatmospherebecameevenmorestrainedwhentheMuslimsheardthewordingofthetreaty.Muhammadsummoned‘Alitowritetohisdictation,andwhenhebeganwiththeusualMuslimformula—“Inthe name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful”—Suhayl objected. TheQuraysh had always found these attributes of Allah somewhat feeble, so heinsisted that Muhammad begin with the more conventional formula: “In thyname, O Allah.” To the horror of the Muslims, Muhammad agreed withoutdemur. Worse was to follow. Muhammad continued: “This is the treaty thatMuhammad,theMessengerofAllah,hasagreedwithSuhaylibn‘Amr.”AgainSuhayl interrupted. If hehadbelieved thatMuhammadwasGod’sprophet, heargued, reasonably enough, hewould not have fought him all these years.He

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asked thatMuhammad simply use his own name and that of his father in theusualway.‘Alihadalreadywrittendownthewords“theMessengerofGod”andtoldMuhammad thathe simplycouldnotbringhimself toexcise them, so theProphetheldouthishand for thepen, asked ‘Ali topoint to thewordson theparchment, and crossed them out himself. He continued: “This is whatMuhammadibn‘AbdullahhasagreedwithSuhaylibn‘Amr.”27At this extremely difficult juncture, just as the treaty was being signed,

Suhayl’sson,AbuJandal,burstontothescene.HehadconvertedtoIslam,butSuhaylhadlockedhimupinthefamilyhomeinordertopreventhimmakingthehijrah to Medina. Now, however, he had managed to escape and arrivedtriumphantly to join theMuslims atHudaybiyyah, dragging his fetters behindhim.Suhaylsmashedhisfistintohisson’sface,grabbedhischains,andturnedtoMuhammad.Wouldhekeephiswordandreturn this renegade tohis lawfulguardian? Muhammad did not falter, even though Abu Jandal screamed inanguish as Suhayl dragged him back toMecca: “Am I to be returned to thepolytheiststhattheymayenticemefrommyreligion,OMuslims?”Withclassicunderstatement,IbnIshaqremarks:“Thatincreasedthepeople’sdejection.”28Thiswasthelaststrawfor‘Umar.Yetagain,hejumpedtohisfeetandyelled

at the man he had followed so loyally for twelve years. Was he not God’smessenger? Were not the Muslims right and their enemies wrong? Had notMuhammadassuredthemthattheywouldprayagainattheKabah?Thiswasalltrue,Muhammadrepliedmildly,buthadhepromisedthattheywouldreturntotheHaram this year? ‘Umar remained grimly silent, soMuhammad continuedfirmly:“IamGod’smessenger.Iwillnotgoagainsthiscommandmentsandhewill notmakeme the loser.”29 Even though hewas bitterly perplexed, ‘Umarsubsided and reluctantly put his hand to the treaty.But the pilgrimswere stillfurious and therewas a dangerousmomentwhen they seemed about to rebel.Muhammadannouncedthat,eventhoughtheyhadnotreachedtheKabah,theywould complete the pilgrimage right there atHudaybiyyah: theMuslimsmustshave theirheadsandsacrifice theircamels, justas theywould if theywere intheheartofMecca.Therewasabsolutesilence,and thepilgrimsstaredgrimlybackatMuhammad,tacitlyrefusingtoobey.Indespair,theProphetretreatedtohis tent.Whatonearth couldhedo?he askedUmmSalamah.She judged thesituation perfectly. Muhammad should go out and, without uttering anotherword, sacrifice the camel that he had consecrated toAllah. Itwas exactly theright decision. The spectacular bloodletting broke through the torpor ofdepression,andimmediatelythemenfelloverthemselvestosacrificetheirown

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camels and shaved each other’s headswith such zeal thatUmmSalamah saidlaterthatshethoughttheywouldinflictmortalwoundsintheirpiousfrenzy.Thepilgrimsstartedhomeinalightermood,butsomeangerremainedandthe

Prophet himself seemed distant and preoccupied. ‘Umar was afraid that hisdefiancehad irreparablydamaged their friendship,andhisheart sankwhenhewassummoned to joinMuhammadat theheadof theparty.But tohis intenserelief,hefoundhimlookingradiant,asthoughagreatweighthadfallenfromhisshoulders.“Asurahhasdescendeduponme,whichisdearertomethananythingunderthesun,”hetold‘Umar.30ThiswasAl-Fatah,theSurahofVictory.Itlaidbare the deeper meaning of the events of Hudaybiyyah and began with aluminousassurancethatMuhammadhadnotsufferedadiplomaticdefeat therebutthatGodhadgivenhim“amanifestvictory.”Hehadsentdownhissakinah,thespiritofpeaceandtranquillity,whichhadenteredtheheartsoftheMuslims;they hadmade a courageous act of faithwhen they had agreed to accompanyMuhammadonthisperilousexpedition—showingacommitmentthathadbeenbeyondtheBedouin.TheyhadshowntheirfaithandtrustagainwhentheyhadsworntheOathofGoodPleasure.Finally,thetreatythatMuhammadhadmadewithMeccawasa“sign,”anayah,whichrevealedGod’spresence.ThevictoryatHudaybiyyahhaddistinguishedtheMuslimsfromtheQuraysh,

who had shown throughout the day that they were still in thrall to theoverbearing haughtiness and intransigence of the jahiliyyah, a stubbornresistance toanything thatmight injure theirsenseofhonoror their traditionalway of life. They had even been ready to massacre the innocent unarmedpilgrimsratherthanacceptthe“humiliation”ofadmittingthemtotheHaram.

When in the hearts of those who persist in unbelief arose thecharacteristic arrogance, the arrogance of jahiliyyah, thenGodsentdownhispeaceofsoul(sakinah)uponHisMessengeranduponthebelievers,andimposeduponthemtheformulaofself-restraint (hilm), for that was most befitting to them and theyweremostsuitedforthat.31

Muslimswerenot supposed tobemenofwar; theywerecharacterizedby thespirit of hilm, a peace and forbearance that allied them with the Jews andChristians, the People of the Book. Instead of posturing aggressively as theQuraysh had done at Hudaybiyyah, the true followers of Allah prostratedthemselveshumblybeforeGodinprayer:

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Thouseestthembowing,prostrating,seekingbountyfromGodand good pleasure. Their mark is on their faces, the trace ofprostration.ThatistheirlikenessintheTorah,andtheirlikenessintheGospel.

It was not violence and self-assertion, but the spirit ofmercy, courtesy and

tranquillity thatwouldcause theummah togrow,“asa seed thatputs forth itsshoot and strengthens it and it grows stout and raises straight upon its stalk,pleasingtheowners.”32Thewarwasover;itwasnowtimeforaholypeace.In fact the strugglewouldcontinue,but the sources agree thatHudaybiyyah

wasawatershed.“Nopreviousvictory(fatah)wasgreaterthanthis,”IbnIshaqbelieved. The root meaning of FTH was “opening;” the truce had lookedunpromising at first, but it opened new doors for Islam.Hitherto nobody hadbeenabletositdownanddiscussthenewreligioninarationalmanner,becauseof the constant fighting and escalating hatred. But now “when there was anarmisticeandmenmetinsafetyandconsultedtogether,nonetalkedaboutIslamintelligentlywithoutenteringit.”Indeed,between628and630,“doubleasmanyormorethandoubleasmanyenteredIslamaseverbefore.”33TheshortlyricalsurahAn-Nasr(“Help”)mayhavebeencomposedatthistime:

WhenthehelpofGodarrivedandtheopening(fatah)andyousawpeoplejoiningthereligionofGodinwavesRecitethepraiseofyourLordandsayGodforgiveHeisthealwaysforgiving.34

Therewastobenotriumphalism,nocryforvengeance.Theneweramustbe

characterized by gratitude, forgiveness, and an acknowledgement of theMuslims’ownculpability.Hudaybiyyahmayhave improvedthepositionofIslamin thepeninsulaasa

whole,but,likeotherrecentadvances,itdidlittleforMuhammad’sstandinginMedina.Manyofthepilgrims—HelpersandEmigrantsalike—continuedtofeelcheatedandresentful.How,theEmigrantsasked,weretheysupposedtoearnaliving if they could no longer attack theMeccan caravans?Muhammad knewthathecouldnotallowthisdiscontenttofester;somehowhehadtofindaway

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of compensating them without damaging the truce, so after Hudaybiyyah, hedirected theMuslims’ attention to the north, away fromMecca.Khaybar—thenewhomeoftheexiledJewishtribeofNadir—wasstilladanger.Theleadersofthesettlementcontinued to stiruphostility toMuhammadamong thenortherntribes,soshortlyafterhisreturnfromHudaybiyyah,hesetofftobesiegethecitywithanarmyofsixhundredmen.WhentheQurayshheardthenews,theywerejubilant,certain that theMuslimswouldbedefeated.Surrounded, likeMedina,with plains of volcanic rock and defended by seven large fortresses, Khaybarwasthoughttobeimpregnable.ButtheMuslimswereabletobenefitfromtheinternalstrifethatsignalledthedeclineofthetribalspiritinKhaybar,asithadinMedina. Each of the tribes of Khaybar was autonomous, and they found itimpossibletocooperateeffectivelyduringthesiege.Toaddtotheirtroubles,thetribesofGhatafan,whosesupporttheyhadbeenexpecting,failedtoshowup,soafteramonththeJewisheldersaskedforpeaceandbecamevassalsofMedina.Toseal theagreement,MuhammadtookthedaughterofhisoldenemyHuyay,chiefofNadir,ashiswife.Thebeautifulseventeen-year-oldSafiyyahwashappytoenterIslam,andMuhammadgavesternordersthatthereweretobenounkindremarksaboutherfather,whohaddiedduringthesiege.HetoldSafiyyahthatifanyofhisotherwivestauntedheraboutherJewishancestry,sheshouldreply:“My father is Aaron and my uncle is Moses.”35 The marriage expressed theattitudeof reconciliationandforgiveness thathewas trying topromote; itwastimetolayasidethehatredandbloodshedofthepast.On his return from Khaybar, Muhammad enjoyed a joyful family reunion.

AfterHudaybiyyah,hehadsentamessagetotheMuslimexilesstillresidentinAbyssinia,invitingthemtoreturnnowthatthesituationinArabiahadimproved,andwhenhereturnedhome,hiscousinJa‘far,AbuTalib’sson,whomhehadnotseen for thirteen years, was waiting for him in Medina. He also greeted yetanothernewwife.Earlier thatyear,hehadlearnedthathiscousin‘UbaydallahibnJahshhaddiedinAbyssinia,anddecidedtomarryhiswifeRamlah,usuallyknown by her kunya,UmmHabibah. The ceremonywas performed by proxybefore theNegus, and an apartment had already been prepared for her in themosque.Thiswas another shrewdpoliticalmove, becauseUmmHabibahwasthedaughterofAbuSufyan.

Therestoftheyearwasspentinroutineraiding,someofwhichwasundertakenat the request of his new Jewish allies in the north. Then inMarch 629, themonthofthehajj,itwastimeforMuhammadtoleadanotherpilgrimagetothe

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Kabah.Thistime2,600pilgrimsaccompaniedhim,andastheyapproachedthesanctuary, theQuraysh evacuated the city, as theyhad agreed.TheQurayshanelderswatchedthearrivalofMuhammadfromthetopofanearbymountain.ThesoundoftheMuslimsloudlyannouncingtheirpresencewiththetraditionalcry:“Here I am,OAllah!Here I am!”must have echoed through the valleys andempty streets of the city like a cruel taunt. But they must also have beenimpressedbythedisciplineoftheMuslims.Therewerenoscenesofunbridledjoyorunseemlycelebrations;nojeeringattheQuraysh.Instead,thehugecrowdofpilgrimsfiledslowlyandsolemnlyintothecity, ledbyMuhammad,whoasusualwasmountedonQaswa’.WhenhereachedtheKabah,hedismountedandkissed the Black Stone, embracing it, and then proceeded to make thecircumambulations, followed by the entire pilgrim body. It was a strangehomecoming.TheEmigrantsmusthavefelthighlyemotionalabouttheirreturn,and yet, although the citywas a ghost town, theywere not free to do as theypleased. It had been settled at Hudaybiyyah that this year theMuslims couldonlymake the Lesser Pilgrimage, the umrah,which did not include a visit toMount‘ArafatandthevalleyofMina.In temporary exile from their city, the Quraysh had to watch—no doubt

appalled—as Bilal, a former slave, climbed onto the roof of the Kabah andsummonedtheMuslimstoprayer.Threetimesaday,hishugevoicereverberatedthroughthevalley,urgingallwithinearshottocometosalatwiththecry“AllahuAkhbar,” reminding them that Allah was “greater” than all the idols in theHaram, who could do nothing to prevent this ritual humiliation. It was animmense triumph forMuhammad, andmany of the youngerQuraysh becameevenmoreconvincedthattheoldreligionwasdoomed.On his last evening in the city,Muhammad enjoyed another family reunion

when his uncle ‘Abbas, who still adhered to the old religion, was allowed toenterthecitytovisithisnephewandofferhimthehandofhissisterMaymunah,who had been recently widowed. Muhammad accepted, doubtless hoping toentice‘AbbashimselfintoIslam,andmischievouslysentwordtotheQurayshtoinvite them to thewedding.Thiswaspushing things too far,andSuhaylcamedown to informMuhammad that his three dayswere up and he should leaveimmediately.Sa‘dibn‘Ubadah,achiefofKhazrajwhowaswiththeProphetatthe time, was furious at this apparent discourtesy, but Muhammad quicklysilencedhim:“OSa‘d,no illwords to thosewhohavecome tovisitus inourcamp.”36TotheastonishmentoftheQuraysh, theentirepilgrimthrongleft thecity that night in good order. There were no loud protests, no attempt to

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repossesstheiroldhomes.Intheirpeacefulwithdrawal,theMuslimsshowedtheconfidenceofthosewhoexpectedaspeedyreturn.Thestoryofthisstrangepilgrimagespreadrapidly,andmoreandmoreofthe

BedouincametoMedinatobecomeMuhammad’sconfederates.Ofevengreatersignificance was the steady stream of the younger generation of the Qurayshwho converted to Islam.AtHudaybiyyah,Muhammadhadpromised to returnnewconvertstoMecca,buthehadbeenabletofindaloopholethatenabledhimto overcome this condition on a technicality. First, the treaty had said nothingabout the handing back of women converts, so shortly after Hudaybiyyah,Muhammadhadreceived‘Uthman’shalf-sisterintotheummahandallowedherto remain. He did, however, returnAbu Basir, an impetuous youngman, anddispatchedhimtoMeccawithaQurayshanenvoy.Butduringthejourney,AbuBasirkilledhisescort,andwhenMuhammadsenthimawayagain,setupcampontheRedSeacoastnearthetraderoute,wherehewasjoinedbyseventyotheryoung Meccan malcontents. These would-be Muslims became highwaymen,attacking every single Meccan caravan that came within their range, and theQuraysh discovered that the economic blockade had been partially reinstated.Eventually theywere forced to begMuhammad to admit the youngmen intoMedinaandtomakethemabidebythetreaty.So thebanon accepting converts became a dead letter, and in 629 a steady

stream of newMuslims arrived inMedina. They included the youngwarriors‘Amr ibn al-‘As and Khalid ibn al-Walid, who had been convinced byMuhammad’s success. “Theway has become clear,”Khalid said, “theman iscertainlyaprophet.”37Hewasafraidof reprisals, sinceheand ‘Amrhadbothkilled manyMuslims at the battles of Uhud and the Trench, butMuhammadassured them that the act of islam wiped out old debts and represented anentirelynewstart.In this year of political triumph,Muhammadhad a private joy.Noneof the

womenhehadmarriedinMedinahadbornehimanychildren,butthegovernorofAlexandriainEgypthadsenthimabeautiful,curly-hairedslavegirlasagift.MaryamwasaChristiananddidnotwish toconvert toIslam,butshebecameMuhammad’s saraya, a wife who retained the status of a slave but whosechildrenwouldbefree.Muhammadgrewveryfondofher,andwasoverjoyedwhenattheendof629shebecamepregnant.HenamedtheirsonIbrahim,andlovedcarryinghimaroundMedina, invitingallpassers-by topraise thebaby’sbeautifulcomplexionandhislikenesstohimself.However,sorrowcamealongwith joy. Muhammad’s daughter Zaynab had died shortly after he made the

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Lesser Pilgrimage, and later that year he lost twomembers of his family in adisastrous expedition to the Syrian border.We know very little about this ill-fatedcampaign.MuhammadmayhavewantedtobringtheChristianArabtribesthereintotheummahasconfederates,onthesamebasisastheJewishtribesofKhaybar.Atallevents,hedispatchedZaydandhiscousinJa‘fartothenorthattheheadof anarmyof three thousandmen.At thevillageofMu’tahnear theDead Sea the Muslims were attacked by a detachment of Byzantines. Zayd,Ja‘far,andtenotherMuslimswerekilledandKhalid,whohadalsoaccompaniedtheexpedition,decidedtobringthetroopshome.When Muhammad heard the news, he went directly to Ja‘far’s house,

distraughttothinkthathehadbroughthisdearcousinhometohisdeath.Asma’,Ja‘far’s wife, was baking bread, and as soon as she saw the expression onMuhammad’sface,sheknewthatsomethingterriblehadhappened.Muhammadaskedtoseetheirtwosons,kneltdownbesidethelittleboys,huggedthemcloseandwept. ImmediatelyAsma’beganto lament in the traditionalArabway, thewomen hurried to her, andMuhammad asked them tomake sure to bring thefamily foodduring thenext fewdays.Ashewalked through the streets to themosque,Zayd’slittlegirlranoutoftheirhouseandthrewherselfintohisarms.Muhammadpickedherupandstoodthereinthestreet,rockingherandweepingconvulsively.The defeat at Mu’tah had further jeopardized Muhammad’s position in

Medina.WhenKhalidbroughtthearmyhome,heandhismenwerebooedandhissed,andMuhammadhadtotakeKhalidunderhispersonalprotection.ButinNovember629,thesituationinArabiachangeddramatically:theQurayshbrokethetreatyofHudaybiyyah.AidedandabettedbysomeoftheQuraysh,thetribeof Bakr, one of their Bedouin allies, made a surprise attack on the tribe ofKhuza’ah, which had joined Muhammad’s confederacy. Khuza’ah promptlyaskedMuhammad forhelpand theQurayshwokeup to the fact that theyhadgiven Muhammad a perfect excuse to attack Mecca. Safwan and ‘Ikrimahremained defiant, but Suhayl was beginning to have second thoughts. AbuSufyan,however,wentfurtherandarrivedinMedinaonapeaceinitiative.At this point, Abu Sufyan had no desire to convert to Islam, but he had

realizedforsometimethatthetidehadturnedinfavorofMuhammadandthattheQurayshmust try toget thebestdeal theycould. InMedinahevisitedhisdaughter Umm Habibah, and sat in conference with some of Muhammad’sclosestcompanions,tryingtofindawayofdistancinghimselffromthedispute.Then he returned toMecca,where he tried to prepare his fellow-tribesmen to

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accept the inevitable. After his departure, Muhammad began to plan a newcampaign.On10Ramadan(January630),Muhammadsetoutattheheadofthelargest

forceever to leaveMedina.Nearlyall themen in theummahhadvolunteeredandalongtheroadtheirBedouinalliesjoinedforceswiththeMuslims,bringingthenumbersuptotenthousandmen.Forsecurityreasons,thedestinationoftheexpedition remained secret, but there was naturally a good deal of excitedspeculation. Certainly Mecca was a possibility, but Muhammad could just aseasilyhavebeenheadingforTa’if,whichwasstill implacablyhostiletoIslam,so the southern tribeofHawazin started to assemble amassive army there. InMecca, the Qurayshan leaders feared the worst. ‘Abbas, Abu Sufyan, andBudayl, chief of Khuza’ah, all made their way under cover of night to theMuslimcamp.ThereMuhammadreceivedthemandaskedAbuSufyanifhewasreadytoacceptIslam.AbuSufyanrepliedthateventhoughhenowbelievedthatAllahwastheonlyGod—theidolshadprovedtobeuseless—hestillhaddoubtsaboutMuhammad’sprophethood.Buthewas shockedand impressedwhenhewatched all the members of the massive army prostrating themselves in thedirection ofMecca during the morning prayer, and when he saw the varioustribesmarching past on theirway to the city, he knew that theQurayshmustsurrender.Hehurriedback toMeccaandsummonedthepeoplebycryingat the topof

hisvoice:“OQuraysh,thisisMuhammadwhohascometoyouwithaforceyoucannotresist!”Hethenofferedthemanoptionthathadbeensuggestedtohimby‘Ali duringhisvisit toMedina.Anybodywhowanted to surrender shouldputhimself under his personal protection: Muhammad had agreed to honor this.They should either take sanctuary in his homeor remain in their ownhouses.Hind,hiswife,wasbesideherselfwithrage;seizinghimbyhismoustaches,sheyelled to the townspeople: “Kill this fat greasy bladder of lard!What a rottenprotector of his people!” But Abu Sufyan begged them not to listen. HedescribedwhathehadseenintheMuslimcamp.Thetimeforsuchdefiancewasover.His grim sobriety impressedmost of theQuraysh. Pragmatic to the last,theybarricadedthemselvesintotheirhousesasatokenofsurrender.A few wanted to fight, however. ‘Ikrimah, Safwan, and Suhayl gathered a

smallforceandtriedtoattackKhalid’ssectionofthearmyasitapproachedthecity,buttheywerequicklybeaten.Safwanand‘Ikrimahfled,thinkingtheirliveswereatstake;Suhayllaiddownhisarms,andretiredtohishome.TherestoftheMuslimarmyenteredMeccawithoutstrikingasingleblow.Muhammadhadhis

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red tent pitched near the Kabah and there he joined Umm Salamah andMaymunah, the twoQurayshiwiveswhohadaccompaniedhim, togetherwith‘AliandFatima.Shortlyaftertheyhadsettled,‘Ali’ssisterUmmHani’arrivedtopleadforthelivesoftwoofherrelativeswhohadtakenpartinthefighting.Even though ‘Ali andFatimawanted themexecuted,Muhammad immediatelypromisedthattheywouldbesafe.Hehadnodesireforbloodyreprisals.NobodywasmadetoacceptIslamnordotheyseemtohavefeltanypressuretodoso.ReconciliationwasstillMuhammad’sobjective.After he had slept for a while, he rose, and performed themorning prayer.

Then,mountedonQaswa’,heroderoundtheKabahseventimes,crying“AllahuAkhbar!”Theshoutwastakenupbythetroopsandsoonthewordsrangthroughtheentirecity,signallingthefinalvictoryofIslam.NextMuhammadturnedhisattentiontotheidolsoftheHaram;crowdedontotheirroofsandbalconies,theQurayshwatchedhimsmasheachstoneeffigywhileherecitedtheverse:“Thetruthhascome,andfalsehoodhasvanishedaway;surelyfalsehoodiscertaintovanish.”38 Inside theKabah, thewallshadbeendecoratedwithpicturesof thepagandeities, andMuhammadordered themall tobeobliterated, though, it issaid,heallowedfrescoesofJesusandMarytoremain.By this time,someof theQurayshhadventuredforth fromtheirhousesand

made theirway to theKabah,waiting forMuhammad to leave the shrine.HestoodinfrontofthehouseofAllahandbeggedthemtolayasidethearroganceandself-sufficiencyofjahiliyyah,whichhadcreatedonlyconflictandinjustice.“OQuraysh,” he cried, “BeholdGod has removed from you the arrogance ofjahiliyyah with its boast of ancestral glories.Man is simply a God-consciousbelieveror anunfortunate sinner.Allpeople are childrenofAdam,andAdamwascreatedoutofdust.”39FinallyMuhammadquotedthewords thatGodhadspokentothewholeofhumanity:

Behold,wehavecreatedyoualloutofamaleorafemale,andhavemadeyouintonationsandtribes,sothatyoumaycometoknowoneanother.Verily,thenoblestofyouinthesightofGodistheonewhoismostdeeplyconsciousofhim.BeholdGodisall-knowing,all-aware.40

The true karim was no longer an aggressive chauvinist, but was filled withreverentfear.Thepurposeofthetribeandthenationwasnolongertoexaltitssuperiority;theymustnotseektodominate,exploit,convert,conquer,ordestroy

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other peoples, but get to know them. The experience of living in a group,coexistingwithpeople—someofwhom,despitetheirkinship,wouldinevitablybe uncongenial—should prepare the tribesman or the patriot for the encounterwithforeigners.Itshouldleadtoanappreciationoftheunityofthehumanrace.MuhammadhadmanagedtoredefinetheconceptofnobilityinArabia,replacingitwithamoreuniversal,compassionate,andself-effacingideal.Butwere theQuraysh ready for this?Muhammad issued ageneral amnesty.

Onlyabout tenpeoplewereputon theBlackList; they included‘Ikrimah(butnot Safwan, for some reason), and those who had spread anti-MuslimpropagandaorinjuredtheProphet’sfamily.Someofthesemiscreantsaskedforpardon,however,andtheyseemtohavebeenspared.AfterhisspeechbesidetheKabah,MuhammadwithdrewtoMountSafaandinvitedthepeopleofMeccatoswearfealty.Onebyone,theQurayshfileduptoMuhammad,whosatflankedby ‘UmarandAbuBakr.Oneof thewomenwhocamebeforehimwasHind,AbuSufyan’swife,whowasontheBlackListforhermutilationofHamzah’sbodyafterthebattleofUhud.Sheremaineddefiant.“Forgivemewhatispast,”shesaid,withnohintofapology,“andGodwillforgiveyou!”Muhammadaskedher ifshewouldundertakenot tocommitadultery, theft,or infanticide.Wouldshepromisenot tokillher children?To thisHind replied: “Ibrought themupwhen theywere little,butyoukilled themon thedayofBadrwhen theyweregrownup.”Muhammadtacitlyconcededthepoint.41HinddecidedtoconverttoIslam,tellingMuhammadthathecouldnotcontinuetoproceedagainsthernowthatshewasaprofessingMuslim.TheProphetsmiledandtoldherthatofcourseshewasfree.Soon,HindwouldseeherhusbandandsonsgivenimportantofficeintheummahasarewardforAbuSufyan’scooperation.RelativesofSafwanand‘Ikrimahbeggedfortheirlives;Muhammadpromised

that,iftheyacceptedhisleadership,theywerefreetoenterMecca.Bothdecidedto return and ‘Ikrimahwas the first to accept Islam.Muhammad greeted himaffectionately and forbade anybody to vilify his father,Abu Jahl. Safwan andSuhayl both swore fealty toMuhammad but could not yet make theMuslimprofessionoffaith—thoughtheychangedtheirmindsafewdayslater.Once Muhammad had secured the city, he had to deal with the tribes of

Hawazin and Thaqif, who had mustered an army of twenty thousand men atnearbyTa’if.MuhammadmanagedtodefeatthematthebattleofHunaynattheend of January 630 and the Hawazin joined Muhammad’s confederacy. TheMuslims were not able to take Ta’if itself, but the city became so isolatedthroughthelossofitschiefBedouinallythatitwasforcedtocapitulateayear

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later.WhenhedividedthebootyafterhisvictoryatHunayn,MuhammadgaveAbuSufyan,Suhayl,andSafwanthelion’sshare.Safwanwassoovercomethathe instantlymade his surrender. “I bearwitness that no soul could have suchgoodnessasthis,ifitwerenotthesouloftheProphet,”hecried.“Ibearwitnessthat there is no god but Allah and that you are his Messenger.”42 Suhaylfollowedhisexample.Someof theHelperswereoffendedby thisapparent favoritism.Did itmean

thatMuhammadwouldabandon them,now thathehadbeen reunitedwithhisown tribe?Muhammad instantly reassured them bymaking amoving speech,whichreducedmanyofthemtotears.Hewouldneverforgettheirgenerositytohimwhilehewasamererefugee,andpromisedthat—farfromsettlinginMecca—hewouldmakeMedinahishomefortherestofhislife.“Areyounotsatisfiedthatothermenshouldtakeawayflocksandherdswhileyoutakebackwithyouthe apostle of God?” he asked. “If all men went one way and the Helpersanother,IshouldtakethewayoftheHelpers.GodhavemercyontheHelpers,theirsonsandtheirsons’sons.”43It was a strange conquest, and an impartial observer might have wondered

whytheMuslimsandtheQurayshhadfoughtatall.44MuhammadkepthiswordandreturnedtoMedinawith theEmigrantsandHelpers.Hedidnotattempt toruleMecca himself; nor did he replace the Qurayshan officials with his owncompanions;nordidheestablishapuristIslamicregime.AllformerdignitarieskepttheirpositionsintheHaram,andtheassemblyandthestatusquoremainedintact. His most hated enemies were not only reinstated but promoted andshowered with gifts. When Muhammad was about to reassign the mostprestigiousfunctionof theHaram—thatofprovidingwater to thepilgrims—tothenotablewhohad just givenhim thekeysof theKabah,Muhammadaskedhim:“Youcansurelyseenowthatthiskeyisinmyhand,thatIcanassignittowhomeverIwant?”Thenotable,thinkingthattheofficewouldnowgotooneoftheMuslims,criedinanguish:“Then,thegloryandmightofQurayshisgone!”Muhammadpromptlyreplied,ashehandedbackthekey:“Tothecontrary,todayitisentrenchedandglorious!”45Muhammad’sworkwasalmostdone.Afterhisreturnhome,theoppositionin

Ibn Ubayy’s camp continued. There was yet another plot to assassinateMuhammad, who tried to woo his enemies by dispatching more lucrativeexpeditions to the north. In October 631,he became aware that a mosque inMedinahadbecomeacenterofdisaffection,sohewasforcedtodestroyit.Thefollowingmorninghe held an inquiry into the conduct of the peoplewhohad

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been plotting against him; they hastily apologized. Most offered plausibleexcusesandwerepardoned,thoughthreewereformallyshunnedbytheummahfornearlytwomonths.ThisseemstohavefinishedtheMuslimopposition.Notlong after this capitulation, IbnUbayy died, andMuhammad stood beside thegraveofhisoldadversaryasamarkofrespect.Hehadfinallymanagedtocreatea viable, united society inMedina, and more and more of the Bedouin werepreparedtoaccepthispoliticalsupremacy,eventhoughtheywerenotcommittedto his religious vision. In ten short years since the hijrah, Muhammad hadirrevocablychangedthepoliticalandspirituallandscapeofArabia.However, he was visibly failing, and by the beginning of 632,increasingly

conscious that he was approaching the end of his life. He was immenselydistressedwhenhisbabysonIbrahimdied,andheweptbitterly,thoughhewascertain that hewould soon bewith him in Paradise. But when the traditionalmonthforthehajjapproached,heannouncedthathewouldleadthepilgrimageandsetoutattheendofFebruarywithallhiswivesandahugecrowdofhajjis,arrivingoutsideMecca inearlyMarch.He led theMuslims through theritualsthatwere so dear to the hearts of theArabs, giving them a new significance.Instead of being reunitedwith their tribal deities, theMuslimswere to gatherroundthe“house”—theKabah—builtbytheirancestorsAbrahamandIshmael.When they ran seven timesbetweenSafa andMarwah,Muhammad instructedthe pilgrims to remember the distress ofHagar, Ishmael’smother,when, afterAbrahamhadabandonedtheminthewilderness,shehadrunfranticallytoandfroinsearchofwaterforherbaby.GodhadsavedthembycausingthespringofZamzamtowellupfromthedepthsoftheearth.Nextthepilgrimsrecalledtheirunitywiththerestofhumanity,whentheymadeastandingvigilontheslopesofMount ‘Arafat,where, itwas said,Godhadmade a covenantwithAdam, thefatheroftheentirehumanrace.AtMina,theythrewstonesatthethreepillarsasa reminder of the constant struggle (jihad) with temptation that a godly liferequired. Finally, they sacrificed a sheep, in memory of the sheep AbrahamsacrificedafterhehadofferedhisownsontoGod.Today themosque ofNamira stands nearMount ‘Arafat on the spotwhere

Muhammad preached his farewell sermon to the Muslim community. Hereminded them to deal justlywith one another, to treatwomen kindly, and toabandon the blood feuds and vendettas inspired by the spirit of jahiliyyah.Muslim must never fight against Muslim. “Know that every Muslim is aMuslim’s brother, and that theMuslims are brethren. It is only lawful to takefrom a brother what he gives you willingly, so wrong not yourselves,”

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Muhammadconcluded,“OGod,haveInottoldyou?”Therewaspathosinthislast appeal. Muhammad knew that despite his repeated admonitions, not allMuslims fully understood his vision. Standing before them forwhat he knewwouldprobablybethelasttime,hemayhavewonderedwhetherallhiseffortshadbeeninvain.“Opeople,”hecriedsuddenly,“haveIfaithfullydeliveredmymessage toyou?”Therewasapowerfulmurmurofassentfromtheassembledcrowd: “O God, yes!” (Allahumma na‘m!) In a touchingly human plea forreassurance,Muhammad asked the same question again—and again; and eachtime the words “Allahumma na‘m” rumbled through the valley like thunder.Muhammad raised his forefinger to the heavens, and said: “O Allah, bearwitness.”46WhenhereturnedtoMedina,Muhammadbegantoexperienceincapacitating

headaches and fainting attacks, but he never retired permanently to bed. Hewouldoftenwrapaclotharoundhisachingtemplesandgotothemosquetoleadthe prayers or to address the people. Onemorning, he seemed to pray for anespeciallylongtimeinhonoroftheMuslimswhohaddiedatUhudandadded:“GodhasgivenoneofhisservantsthechoicebetweenthisworldandthatwhichiswithGod,andhehaschosenthelatter.”Theonlypersonwhoseemstohaveunderstood this reference to his imminent deathwasAbuBakr,who began toweepbitterly.“Gently,gently,AbuBakr,”Muhammadsaidtenderly.47

Eventually Muhammad collapsed in the apartment of Maymunah. His wiveshung lovingly over him, and noticed that he kept asking: “Where shall I betomorrow?Where shall I be tomorrow?” and they realized that he wanted toknowwhenhecouldbewith‘A’isha.Theyagreedthatheshouldbemovedtoherhutandnursedthere.Muhammadlayquietlywithhisheadin‘A’isha’slap,but people seemed to have believed that he was merely suffering from atemporaryindisposition.EventhoughAbuBakrrepeatedlywarnedthemthattheProphet was not long for this world, the community was in denial.When hebecametooill togoto themosque,heaskedAbuBakr to leadtheprayersforhim,butstillhewouldsometimesattendsalat,sittingquietlybesideAbuBakreventhoughhewastooweaktorecitethewordshimself.On12Rabi (June8,632),AbuBakrnoticedduringprayers that thepeople

were distracted, and knew at once that Muhammad must have entered themosque.Helookedmuchbetter.Indeed,somebodysaidthattheyhadneverseenhimsoradiant,andawaveofjoyandreliefsweptthroughthecongregation.AbuBakrinstantlymadereadytostanddown,butMuhammadputhishandsonhis

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shoulders,pushedhimgentlybacktotheheadofthecommunityandsatdownnexttohimuntiltheservicewasover.Afterwardshewentbackto‘A’isha’shutandlaypeacefullyinherlap.HeseemedsomuchimprovedthatAbuBakraskedleave to visit his wife, who lived on the other side of Medina. During theafternoon, ‘Ali and ‘Abbas both looked in and spread the good news thatMuhammadwasonthemend.Aseveningapproached,‘A’ishafelthimleaningmoreheavilyagainstherthanbefore,andheseemedtobelosingconsciousness.Still, shedidnot realizewhatwashappening.Asshesaid later,“Itwasdue tomyignoranceandextremeyouththattheProphetdiedinmyarms.”Sheheardhim murmur the words: “Nay, the most Exalted Companion in Paradise”—Gabrielhadcometofetchhim.48Lookingdown,‘A’ishadiscoveredthathehadgone.Carefullyshelaidhisheadonthepillowandbegantobeatherbreast,slapherface,andcryaloudinthetraditionalway.When the people heard thewomen lamenting the dead, they hurried ashen-

facedtothemosque.ThenewstravelledquicklythroughtheoasisandAbuBakrhurriedback to thecity.He tookone lookatMuhammad,kissedhis face, andbade him farewell. In the mosque, he found ‘Umar addressing the crowds.‘UmarabsolutelyrefusedtobelievethattheProphetwasdead:hissoulhadjustlefthisbodytemporarily,heargued,andhewouldcertainlyreturntohispeople.Hewould be the last of them all to die. The hysteria in ‘Umar’s compulsiveharangue must have been evident, because Abu Bakr murmured “Gently,‘Umar.”But ‘Umarsimplycouldnotstop talking.All thatAbuBakrcoulddowas step forward quietly and his composuremust have impressed the people,becausetheygraduallystoppedlisteningto‘Umar’stiradeandclusteredaroundhim.Abu Bakr reminded them that Muhammad had dedicated his life to the

preachingoftawhid,theunityofGod.Howcouldtheypossiblyimaginethathewas immortal? That would be tantamount to saying that he was divine—asecondgod.Constantly,MuhammadhadwarnedthemagainsthonoringhiminthesamewayasChristiansveneratedJesus:Hewasameremortal,nodifferentfromanybodyelse.TorefusetoadmitthatMuhammadhaddiedwas,therefore,todenyhismessage.ButaslongasMuslimsremainedtruetothebeliefthatGodalone was worthy of worship, Muhammad would live on in their minds. “Opeople,ifanyoneworshipsMuhammad,Muhammadisdead,”heendedfirmly.“IfanyoneworshipsGod,Godisalive,immortal.”49Finally,herecitedtheversethathadbeenrevealedtoMuhammadafterthebattleofUhud,whenmanyoftheMuslims had been shocked by the false rumor of his death: “Muhammad is

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naughtbutaMessenger;Messengershavepassedawaybeforehim.Why,ifheshould die or is slain,will you turn upon your heels? If anyman should turnabout upon his heels, he will not harm God in any way; and God willrecompensethethankful.”50Theversesmadesuchanimpactonthepeoplethatit was as though they were hearing them for the first time. ‘Umar wascompletely overcome. “ByGod,when I heardAbuBakr recite thosewords Iwasdumbfounded,so thatmylegswouldnotbearmeandI fell to thegroundknowingthattheapostlewasindeeddead.”51

Muhammadhadbeenascontroversialinhisdyingasinhisliving.Veryfewofhis followers had comprehended the full significance of his prophetic career.ThesefissureswithinthecommunityhadsurfacedatHudaybiyyah,whenmostof the pilgrims seem to have expected somethingmiraculous to occur. Peoplecame to Islam for very different reasons.Many were devoted to the ideal ofsocial justice,butnot toMuhammad’s idealofnonviolenceand reconciliation.The rebellious young highwaymen, who followed Abu Basir, had an entirelydifferent agenda from the Prophet. The Bedouin tribesmen, who had notvolunteered for the pilgrimage in 628, had a political rather than a religiouscommitment to Islam.From theverybeginning, Islamwasneveramonolithicentity.There is nothing surprising about this lack of unity. In the gospels, Jesus’s

disciples are often presented as obtuse and blind to the deeper aspect of hismission. Paradigmatic figures are usually so far ahead of their time that theircontemporaries fail to understand them, and, after their deaths, themovementsplinters—asBuddhismdividedintoHinayanaandMahayanaschoolsnot longafterthedeathofSiddhattaGotama.InIslam,too,thedivisionsthathadsplittheummahduringtheProphet’slifetimebecameevenclearerafterhisdeath.ManyoftheBedouin,whohadneverfullycomprehendedthereligiousmessageoftheQur’an, believed that Islam had diedwithMuhammad and felt free to secedefrom the ummah in the sameway as theywould renege on any treatywith adeceased chieftain. After the Prophet’s death, the communitywas lead by hiskalifa, his “successor.”The first four caliphswere elected by the people:AbuBakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman and ‘Ali, known as the “rightly guided” (rashidun)caliphs.TheyledwarsofconquestoutsideArabia,butat the timethesehadnoreligious significance. Like any statesmen or generals, the rashidun wereresponding to a political opportunity—the disintegration of the Persian andByzantine empires—rather than aQur’anic imperative. The terrible civilwars

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that resulted in the assassinations of ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, ‘Ali and Husayn, theProphet’sgrandson,werelatergivenareligioussignificancebutweresimplyaby-product of an extraordinarily accelerated transition from a peripheral,primitivepolitytothestatusofamajorworldpower.FarmoresurprisingthanthispoliticalturbulencewastheMuslims’response.

Their understanding of the Qur’an matured when they considered thesedisastrousevents.Nearlyeverysinglemajorreligiousandliterarydevelopmentin Islam has had its origin in a desire to return to the original vision of theProphet.Manywereappalledbythelavishlifestyleoflatercaliphs,andtriedtoreturntotheausterevisionoftheearlyummah.Mystics,theologians,historians,andjuristsaskedimportantquestions.HowcouldasocietythatkilleditsdevoutleadersclaimtobeguidedbyGod?Whatkindofmanshouldleadtheummah?Could rulers who lived in such luxury and condoned the poverty of the vastmajorityofthepeoplebetrueMuslims?These intense debates about the political leadership of the ummah played a

roleinIslamthatwassimilartothegreatChristologicaldebatesofthefourthandfifthcenturiesinChristianity.TheasceticspiritualityofSufismhaditsrootsinthisdiscontent.Sufis turned theirbackon the luxuryof thecourt, and tried tolive as austerely as the Prophet; they developed amysticismmodelled on hisnight journey and ascension to heaven. The Shi‘ah, the self-styled “party of‘Ali”,Muhammad’sclosestmalerelative,believedthattheummahmustbeledbyoneof‘Ali’sdirectdescendants,sincetheyalonehadinheritedtheProphet’scharisma.ShiisdevelopedapietyofprotestagainsttheinjusticeofmainstreamMuslim society and tried to return to the egalitarian spirit of theQur’an. Yetwhile these andmanyothermovements lookedback to the towering figureofMuhammad, theyall tooktheQur’anicvisionintoentirelynewdirections,andshowed that the original revelations had the flexibility to respond tounprecedented circumstances that is essential to any great world movement.From the very start, Muslims used their Prophet as a yardstick by which tochallengetheirpoliticiansandtomeasurethespiritualhealthoftheummah.This critical spirit is needed today. SomeMuslim thinkers regard the jihad

against Mecca as the climax of Muhammad’s career and fail to note that heeventuallyabjuredwarfareandadoptedanonviolentpolicy.WesterncriticsalsopersistinviewingtheProphetofIslamasamanofwar,andfailtoseethatfromtheveryfirsthewasopposed to the jahiliarroganceandegotismthatnotonlyfuelled the aggression of his time but is much in evidence in some leaders,Western and Muslim alike, today. The Prophet, whose aim was peace and

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practical compassion, is becoming a symbol of division and strife—adevelopmentthatisnotonlytragicbutalsodangeroustothestabilityonwhichthefutureofourspeciesdepends.

AttheendofmyfirstattempttowriteabiographyofMuhammad,IquotedtheprescientwordsoftheCanadianscholarWilfredCantwellSmith.Writinginthemid-twentiethcenturyshortlybeforetheSuezCrisis,heobservedthatahealthy,functioning Islam had for centuries helped Muslims cultivate decent valueswhichweintheWestshare,becausetheyspringfromacommontradition.SomeMuslimshaveproblemswithWesternmodernity.Theyhave turnedagainst theculturesof thePeopleof theBook,andhaveevenbeguntoIslamizetheirnewhatredofthesesisterfaiths,whichweresopowerfullyendorsedbytheQur’an.CantwellSmitharguedthatiftheyaretomeetthechallengeoftheday,MuslimsmustlearntounderstandourWesterntraditionsandinstitutions,becausetheyarenotgoingtodisappear.IfIslamicsocietiesdidnotdothis,hemaintained, theywould fail the test of the twentieth century. But he pointed out thatWesternpeoplealsohaveaproblem:“aninabilitytorecognizethattheysharetheplanetnotwithinferiorsbutwithequals.”

UnlessWesterncivilizationintellectuallyandsocially,politicallyand economically, and the Christian church theologically, canlearn to treatothermenwithfundamental respect, these twointheirturnwillhavefailedtocometotermswiththeactualitiesofthetwentiethcentury.Theproblemsraisedinthisare,ofcourse,asprofoundasanythingthatwehavetouchedonforIslam.52

The brief history of the twenty-first century shows that neither side has

masteredtheselessons.Ifwearetoavoidcatastrophe,theMuslimandWesternworldsmust learnnotmerely to toleratebut toappreciateoneanother.Agoodplace to start is with the figure of Muhammad: a complex man, who resistsfacile, ideologically-drivencategorization,whosometimesdid things thatweredifficult or impossible for us to accept, but who had profound genius andfounded a religion and cultural tradition thatwas not based on the sword butwhosename—“Islam”—signifiedpeaceandreconciliation.

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Glossary

Terms

‘abdSlaveahlal-beitPeopleofthehousehold.Muhammad’simmediatefamily.ahlal-kitabPeopleoftheBook.UsuallyJewsandChristians.Allahu akhbar “God is greater.” A phrase that reminds Muslims of thetranscendenceandsupremacyofGod.

al-RahimTheMerciful.OneofthenamesofGod.al-RahmanTheCompassionate.OneofthenamesofGod.AnsarTheHelpers.TheMedineseMuslims.‘asibiyyahTribalsolidarity.ayah(Plural:ayat)Sign,parable,symbol,averseoftheQur’an.badawahNomadic;henceBedouin.banatAllahDaughtersofAllah.Seegharaniq.dahrTime,fate.dhikrReminder,remembrance.dinReligion,wayoflife,morallaw,reckoning.fatahLiterally“opening.”Victory.gharaniq The three goddesses Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat. “Daughters ofAllah,”whowerecomparedtobeautiful“cranes”.

ghazu Acquisition raid, essential to the Bedouin economy. Ghazi: Warrior,raider,manofwar.

hadarahSettledlife—asopposedtobadawah.hadith(plural:ahadith)Report,amaximorsayingattributedtotheProphet.hajjThepilgrimagetoMecca.Hajji:pilgrim.hakamArbitrator.Muhammad’spoliticalroleinMedina.hanifOriginally a pre-Islamicmonotheist. In theQur’an, theword refers to apersonwhofollowedthehanifiyyah,thepurereligionofAbraham,beforethissplitintorivalsects.

haram Sacred; forbidden—hence “sanctuary,” especially the sanctuarysurroundingtheKabahwhereallviolencewasprohibited.

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hasab Ancestral honor; the particular virtues of a tribe that tribes-men hadinheritedfromtheirforefathers.

hijabCurtain,veil,acoveringforsomethingpreciousorsacred.hijrahMigration,especiallytheMuslims’migrationstoMedina.hilm A traditional Arab virtue which became central to Islam: forbearance,patience,mercy,tranquillity.

islamSurrender,submission,thenameeventuallyappliedtothereligionoftheQur’an.

‘israAnightjourney,especiallythatofMuhammadtoJerusalem.istighna’Haughtyself-reliance,aggressiveindependenceandself-sufficiency.jahiliyyahTraditionallytranslated“TimeofIgnorance,”andusedtoapplytothepre-IslamicperiodinArabia,butintheMuslimsourcesitsprimarymeaningisviolentandexplosiveirascibility,arrogance,tribalchauvinism.

jahimAnobscureword,usuallytranslated“ragingfire.”Hell.jihadStruggle,effort,endeavour.jilbabAgarment,cloak,orcovering.jinni (plural: jinn)“Unseenbeing,”usuallyoneof thespriteswhohaunted theArabiandesert, inspiredpoets, and ledpeopleastray; also stranger, apersonhitherto“unseen.”

KabahLiterally,cube.ThegraniteshrineintheHaram,dedicatedtoAllah.kafir (Plural:kafirun)Traditionally translated “unbeliever.”More accurately itrefers to somebody who ungratefully and aggressively rejects Allah andrefusestoacknowledgehisdependenceontheCreator.

kalifaThesuccessorofMuhammad,thecaliph.karimGeneroushero;theBedouinideal.kufrIngratitude;insolence.kunyaHonorarytitleassumedbyamanafterthebirthofhisfirstson;e.g.AbuBakr,thefatherofBakr.

laylaNight;also,awoman’sname.layla al-qadr Night of destiny; the night whenMuhammad received the firstrevelationfromGod.

masjidAplaceforprostration;later,mosque.mirbadAplacefordryingdates.mu’minThosewhofaithfullyliveuptotheMuslimideal.munafiq (Plural: munafiqun) Waverer; hypocrite; the term applied to anuncommittedMuslimwhofollowedIbnUbbay.

muruwah The chivalric code of the Bedouin, comprising loyalty to the tribe,

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courage,endurance,generosity,andreverenceforthetribalancestors.muslimApersonwhohassurrenderedhisorherentirebeingtoGod;whohasmadetheactofislam.

nadhirAmessengerwhobringsawarningtohispeople.nasrHelp,includingmilitarysupport.qiblahThedirectionofprayer.Qur’an“Recitation.”ThescripturethatwasrevealedtoMuhammadbyGod.rashidunThe“rightlyguided”ones;thefirstfourcaliphs.ruhSpirit.IntheQur’an,thedivinespiritofrevelation.sakinahThespiritofpeaceandserenity.salamPeace;oftenusedbyMuslimsasagreeting.salatTheritualworshipperformedfivetimesadaybyMuslims.salihatTheworksofjusticeprescribedbytheQur’an.sarayaAwifewithslavestatus,butwhosechildrenarefree.sayyidChiefofaclanortribe.shahadahTheMuslimdeclarationoffaith:“IbearwitnessthatthereisnogodbutAllahandthatMuhammadishisprophet.”

shari‘ah Originally, the path to the watering hole. The lifeline of a nomadictribe;laterappliedtothebodyofMuslimlaw.

shaytanA“satan.”A tempterwhocouldbeahumanbeingoroneof the jinn,wholeadspeopleastrayandinspiresfacile,emptydesires.

shirkIdolatry,associatingotherbeingswithGod,puttingotherdeitiesorpurelyhumanvaluesonthesamelevelasAllah.ThecardinalMuslimsin.

sunnahApath,awayoflife.suqMarket,tradefair.surahAchapteroftheQur’an.taqarrushAcquisition,gaining.Perhapstheoriginof“Quraysh.”taqwa’Mindfulness;anattitudeofsensitivitytoandconsciousnessofGod.tawafThesevenritualcircumambulationsaroundtheKabah.tawhid“Makingone”,theunityofGod,realizedintheintegrationofthehumanperson.

tazakkaPurification,refinement.AnearlynameforthereligionofIslam.ummahCommunity.umrahTheLesserPilgrimage.TheritesofthehajjthatwereperformedwithinthecityofMecca,excludingthoseperformedinthesurroundingcountryside.

yawmad-dinDayofreckoning;momentoftruth.zakatLiterally“purification”Alms;acharitabledonation to theneedy.Oneof

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theessentialpracticesofIslam.zalim Outsider; a person who is abhorred because he does not belong to thetribe.

Places

‘AbdShamsTheneighborhoodoftheQurayshanclanof‘AbdShamsinMecca.‘Aqabah The gully outsideMecca whereMuhammad first met with pilgrimsfromYathrib.

‘ArafatAmountainsixteenmileseastofMecca;oneofthestationsofthehajj,wherepilgrimsmadeanall-nightvigil.

BadrAwateringholeontheRedSeacoast,wheretheMuslimsachievedtheirfirstvictoryovertheMeccanarmy.

HijazAregioninthenorthernArabiansteppes.Hira’AmountainoutsideMecca,whereMuhammadreceivedthefirstrevelationinabout610.

Hudaybiyyah A well within the confines of the Meccan sanctuary, whereMuhammadmadeapeacetreatywiththeQurayshin628.

KhaybarAnagriculturalsettlementofJewishtribes,northofMedina.MarwahA hill to the east of the Kabah; during the hajj, pilgrimswould runseventimesbetweenMarwahandSafe.

MeccaThecommercialcityruledbytheQuraysh;thebirthplaceofMuhammad.MedinaThenamegivenbytheMuslimstothesettlementofYathrib;thecityoftheProphet.

MinaAvalleyaboutfivemileseastofMecca;oneofthestationsofthehajj.Mu’tahAtownneartheSyrianborder,wheretheMuslimarmysufferedaseveremilitarydefeat.

MuzdalifahOneofthestationsofthehajj;avalleybetweenMinaand‘Arafat,thoughtoriginallytohavebeenthehomeofthethundergod.

NakhlahAnoasistothesouth-eastofMecca,wherethegoddessAl-Uzzahhadhershrineandsanctuary.

QudhaydAcityontheRedSeacoast,wherethegoddessManathadhershrineandsanctuary.

SafaAhilltotheeastoftheKabah;duringthehajj,pilgrimswouldrunbetweenSafaandMarwah.

Sana’aAcityinsouthernArabia;nowthecapitalofYemen.Ta’ifAnagriculturalcolonytothesouth-eastofMecca;thesiteofthesanctuary

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ofthegoddessAl-LatandhomeofthetribeofThaqif.Ta’ifsuppliedMeccawithmostofitsfood,andmanyoftheQurayshhadsummerhomesthere.

UhudAmountaintothenorthofMedina;theMeccansinflictedaseveredefeatovertheMuslimarmyontheadjoiningplain.

‘UkazThesiteofoneofthegreattradefairs,whereapoetrycontestwasheldeachyear.

YathribAnagricultural settlement, some250milesnorthofMecca,populatedbyArabsandJewishtribes.Afterthehijrah,itbecameknownasMedina,thecityoftheProphet.

ZamzamThesacredspringintheMeccanHaram.

People

‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy A chief of the Khazraj clan in Medina, who led theoppositiontoMuhammad.

‘Abdullahibn‘Abdal-MuttalibThefatherofMuhammad,whodiedbeforehewasborn.

AbdullahibnJahshThecousinofMuhammad;brotherofhiswifeZaynab,andUbaydallah,thehanif.

‘Abbasibn‘Abdal-MuttalibTheuncleofMuhammad.‘Abdal-MuttalibMuhammad’sgrandfather.Abul-‘Asar-RabiThehusbandofMuhammad’sdaughter,Zaynab,whoresistedconversiontoIslamformanyyears.

AbuJa’rirat-TabariHistorianandbiographerofMuhammad.Abul-HakamibnHishamSeeAbuJahl.AbuBakrAcloseandtrustedfriendofMuhammad;oneofthefirstconvertstoIslam;thefatherof‘A’isha,thebelovedwifeoftheProphet.

Abu Bara’ Chief of the Bedouin tribe of ‘Amir; Muhammad married hisdaughterZaynabbintKhuzaymahafterthebattleofUhud.

AbuJahl“FatherofInsolence,” thenicknamegivenby theMuslims toAbul-Hakam;themostvirulentofMuhammad’searlyopponents.

Abu Lahab ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib The half-brother of Abu Talib; an earlyopponentofMuhammad.AfterAbuTalib’sdeath,hebecamethechiefoftheclanofHashim.

AbuSufyan ibnHarbChief of theQurayshan clan of ‘AbdShams; a leadingopponentofIslam.

Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-MuttalibMuhammad’s uncle, guardian, and protector.

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‘A’isha bint Abi BakrDaughter ofAbuBakr;Muhammad’s beloved youngwife.

Al-MuttalibOneoftheMeccanclans,closelyrelatedtoHashim,Muhammad’sclan.

‘Ali ibnAbiTalibAbuTalib’sson; thewardofMuhammadandKhadijah.HemarriedFatimah,theProphet’sdaughter.

AminahbintWahbMuhammad’smother;shediedduringhisinfancy.AmirAMeccanclan.‘AsadTheMeccanclantowhichKhadijahbelonged.AslamABedouintribe.‘Amr ibn al-‘As A leading warrior in the Meccan army and an opponent ofIslam.

AnasibnMalikAfriendofMuhammad;presentwhentheVersesof theHijabwererevealed.

AwsOneoftheArabtribesinMedina.BaniQaylah“TheSonsofQaylah.”TheArabtribethatmigratedfromsouthernArabia to Yathrib during the sixth century and later split into the Aws andKhazraj.

Bara’ ibn Mar’ar A chief of Khazraj; the patron of Muhammad during thePledgeofWar(622).

BilalAnAbyssinianslavewhoconvertedtoIslam;hebecamethefirstmuezzintocalltheMuslimstoprayer.

BudaylibnWarqaChiefoftheBedouintribeofKhuza’ah.FatimahbintMuhammadTheyoungestdaugtherofMuhammadandKhadijah;thewifeof‘Ali.

GabrielTheangelorspiritofthedivinerevelation.Ghassan An Arab tribe on the Byzantine border that had converted toChristianityandbecomeanallyofByzantium.

GhatafanABedouin tribe,based in thedesert regioneastofMedina,allied toIbnUbayyandtheopponentsofMuhammad.

Hafsah bint ‘Umar The daughter of ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab; the wife ofMuhammad;aspecialfriendof‘A’isha.

Hamzah ibn al-MuttalibOne ofMuhammad’s uncles; awarrior of prodigiousstrength,whoconvertedtoIslamanddiedatthebattleofUhud.

Hasanibn‘AliTheProphet’sgrandson,theoldersonof‘AliandFatimah.HashimTheMeccanclantowhichMuhammadbelonged.HindbintAbiUmayyahSeeUmmSalamah.

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Hindbint‘UtbahThewifeofAbuSufyan;animplacableenemyofMuhammad.Hubal A god probably imported from the Nabatean region and venerated inMecca;hisstoneeffigystoodbesidetheKabah.

Hulaysibn‘AlaqamahChiefoftheBedouintribeofal-Harith.Husaynibn‘AliTheyoungersonof‘AliandFatimah.HuyayibnAkhtabChiefoftheJewishtribeofNadir.IbnDughunnahABedouinchieftainconfederatedtotheQuraysh;hebecametheprotectorofAbuBakr.

IbnIshaqMuhammadibnIshaq;thefirstbiographerofMuhammad.IbnSa‘dMuhammadibnSa‘d;MuslimhistorianandbiographeroftheProphet.Ibn Ubayy See ‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy. ‘Ikrimah Son of Abu Jahl; one of theleadersoftheMeccanoppositiontoMuhammad.

Ja’faribnAbiTalibCousinofMuhammad.JumahAMeccanclanofQuraysh.JurhamABedouintribe.Juwayriyyah bint al-Harith Daughter of a Bedouin chieftain; wife ofMuhammad.

Khadijahbintal-KhuwaylidMuhammad’sfirstwife.Khalid ibn al-Walid One of Mecca’s outstanding warriors; opponent ofMuhammadformanyyears.

KhazrajOneoftheArabtribesinMedina.Khuza’ahOneof theBedouin tribes thathadcontrolled theMeccansanctuarybeforethearrivaloftheQuraysh.

KilabAnArabtribealliedtotheJewishtribeofQuraysh.MakhzumAMeccanclanofQuraysh.MaryamAnEgyptianChristian;sarayawifeofMuhammad.Maymunahbint al-HarithSister of ‘Abbas;married toMuhammadduring theLesserPilgrimageof629.

Mus‘abibn‘UmayrTheMuslimsenttoinstructtheMedinesebeforethehijrah.Mu’timibn‘AdiMuhammad’sprotectorduringhis lastyears inMeccabeforethehijrah.

NadirApowerfulJewishtribeofMedinaopposedtoMuhammad;exiledfromMedina after an assassination attempt; took refuge in Khaybar. Nadiri: amemberofNadir.

Qaswa’Muhammad’sfavoritecamel.Qaynuqa‘ A Jewish tribe inMedina that controlled themarket; they rebelledagainstMuhammadandwereexpelledfromMedina.

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Quraysh Muhammad’s tribe, rulers of Mecca; Adj. Qurayshan; Qurayshi; amemberofthetribe.

Qurayzah A Jewish tribe that collaborated with Mecca during the Battle ofTrench;themenwereexecuted,thewomenandchildrensoldintoslavery.

QusayyibnKilabThefounderofthetribeofQuraysh.RuqayyahbintMuhammadDaughterofKhadijahandMuhammad;married to‘Uthmanibn‘Affan.

Sa‘dibnMu‘adhAchieftainoftheAwstribeinMedina.Sa‘dibn‘UbadahAchieftainofKhazrajtribeinMedina.Safiyyah bint Huyay Muhammad’s Jewish wife, married to him after theconquestofKhaybar.

Safwanibnal-Mu‘attalAfriendof‘A’isha;Muhammad’sMedineseopponentsspreadslanderousrumorsabouttheirrelationship.

Safwan ibn Umayyah One of the leading members of the opposition toMuhammadinMecca.

SawdahbintZam‘ahWifeofMuhammad;thecousinandsister-in-lawofSuhaylibn‘Amr.

Suhaylibn‘AmrChiefoftheclanofAmirinMecca;adevoutpagan;aleadingmemberoftheoppositiontoMuhammad.

ThalabahOneofthetwentyJewishtribesofYathrib/Medina.ThaqifAnArab tribe, settled inTa’if; the alliesof theQuraysh;opponentsofMuhammad.

‘Ubaydallahibnal-HarithAnexperiencedQurayshanwarriorwhoconvertedtoIslam.

‘Ubaydallah ibn Jahsh Cousin of Muhammad; a hanif who converted toChristianity.

Umamah bint ‘Abu l-‘As The granddaughter ofMuhammad; the daughter ofZaynabbintMuhammad.

‘Umaribnal-KhattabThenephewofAbuJahl;atfirstpassionatelyopposedtoMuhammad,butlaterbecameoneofhisclosestcompanions.

UmayyahApowerfulMeccanclanofQuraysh.Ummayah ibn Khalaf Chief of the Meccan clan of Jumah; an inveterateopponentofMuhammad.

Umm Habibah Daughter of Abu Sufyan; one of the émigrés to Abyssinia;marriedtoMuhammadonherreturn.

UmmHan’bintAbiTalibMuhammad’scousin.UmmKulthumbintMuhammadDaughterofMuhammadandKhadijah;married

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‘Uthmanibn‘AffanafterthedeathofRuqayyah.UmmSalamahbintAbiUmayyahOneofthemostsophisticatedandintelligentofMuhammad’swives.

‘Urwah ibn Mas‘ud A member of Thaqif; an ally of the Quraysh and anopponentofMuhammad.

‘UtbahibnRabi‘ahAleadingmemberoftheMeccanclanof‘AbdShams,withasummerhomeinTa’if;anopponentofMuhammad.

‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan One of the earliest converts, with family connections tosomeof themostpowerfulclansinMecca;hebecameMuhammad’sson-in-law.

Waraqah Ibn Nawfal Cousin of Khadijah; a hanif who had converted toChristianity.

Zayd ibn al-Harith The adopted son ofMuhammad andKhadijah;married toZayabbintJahsh,Muhammad’scousin.

Zaydibn‘AmrOneoftheearlyhanifs,whowasdrivenoutofMeccabecauseofhisstingingcriticismofthetraditionalpaganreligion;theuncleof‘Umaribnal-Khattab.

Zaynab bint Jahsh Muhammad’s cousin; married first to Zayd ibn al-Harith;aftertheirdivorce,shemarriedMuhammad.

Zaynab bint KhuzaymahMuhammad’s wife; the daughter of the chief of theBedouin tribe of ‘Amir; she died eight months after her marriage to theProphet.

ZaynabbintMuhammadThedaughterofMuhammadandKhadijah;thewifeof‘Abual-‘As;adevoutpaganwhoformanyyearsresistedconversiontoIslam.

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Notes

1.Mecca

1. TorAndrae,Muhammad: TheMan andHis Faith, trans. TheophilMenzel(London,1936),59.

2. Quoted in R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (Cambridge,1953),83.

3. Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal andKingston,ON,2002),46.

4.Ibid.,63.5.Labidibn‘Rabi‘ah,Mu’allaqah,5.81, in Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,63;cf.Qur’an2:170,43:22–24.

6.Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,72.7.Ibid.,29.8.Zuhayr ibn ‘AbiSalma,verses38–39 in Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,84.

9.Nicholson,LiteraryHistory,93.10. Mohammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy,Discourse(Minneapolis,1999),17–20.

11.Ibid.,30.12.Ibid.,11–12.13.Ibid.,38.14.Qur’an105.15. JohannesSloek,Devotional Language, trans.HenrickMossin (Berlin andNewYork,1996),89–90.

16.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,32.17.Ibid.,43.18.MuhammadibnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,120, inA.Guillaume, trans.,TheLife of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah (London,1955); cf. Leila Ahmed, Women and Gender in Islam (New Haven and

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London,1992),42.19.Ibid.,155,Guillaumetranslation.20.Qur’an103:2–3.21.Qur’an6:70,7:51.22.WilhelmSchmidt,TheOriginoftheIdeaofGod(NewYork,1912),passim.23.Qur’an10:22–24,24:61,63,39:38,43:87,106:1–3.24. Izutsu, God and Man in the Koran, Semantics of the KoranicWeltanschauung(Tokyo,1964),93–101,124–129.

25. F. E. Peters, The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the HolyPlaces(Princeton,1994),24–27.

26.Ibnal-Kalbi,TheBookofIdolsinPeters,Hajj,29.27.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,22–24.28. Ibid., 79–80; Reza Aslan,No god but God, The Origins, Evolution, andFutureofIslam(NewYorkandLondon,2005),9–13.

29.Genesis16.30.FlaviusJosephus,TheAntiquitiesoftheJews,1.12.2.31.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,25–27.32.Psalm135:5.33.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsof Islam,89–144;Aslan,NogodbutGod,13–15;Izutsu,GodandMan,107–18.

34.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,143,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.35.Ibid.,145,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.36.Peters,Hajj,39–40.37.Izutsu,GodandMan,148.38.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,151,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,105.39.Qur’an 96 inMichael Sells, ed. and trans.,Approaching theQur’an: TheEarlyRevelations(Ashland,OR,1999).MuhammadAsadtranslateslines6–8:“Verilymanbecomesgrosslyover-weeningwheneverhebelieveshimself tobeself-sufficient:for,behold,untothySustainerallmustreturn.”

40.Qur’an53:5–9,Sellstranslation.41.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,153,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.42.Ibid.43.Ibid.,154.44.Qur’an21:91,19:16–27.Sells,ApproachingtheQur’an,187–93.45.Qur’an97,Sellstranslation.46.RudolfOtto,TheIdeaoftheHoly:AnInquiryintotheNonRationalFactorintheIdeaoftheDivineanditsrelationtotherational,trans.JohnW.Harvey,

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2nded.,(London,OxfordandNewYork,1950),12–40.47.Qur’an93,Sellstranslation.

2.Jahiliyyah

1.ThiswasnotedbytheseventhcenturyMeccanhistorianIbnShifanal-Zuhri,whoisquotedinW.MontgomeryWatt,MuhammadatMecca(Oxford,1953),87.

2.MuhammadibnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,161,inA.Guillaume,trans.anded.,TheLifeofMuhammad:ATranslationofIshaq’sSiratRasulAllah(London,1955),115.

3. Muhammad ibn Sa’d,Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, 4.1.68, in Martin Lings,Muhammad:HisLifeBasedontheEarliestSources(London,1983),47.

4.IbnSa’d,3.1.37,Kitabat-Tabaqat,inLings,Muhammad,47.5.Qur’an27:45–46,28:4.6.Jalalal-DinSuyuti,al-itqanfi’ulumal-aq’ran,quotedinMaximeRodinson,Mohammed,trans.AnneCarter(London,1971),74.

7.Bukhari,Hadith1.3,inLings,Muhammad,44–45.8.Qur’an20:114,75:16–18.9.MichaelSells,ed.andtrans.,ApproachingtheQur’an:TheEarlyRevelations(Ashland,OR,1999),xvi.

10.Sells,ApproachingtheQur’an,183–84.11. Mircea Eliade, Yoga: Immorality and Freedom, trans. Willard Trask(London,1958),56.

12.Sells,ApproachingtheQur’an,183–204.SeealsoQur’an81:8–9.13.SeeQur’an82:17–18,83:8–9,19.14.Sells,ApproachingtheQur’an,xliii.15.Qur’an81:1–6,14,inSells,ApproachingtheQur’an.16.Qur’an99:6–9,Sellstranslation.17.Qur’an90:13–16,Sellstranslation.18.Qur’an81:26,Sellstranslation.19.Qur’an88:21–22.20.Qur’an88:17–20,Sellstranslation.21.Watt,MuhammadatMecca,68.22.Qur’an26:214.23.Qur’an17:26–27.24.AbuJa’rirat-Tabari,Ta’rikhar-Rasulwa’lMuluk,1171inGuillaume,Life

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ofMuhammad,117–118.25.Qur’an83:4,37:12–19.26.Qur’an45:23,36:77–83.27.Qur’an83:10–12.28.Qur’an6:108,27:45,10:71–72.MohammedA.Bamyeh,TheSocialOriginsofIslam,Mind,Economy,Discourse(Minneapolis,1999),180–184.

29.Qur’an10:72.30. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief (Princeton, 1979), 44–46;Toshihiko Izutsu, Ethico-Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Montreal andKingston,ON,2002),132–133.

31.TorAndrae,Muhammad:TheManandHisFaith, trans.TheophilMenzel(London:1936),22–35;W.MontgomeryWatt,Muhammad’sMecca:Historyin theQur’an (Edinburgh, 1988), 69–73;Watt,MuhammadatMecca, 103–109;Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,208–9.

32.IbnSa’d,Kitabat-Tabaqat8i,137,inBamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,208.33.Tabari,Ta’rikhar-Rasul,1192,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,165.34.Qur’an53:12.35.Qur’an53:26.36.Tabari,Ta’rikhar-Rasul,1192,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,166.37.IbnSa’d,Kitabat-Tabaqat,137,inAndrae,Muhammad,22.38.Tabari,Ta’rikhar-Rasul,1192,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,166.39.Qur’an22:52.40.Qur’an53:19–23, inMuhammadAsad, trans.anded.,TheMessageof theQur’an(Gibraltar,1980).

41.Qur’an39:23,translationbyIzutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,197.42.Qur’an59:21,Asadtranslation.43.Qur’an29:17,10:18,39:43.44.Qur’an112,Sellstranslation.45.RezaAslan,NogodbutGod:TheOrigins,EvolutionandFutureof Islam(LondonandNewYork,2005),43–46.

46.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,167–8,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,119.47.Qur’an17:46,39:45.48.Qur’an38:6.49.Qur’an38:4–5.50.Qur’an41:6.51.Qur’an80:1–10.52. Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts, 66; Cantwell Smith, Faith and Belief,

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39–40.53.Qur’an29:61–63,2:89,27:14.54.Qur’an17:23–24,46:15.Asadtranslation.55.Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,127–57.56.Qur’an7:75–76,39:59,31:17–18,23:45–47,38:71–75.57.Qur’an15:94–96,21:36,18:106,40:4–5,68:56,22:8–9.58.Qur’an41:3–5,83:14,2:6–7.59.Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,28–45.60.Ibid.,28.61.Ibid.,68–69,Qur’an14:47,39:37,15:79,30:47,44:16.62.Qur’an90:13–17.63.Qur’an25:63,Asadtranslation.64. Qur’an 111. This is the only occasion when the Qur’anmentions one ofMuhammad’senemiesbyname.

65.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,183–4inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,130–31.

66.Ibid.,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,132.67.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,227,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,157.68.Ibid.,228,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,158.69.Aslan,NogodbutGod,46.70.Qur’an11:100.71.Qur’an2:100,13:37,16:101,17:41,17:86.72.Qur’an109,Sellstranslation.73.Qur’an2:256,Asadtranslation.

3.Hijrah

1.MuhammadibnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,278,inA.Guillaume,trans.anded.,TheLifeofMuhammad(London,1955),169–70.

2.Ibid.,280,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,193.3.Qur’an46:29–32,72:1,inMuhammadAsad,trans.anded.,TheMessageoftheQur’an(Gibraltar,1980).ThisisAsad’sexplanationofthisincident,giveninthetextualnotesthataccompanythispassage,whichheadmitsistentative.

4.Qur’an17:1,Asadtranslation.5. Muhammad ibn Jarir at-Tabari, Ta’rikh ar Rasul wa’l Muluk, 2210,Muhammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy,Discourse(Minneapolis,1999),144–45.

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6.Qur’an53:15–18 inMichaelSells, trans.anded.,Approaching theQur’an;TheEarlyRevelations(Ashland,OR,1999).

7.Sells,ibid.,xvii–xviii.8.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,271,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.9.Qur’an3:84,cf.2:136,Asadtranslation.10.Toshihiko Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts in theQur’an (Montreal andKingston,ON,2002),189.

11.Qur’an3:85,Asadtranslation.12.Qur’an12:111.13.Qur’an5:69,Asadtranslation.14.Qur’an5:48,Asadtranslation.15.Qur’an24:35,Asadtranslation.16.MartinLings,Muhammad:HisLifeBasedontheEarliestSources(London:IslamicSocietyTexts,1983),57,105–111;W.MontgomeryWatt,Muhammadat Mecca (Oxford, 1953), 141–49; Watt, Muhammad at Medina (Oxford,1956),173–231.

17.RezaAslan,NogodbutGod:TheOrigins,EvolutionandFutureof Islam(LondonandNewYork,2005),54;GordonNewby,AHistoryoftheJewsinArabia(Columbia,SC,1988),75–79,84–85;MosheGil,“OriginoftheJewsofYathrib,”JerusalemStudiesinArabicandIslam(1984).

18.Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi,Kitabal-Maghazi inAslan,NogodbutGod,54.

19.IbnIshaq,287,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.20.Ibid.,289,inBamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,153–54.21.Ibid.,291–2,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.22.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,153–3.23.Qur’an5:5–7;cf.ActsofApostles15:19–21,29.24.Qur’an10:47.25.Qur’an8:30,27:48–51.26.Qur’an60:1,47–13.27. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad’s Mecca: History of the Qur’an(Edinburgh,1988),101–6;MuhammadatMecca,149–51.

28.Watt,Muhammad’sMecca,25.29.Izutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,56.30.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,297,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.31.Ibid.,304–5,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.32.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,216–217.

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33.Aslan,NogodbutGod,56–59.34.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.35.Qur’an9:40.36.ClintonBennet,“Islam,”inJeanHolmwithJohnBowker,eds,SacredPlace(London, 1994), 88–89; FatimaMernissi,Women and Islam: An HistoricalandTheologicalEnquiry,trans.MaryJoLakeland(Oxford,1991),106–108.

37.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,247,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,236.38.Ibid.,414,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.39.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,218.40.Qur’an8:72–73,Asadtranslation.41.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,341,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,232.42.Qur’an43:37–43,Asadtranslation.43. Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, 386, translation in Izutsu, Ethico-ReligiousConcepts,29.

44.Qur’an4:137,Asadtranslation.45.Qur’an2:8–15,Asadtranslation.46.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,341,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.47.Watt,MuhammadatMedina,201–2.48.D.S.Margoliouth,TheRelationsbetweenArabsandIsraelitesPriortotheRiseofIslam(London,1924);SaloWittmayerBaron,ASocialandReligiousHistory of the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 3:261;HannahRahman, “The Conflict between the Prophet and theOpposition inMedina,”Der Islam (1985); Moshe Gil, “The Medinan Opposition to theProphet,”JerusalemStudiesinArabicandIslam(1987).

49.S.N.Goitein,JewsandArabs(NewYork,1960),63;Newby,HistoryoftheJews,78–90;Aslan,NogodbutGod,97–98.

50.DavidJ.Helperin,“TheIbnSayyadTraditionsandtheLegendofal-Dajjal,”JournaloftheAmericanOrientalSociety(1976).

51.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah.,362,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.52.Qur’an6:151.53.Qur’an2:111–113,120.54.Qur’an2:116,19:88–92,10:68,5:73–77,116–118.55.Qur’an5:73.56.Qur’an3:115,Asadtranslation.57.Qur’an2:67–68,Asadtranslation.58.Qur’an3:65.59. Qur’an 3:67, in Arthur J. Arberry, trans. and ed., The Koran Interpreted

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(Oxford,1964).60.Qur’an6:159,Asadtranslation.61.Qur’an6:161–3.62.Qur’an2:144,Asadtranslation.63.Qur’an2:150,Asadtranslation.

4.Jihad

1. Muhammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy,Discourse(Minneapolis,1999),198.

2.W.MontgomeryWatt,MuhammadatMedina(Oxford,1956),2–5.3.Qur’an2:216.4.Qur’an 22:36–40, inMuhammadAsad, trans.,TheMessage of theQur’an(Gibraltar,1980).

5.Qur’an2:190.6.Watt,MuhammadatMedina,6–8;Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,198–99;MarshallG.S.Hodgson,TheVentureof Islam:ConscienceandHistory inaWorld Civilization, 3 vols (Chicago and London, 1974), 1:175–76; TorAndrae, Muhammad: The Man and His Faith, trans. Theophil Menzel(London,1936),195–201.

7.Qur’an2:217,Asadtranslation.8. Bamyeh, Social Origins of Islam, 200, 231; Andrae,Muhammad, 203–6;Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 11–20; Martin Lings, Mohammad: His LifeBasedontheEarliestSources(London,1983),138–59.

9.MuhammadIbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,435,inA.Guillaume,trans.anded.,TheLifeofMuhammad:ATranslationofIshaq’sSiratRasulAllah(London,1955).

10.Ibid.11.Qur’an8:5–9.12. Muhammad Ibn Jarir at-Tabari, Ta’rikh ar-Rasul wa’l Muluk,in FatimaMernissi, Women in Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry, trans.MaryJoLakeland(Oxford,1991),90.

13.Qur’an8:8.14.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,442,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.15.Qur’an47:5.16.Qur’an3:147–48,8:16–17,61:5.17.Qur’an2:193–194.

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18.Qur’an8:62–63.19.Qur’an5:45,Asadtranslation.20.Qur’an4:90.21.RezaAslan,NogodbutGod:TheOrigins,EvolutionandFutureof Islam(NewYorkandLondon,2005),89–90;Watt,MuhammadatMedina,225–43.

22.NabiaAbbott,Aishah,theBelovedofMuhammad(Chicago,1992),67.23.Mernissi,WomenandIslam,106–11.24. Muhammad al-Bukhari, Al-Sahih (Beirut, 1978); Mernissi, Women andIslam, 142–3; LeilaAhmed,Women andGender in Islam (NewHaven andLondon,1992),52–53.

25.IbnIshaq,SiratRaszulAllah,543,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.26. Aslan, No god but God, 89–90; Lings, Muhammad, 160–62; Andrae,Muhammad,207;Watt,MuhammadatMedina,190–210.

27.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,296,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.28.M.J.Kister,“Al-Hira:SomeNotesonitsRelationswithArabia,”JerusalemStudiesinArabicandIslam6(1985).

29. Lings, Muhammad, 170–97; Andrae, Muhammad, 210–2213; Watt,MuhammadatMedina,20–30.

30.IbnIshaq,717,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.31.Qur’an4:3–3,Asadtranslation.32. Watt,Muhammad at Medina, 272–83, 289–93; cf. Ahmed, Women andGenderinIslam,43–44,52.

33.Mernissi,WomenandIslam,123,182.34.Qur’an24:33,inArthurJ.Arberry,TheKoranIntepreted(Oxford,1964).35.Mernissi,WomenandIslam,162–3;Ahmed,WomenandGender in Islam,53.

36. Lings, Muhammad, 203–4; Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 185, 211–17;Aslan,NogodbutGod,90–91;Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,201–2.

37.Lings,Muhammad,207–8.38.Qur’an24:53,32:29,47:35,46.Watt,MuhammadatMedina,231–4.39. Qur’an 4:102; Lings,Muhammad, 208–10; Mernissi,Women and Islam,163–7.

40.Lings,Muhammad,21–212;Mernissi,WomenandIslam,153–4,172.41.Qur’an49:2,4–5.42. Muhammad ibn Sa‘d, Tabaqat al-kubra (Beirut, n.d.), 8:174; Mernissi,WomenandIslam,172.

43.Lings,Muhammad,107–8;Mernissi,WomenandIslam,174.

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44.Tabari,Tafsir (Cairo,n.d.),22:10;Mernissi,WomenandIslam, 115–31. Insome versions, allMuhammad’swives, not simplyUmmSalamah, take theinitiative.

45.Qur’an33:35.46.Qur’an4:37.47.Qur’an4:23.48.Qur’an2:225–240,65:1–70.49.Tabari,Tafsir,9:235;Mernissi,WomenandIslam,131–32;Ahmed,WomenandGenderinIslam,53.

50.Qur’an4:19.51.Tabari,Tafsir,8:261;Mernissi,WomenandIslam,132.52.Mernissi,WomenandIslam,154–59.53.IbnSa’d,Tabaqat,8:205.54.Ibid.55.Qur’an4:34.56.IbnSa’d,Tabaqat,8:204.57.Lings,Muhammad,215–30;Watt,MuhammadatMedina,36–58;Mernissi,WomenandIslam,168–70.

58.IbnIshaq,677,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.59.Qur’an33:12.60.Qur’an33:10–11.61.IbnIshaq,683,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.62.Ibid.,689.63. Aslan,No god but God, 91–98; Norman A. Stillman, The Jews of ArabLands(Philadelphia,1979).

64.Qur’an29:46,Asadtranslation.

5.Salam

1. Muhammad ibn ‘Umar al-Waqidi, Kitab al-Maghazi, 488–490, in MartinLings,Muhammad:HisLifeBasedon theEarliest Sources (London, 1983),227.

2.FatimaMernissi,WomenandIslam:AnHistoricalandTheologicalEnquiry,trans.MaryJoLakeland(Oxford,1991),17–172.

3.Qur’an33:51,63.4.Qur’an33:59–60.5. Lings,Muhammad, 212–214; Tor Andrae,Muhammad: The Man and His

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Faith,trans.TheophilMenzil(London,1936),215–16.6.Qur’an33:36–40.7. Qur’an 33:53, in Muhammad Asad, trans., The Message of the Qur’an(Gibraltar,1980).

8.Qur’an33:53,59.9.Mernissi,Womenand Islam, 88–191;LeilaAhmed,Women andGender inIslam(NewHavenandLondon,1992),53–57.

10. Mernissi, Women and Islam, 177–78; Lings, Muhammad, 235–45; W.MontgomeryWatt,MuhammadatMedina (Oxford, 1956), 185–86;Ahmed,WomenandGenderinIslam,51.

11.MuhammadIbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah, 726, inA.Guillaume, trans. anded., The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah(London,1955).

12.Qur’an12:18,Asadtranslation.13.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,735,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.14.Qur’an24:11.15. Lings, Muhammad, 247–55; Andrae, Muhammad, 219–27; Watt,MuhammadatMedina, 46–59, 234–35;MohammadA.Bamyeh,TheSocialOriginsofIslam,Mind,Economy,Discourse(Minneapolis,1999),222–27.

16.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,748,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.17.Ibid.,741.18.Ibid.,743.19.Ibid.20.Ibid.,745.21.Watt,MuhammadatMedina,50.22.Qur’an2:193.23.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,748,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.24.Ibid.,747.25.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,226–27.26.Mernissi,WomeninIslam,184–86.27.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,747,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.28.Ibid.,748.29.Lings,Muhammad,254.30.Ibid.,255.31.Qur’an48:26,translationbyToshihikoIzutsu,Ethico-ReligiousConceptsintheQur’an(MontrealandKingston,ON,2002),31.

32.Qur’an48:29,inArthurJ.Arberry,TheKoranInterpreted(Oxford,1964).

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33.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,751,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.34.Qur’an110,inMichaelSells,ed.andtrans.,Approaching theQur’an,TheEarlyRevelations(Ashland,OR,1999).

35.IbnSa‘d,Kitabal-Tabaqatal-Kabir,7:147,inLings,Muhammad,271.36.Lings,Muhammad,282.37.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,717,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.38.Qur’an17:82,Arberrytranslation.39.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,821,inAsad,MessageoftheQur’an,794.40.Qur’an49:13,Asadtranslation.41.AbuJa’farat-Tabari,Tariqar-Rasulwa’-Muluk,1642,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad,553.

42.Lings,Muhammad,311.43.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,886,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.44.Bamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,227–29.45.Waqidi,837–38,inBamyeh,SocialOriginsofIslam,228.46.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,969,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.47.Ibid.,1006.48.Ibid.,1006.49.Ibid.,1012.50.Qur’an3:144,Arberrytranslation.51.IbnIshaq,SiratRasulAllah,1013,inGuillaume,LifeofMuhammad.52.WilfredCantwellSmith, Islam inModernHistory (PrincetonandLondon,1957),305.

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AbouttheAuthor

Karen Armstrong is the author of nearly twenty books, including The GreatTransformation,AHistoryofGod,andTheSpiralStaircase,aspiritualmemoir,among other bestsellers. An internationally renowned expert on religion,Armstrongisapowerfulvoiceforinterfaithunderstanding.ShelivesinEngland.

Visit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favoriteHarperCollinsauthors.

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BOOKSINTHEEMINENTLIVESSERIES

JosephEpsteinonAlexisdeTocqueville

RobertGottliebonGeorgeBalanchine

ChristopherHitchensonThomasJefferson

PaulJohnsononGeorgeWashington

MichaelKordaonUlyssesS.Grant

PeterKrameronSigmundFreud

EdmundMorrisonBeethoven

FrancineProseonCaravaggio

MattRidleyonFrancisCrick

FORTHCOMINGBOOKS

LouisBegleyonFranzKafka

ToniBentleyonLadyEmmaHamilton

BillBrysononWilliamShakespeare

FrancineduPlessixGrayonMadamedeStael

RossKingonMachiavelli

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BrendaMaddoxonGeorgeEliot

GENERALEDITOR:JAMESATLAS

Page 153: Dedication - s e v i e s · of the Painters, Dr. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets to Lytton Strachey’s Eminent Victorians. Pairing great subjects with writers known for their strong

ALSOBYKARENARMSTRONG

TheGreatTransformation:TheBeginningofOurReligiousTraditions

AShortHistoryofMyth

TheSpiralStaircase:MyClimbOutofDarkness

TheBattleforGod

AHistoryofGod:

The4,000-YearQuestofJudaism,Christianity,andIslam

IntheBeginning:ANewInterpretationofGenesis

Muhammad:ABiographyoftheProphet

Islam:AShortHistory

Buddha

ThroughtheNarrowGate:AMemoirofSpiritualDiscovery

Jerusalem:OneCity,ThreeFaiths

HolyWar:TheCrusadesandTheirImpactonToday’sWorld

VisionsofGod:FourMedievalMysticsandTheirWritings

TheGospelAccordingtoWoman

Page 154: Dedication - s e v i e s · of the Painters, Dr. Johnson’s Lives of the Poets to Lytton Strachey’s Eminent Victorians. Pairing great subjects with writers known for their strong

Copyright

MUHAMMAD.Copyright©2006byKarenArmstrong.All rightsreservedunderInternational and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of therequiredfees,youhavebeengrantedthenonexclusive,nontransferableright toaccess and read the text of this e-bookon-screen.Nopart of this textmaybereproduced,transmitted,downloaded,decompiled,reverse-engineered,orstoredinorintroducedintoanyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,inanyformorbyanymeans,whetherelectronicormechanical,nowknownorhereinafterinvented,withouttheexpresswrittenpermissionofHarperCollinse-books.

FIRSTEDITION

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataArmstrong,Karen.Muhammad:aprophetforourtime/KarenArmstrong.—1sted.p.cm.—(Eminentlives)ISBN-10:0-06-059897-2ISBN-13:978-0-06-059897-61.Muhammad,Prophet,d.632—Biography.2.Islam—21stCentury.I.Title.

II.Series.BP75.A7642006297.6'3—dc22[B]

2006045864

EPUBEditionAUGUST2013ISBN9780062316837

0607080910ID/RRD10987654321

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*InArabic,thewordAllahsimplymeans“God.”*The terms “clan” and “tribe” are not easy to distinguish from one another, but here “clan” refers to afamilygroupwithinthetribe.*Afterthebirthoftheirfirstson,Arabscustomarilytakeanhonorarytitleknownasthekunya.AbuBakrmeans “the father of Bakr.” His wife would have been known as Umm Bakr, “the mother of Bakr.”MuhammadwasoftenknownasAbual-Qasim.*The Sabians are thought to be a monotheistic sect in southern Arabia (modern Yemen), though somecommentatorsbelievethattheQur’anrefersheretotheZoroastriansofthePersianempire.