David Traum USC Institute for Creative Technologies

William Swartout USC Institute for Creative Technologies

Jonathan Gratch USC Institute for Creative Technologies

Stacy Marsella USC Information Sciences Institute

Fight, Flight, or Negotiate: Believable

Strategies for Conversing under Crisis

OutlineOutline

1. Background: ICT Virtual Humans and the SASO Project

2. Adversarial Negotiation: theory overview

3. Implementation of Negotiation Strategies in Vhumans

4. Preliminary Evaluation5. Current & Next Steps

ICT Virtual Human Project (2000 ICT Virtual Human Project (2000 - …) - …)

Push state of the art in integrated virtual human capabilities Basic research

in a number of component fields Emotion Perception human animation natural language dialogue

On overlap & interaction between these areas

Theory put to practice in integrated vhumans Vhumans employed for real tasks

Immersive training applications Tested on target user population

Virtual Human Example Virtual Human Example ApplicationsApplicationsMission Rehearsal Exercise (MRE)Domain: Platoon-level peacekeepingTraining Activity: Decision-making & Teamwork

Only team negotiation

Stability and Support Operations (SASO-ST)

Domain:Bi-lateral (& Multi-lateral) Negotiation

Training Activity : Building Trust & Negotiation Strategies

SASO-ST: SASO-ST: DealingDealingWith Doctors With Doctors ScenarioScenario

•Mission:

•Convince Doctor to move (but don’t give op details)

•Gain working relationship with Doctor

•Doctor Perez runs NGO clinic

•Doctor values Neutrality

•No prior relationship with Doctor

•Recently:

•Rise in insurgent activity

•More casualties in clinic

•Planned operations

Speech Recognition (Sonic)

Semantic Parser

Motion/ Gesture Scheduler (BEAT)

Text to Speech (Rhetorical)

SimulationEnvironment

BDI Com

mun

icat

ion

Bus

Audio (Protools)

Voice Input

UT

Projection System

Speakers (10.2)

Soar Planning

DialogueAction Selection

Per

cept

ion

Emotion

NLU pragmatics

OSS

ICT Virtual Human Architecture

NLG

Dialogue Approach:Layered Dialogue Approach:Layered Information StateInformation State

Layer captures coherent aspect of communicative interaction (e.g., turn, grounding, obligations)

Layer consists of Information State components (state of interaction) Dialogue Acts (Packages of changes to information state)

Realization Rules

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DialogueActs

InputUtterance

Recognition Rules

Update Rules

Output Utterance(verbal and nonverbal)

Selection Rules

Info StateComponents

Dialogue Manager

DialogueActs

Virtual Human Dialogue Layers Virtual Human Dialogue Layers (Traum & Rickel AAMAS 02)(Traum & Rickel AAMAS 02)

ContactAttentionConversation

Participants Turn Initiative Grounding Purpose

Social Obligations-Commitments Negotiation-Collaboration

Social RolesIndividual

Perception Rational

belief,desire, intention,..

Emotional Coping strategies

Social Commitments Social Commitments (Traum & Allen94, Allwood 94, Matheson et al 00)(Traum & Allen94, Allwood 94, Matheson et al 00)

IS Obligations, Social Commitments to Propositions

Actions Order, Request, Suggest Promise, Offer Statement, Question Accept,..

Effects are to Obligations & Commitments Belief updates based on inference, not speech act effects

Social StateSocial State

^obligation + & ;#obligations to act ^type ^holder ^obligated-to ^action ^deadline ^sanction

^commitment + & ;#committed to states of affairs holding ^type ^holder ^committed-to ^proposition ^sanction

^conditional + & ;#obligation or commitment if action ^type ^trigger ;# an action to check performance of ^consequent ;# the resulting commitment or obligation

roles ^teammate ^superior + & ;# agents superior to self ^subordinate + &) ;# agents subordinate to self

Team Negotiation Team Negotiation (Traum et al (Traum et al AAMAS 2003)AAMAS 2003)

IS: task (&CGU) annotated with negotiation objects Components: Agent, Action, Stance, audience, reason

Stances: Committed, endorsed, mentioned, not mentioned, disparaged, rejected

Action effects: Suggestion: mentioned command, promise, request, or acceptance: committed

Rejection: rejected Counterproposal: disparaged1 + endorsed2

Justification: endorsed or disparaged (depending on direction)

Offer: mention (conditional commitment) Retract stance

Factors: Relevant Party: Authorizing or Responsible Agent Dialogue State: who has discussed Plan State: how do I feel about it

Theory of non-team NegotiationsTheory of non-team Negotiations

Context for NegotiationOrientations

Strategies moves

Negotiation settingsNegotiation settingsTeam planning

Same goals or utility Negotiate on best means to common end

Stable Institution Fixed, respected rules, enforced (courts, etc) Bargaining, contracts No penalty for not negotiating

Hostile Dealing with antagonists Coercion, threats, deception Could degenerate to use of force

Spontaneous Uncertainty of proper model Multiple approaches (re-)assess situation

Game theory approachGame theory approach

Team game Identical utilities (goals) for team members

Zero-sum Total utility is fixed, any “win” for one side is a “loss” for another

Generalized Game payoff matrixes unconstrained

Different sorts (e.g., prisoner’s dilemma)

Search for equilibria (“win-win”)

Orientations toward negotiationOrientations toward negotiation(Walton & Mckersie, Sillars et al, etc)(Walton & Mckersie, Sillars et al, etc)

Avoidance No benefit from negotiation avoidable

Distributive Zero-sum (win for other is loss for me)

Integrative Open to cooperation Possibilities of win-win

All of these are subjective perceptions, whatever the real situation

Coping With Negotiation Coping With Negotiation OrientationsOrientationsCascaded meta-strategies

Zero-level: strategies to cope with pressure to negotiate and own orientation

1st-level: strategies to cope with orientations (and strategies) of other (given desire to negotiate)

2nd-level: strategies to cope with other’s 1st-level strategies

Zero-level Strategies (own Zero-level Strategies (own orientation)orientation)

Avoidance Avoid Disengage

Distributive Attack Unreasonable demands Trap

Integrative Bargain Find maxima

1st level Strategies 1st level Strategies (react to (react to Other’s Orientation):Other’s Orientation): (1) (1) Work within Work within other’s orientationother’s orientation

Avoid Let avoid Make avoidance costly

Distributive Same as zero-level Distributive strategies

Integrative Negotiate trick

1st level Strategies 1st level Strategies (react to (react to Other’s Orientation): Other’s Orientation): (2) Change (2) Change other’s orientationother’s orientationFrom avoidance to distributive/integrativeStay engaged/on topicShow value for negotiation

From distributive to integrativeDemonstrate trustworthyness

Familiarity Credibility Solidarity

Show value in cooperationShow value in negotiation goal

2nd level strategies 2nd level strategies (react to (react to other’s attempt to change orientation)other’s attempt to change orientation)

Assess motivation for other’s utterances Is offer or assertion self-serving or against own interest?

Can claims be verified independently? Assess sincerity

Strategically adopt strategies Which are most likely to lead to adoption of helpful strategies by other

Display orientation (whether actually held or not)

Coping With Negotiation Coping With Negotiation Orientations:Orientations:Initial Model in SASO-ST projectInitial Model in SASO-ST project

Extended Virtual Humans to have orientations and strategiesImplement appropriate zero-level strategies

Vhuman must act appropriately given orientation and pressure

Use system to Teach effective 1st-level strategies Vhuman Recognize effect of 1st-level moves Vhuman changes orientation and strategy as appropriate

Modelling TrustModelling Trust

Represented as Variable 0 (no trust) to 1 (full trust)

Initial value can be setUpdated as a result of interaction

Linear combination of three components Familiarity (observance of polite social norms)

Solidarity (same goals) Credibility (shared beliefs)

Used to update beliefs based on reports (commitments, promises, belief attribution)

Used in assessing proposals

Implementing Negotiation Implementing Negotiation Strategies Strategies

Orientations result from appraisal of negotiation itself Reified negotiation “task” Interactions with goals and plans

Strategies chosen as part of coping Entry & exit conditions

Strategies associated with communicative behavior Base posture and gesture set Choice of dialogue moves

Speech act and realization Initiative, topic selection, and type of grounding feedback

Affective tone Aspects of interpretation

Charitability of interpretation Assumptions vs clarification

Avoidance StrategyAvoidance StrategyEntry Conditions

Negotiation costs outweigh benefits Avoidable

Exit conditions Not avoidable (2 subsequent mentions of plan-related tasks or state)

Move is desirable? Trust is <0.2

Moves Avoid (mention something other than plan-related tasks or states)

Escape (pre-closing: try to leave the conversation)

Attack StrategyAttack Strategy

Entry Conditions Not avoidable Move has less utility than staying

Exit Conditions Move has high utility Trust is below 0.2

Moves Bring up problems

Pre-condition not met Necessary task that is not commited to Difference in utility

Negotiate StrategyNegotiate Strategy

Entry Conditions Not avoidable? Move has more utility than staying

Exit Conditions Committed agreement Trust is below 0.2

Moves Try to gain commitment on tasks

Offer/suggestion, acceptance

““Failure” StrategyFailure” Strategy

Entry Conditions Trust below 0.2

Exit Conditions None (end conversation)

Moves Reject move

““Success” StrategySuccess” Strategy

Entry Conditions Committed agreement

Exit Conditions None (end conversation)

Moves Accept move

Current & Next StepsCurrent & Next StepsMore Evaluation Extensions to model

Additional strategies & tactics (e.g., rejection of empathy)

1st & 2nd-order strategiesUse as learning system

Targeted instruction and training After-action review (XAI - van Lent, Core, Lane)

New Scenarios Use of culture-specific elements