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ACTION EXPERIMENTS ENABLING FEMALE LEARNERS OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE'

Penny J. Gilmer Florida State University and Curtin University of Technology Paulette Alii Peskoe Elementary School

ABSTRACT

The instructor utilized "action experiments" in a graduate-level. physical science course designed for practicing elementary school teachelS. All 50 teachelS in !be two sections were female except one, and two thirds of the teachelS were African-Americans or Hispanics. Initially, most of these teachelS were not confidant in themselves with respect to the teaching and learning of science. Therefore, it posed a challenge to meet their needs to learn physical science in an enabling and empowering way. The instructor did not lecture, but instead gave the teacher-srudents a series of experiments with everyday materials, from which each cooperative group selected several to do on each topic. Sometimes !be teacher-srudents innovated, bringing their own materials for experiments, thereby giving themselves ownelShip of the experiments and the learning. The teacher-students tried to figure out what was happening, and then shared their undelStandings and disCOUISe in science with the othelS. For a five week period in the middle of !be semester the teacher-Sbldents utilized action experiments in their own summer teaching. The teacher-srudents and teacher utilized the world wide web during their field experiences, posted their favorite action experiments on the web, and wrote in a dialogue journal. communicating with each other and the instructor. Time will tell if this type of alternative teaching of physical science influences how elementary school teachelS teach in their classrooms and if their students learn hetter. This paper includes a brief description of what happened with the teachelS and an opportunity for the audience to do action experiments on sound.

RATIONALE

There is a great national need to improve science education in the United States, as evidenced by how American srudents are not prepared for the workplace in our increasingly technological age. The recent Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) report indicates that eighth grade students in the United States are ranked in the middle of 8th gradelS from 41 countries in the study (peak, 1996; Schmidt el al., 1997), while fourth grade students in the United States rank second of 26 participating countries, only hehind Korea (NSTA, 1997). These results suggest that we need to continue our efforts at improving science education countrywide, if we are to achieve number one status in the world by the year 2000, a goal set by then President Bush of the United States of America (National Education Goals Panel, 1991).

OBJECTIVES

An important approach to reaching this goal is to teach science to teachelS, both practicing teachelS and prospective teachelS who are still in training. There is an amplification effect, when one teaches teachelS, as each teacher will interact with 30-150 students per day, depending on whether they are teaching in elementary schools, middle schools, or high

I This paper will be published as a chapter in Students as Researchers (in press). J. Kincheloe and S. Steinberg. London: Palmer Press.

II & / "lID II J ProceedinQs of the Australasian Joint Regional Conferenoe of GASAT and IOSTE r. , V1 er, r .. 11\)\)~). Achon

Experiments Enabling Female Learners of PbysicaJ Science. In l.E. Goodell (Eds.),

and TOSJE (pp. 64-74). Perth. Western Australia: Curtin University of Technology.

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THEORET.

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METHOD'

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schOOls. It is critical to teach science in an active way that is COrlSistent with how people learn, if we are to have an impact on the teaching and learning of our K-12 srudents.

This paper set describes action experiments that are utilized to teach graduate level physical science to practicing elementary school teachers. The idea behind these action experiments is to get the teachers in the gnu;l~ level class to be srudents, asking questiOrlS, gathering data, making inferences, and building understandings about the natural world. If teachers experience learning in this way they can encourage their srudents to do likewise. Hereafter in this srudy, the practicing teacbers will be called teacher-srudents, because they are both teacbers of children and graduate srudents in their physical science classroom.

Action experiments are experiments in which the participants must act or "move to action." The teachers must become active learners of science. I organized the teacher-srudents into cooperative groups, and asked them to select action experiments from a series of possible experiments suggested to them. The experiments call upon their experiences from living in the pbysical world. To learn the concepts of pbysical science, fancy equipment is not needed. Most experiments utilized supplies that are readily available in their homes. By using materials with which they are familiar, teachers will start to see pbysical science all around them. It will empower them to use sucb everyday supplies to teacb science to the children in their elementary scbool classrooms.

This paper examines the discourse among teacher-srudents and between the instructor and the teacber-srudents, for improving the learning of physical science. This discourse occurs in the classroom, on the world wide web, through field experiences, and in their writing.

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS

The teacher-students work in collaborative groups (Johnson et aI., 1991), to learn the science content, using the language and discourse of science (Lemke, 1995). There are no lectures given, so the teacber-srudents must COrlStruct their understandings based on their prior knowledge and their experiences in the physical science classroom, in their reading of the texthook (Hewitt et ai, 1994), with their web-based learning, and during their field experiences. Constructivism is the primary theoretical underpinning (Glasersfeld, 1989; Tobin, K. et aI., 1990; Marzano, 1992; Tobin, 1993; Tobin and Tippins, 1993; Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Appleton, 1997).

METHODS

Data sources include audiotapes and videotapes from the physical science class, dialogue journal postings on the web, postings of action experiments on the web, and visits to teacher-student classrooms. I utilized fourth generation evaluation methods in this research study (Guba and Lincoln, 1989).

Electricity, rnaguetism, sound, ligbt, and chemistry were some of the topics included in this course. Simple experiments are selected from several books of basic experiments in pbysical science (e.g., Churchill et ai, 1997, Challoner, 1995.; Feldman, 1995). For instance, for the urUt on sound, experiments from Churchill et al (1997) included "Noisy paper," '"The screamer," '7he tapping frnger," '''The listening yardstick," 'The strange vibrating bowl," «Can you tune a fork?" "Tuning a glass," <'Tune more glasses," and "Seeing .sound waves." After being alerted to the materials that would be needed in the experiments by the irlStructor on the website, teacher-srudents brought their own equipment from bome to the class. This encouraged teacber-students to take ownership to their experiments and ideas. For instance, in the urUt on sound a group of four teacher -students each brougbt country-type musical irlStruments (e.g., wash tub with string attached to make a stringed irlStrument) to class, and played a song. After singing and pJaying a song about our class, they sbowed how to create different pitches on different types of "instruments."

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Each day after performing action experiments the cooperative groups shared their learning with the instructor and the other groups in the class. Each group reported orally on their understandings and learning in the experiments of their choice. Everyone had a chance to contribute to the dialogue and learning. Sometimes debates about interpretations of da!a occurred.

There was a five week field experience after the first three weeks of intensive classroom experience. This was followed by one additional week of intensive classes, in addition to a teacher-as-researcher week-long conference in the evenings. During the field experience each teacher-student wrote their favorite action experiment on the website for all teacher­srudents to read. 'The website postings served as a reminder of what we had done in class and what we learned. This serves as a devise to get the teacher-srudents to use the language of science (Lemke, 1993) to descnbe their favorite experiment, and to reflect on the experiments that their fellow teacher-srudents have chosen to share with the others. Eacb teacber-srudent needed to utilize the language of science and sbare ber understandings of the pbysical world. Most of the teacher-srudents taught summer school during this field experience, so they had opportunities to test their new understandings and ways to teacb physical science with the children in their classrooms. One of the advantages of teaching a group of teacber-srudents is that you get feedback very quickly on the quality of the learning, on what worked and what did not, in the physical science course desigued for the elementary scbool teacbers.

Some teacher-srudents created experiments that went beyond the ones offered to them. One teacber-student demonstrated the Doppler shift in whicb the frequency of sound is shifted through the motion of the object making the sound or the receiver of the sound. A number of physical science concepts (i.e., especially frequency and motion) must be understood to explain the Doppler shift. First, a teacher-student learns that sound is a longitudinal wave with compressions and rarefactions with an amplirude and a frequency. 'The teacher-students observe that a wave of compression (i.e., the vibration) moves from one end to the other end of the slinkY when a lateral impulse is given to one end of the slinkY while the other end is held stationary.

FINDINGS

Teacber-srudents with experience in elementary school teaching, in general, had little background in the topic of sound, except for a few who have played musical instruments. 'The instructor encouraged the teacher-students to select several experiments to do, utilizing their textbook and their prior knowledge to see if they could make sense of sound.

Some teacher-students tried an experiment at bome, and then brougbt the materials from home into the classroom to share with her collaborative group. For example, one student, Sabrina (a pseudonym), decided to researcb sound, and learn about the Doppler effect, by recording for berself wbat a born sounds like wben it approaches a stationary tape recorder and as it moves away from the tape recorder. Therefore, sbe did the experiment on ber own, and brought the tape recording to class. It was an impressive recording. Sabrina learned science content by preparing this tape, trying to make sense of ber data, and sharing her results with the other teacher-students in the class. By Sabrina using the language of science, the instructor could help ber with SOme misconceptions.

The instructor could tell that even the teaching assistant, Bruno (a pseudonym), did not bave a full understanding of all the concepts on sound and asked him to prepare a similar tape and explain the concept of the Doppler effect to the second section of graduate level pbysical science class. 'The instructor did not belp Bruno when he collected the data, as he tried to make sense of the recording. Below is a transcript from class. There are manY misconceptions, embedded within his dialogue:

Bruno: So, think about, so think ahout the slinky, and think ahout you're standiI!g here III the nuddJe of the slinkY. OK. Now. And, and it sounds ... OK? So what S

Proceedings of the Australasian Joint Regional Conference of GASAT and IOSTE

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going to hit you, first? I mean, just, just, just say, you're going to get hit by two things. What are you going to get bit by? Compression and then a. and then?

Teacher-students (in unison): a rarefaction ...

Bruno: OK So then you're going to be hit by a compression and a rarefraction (sic). All right, so, when you are hit by a compression and you're hit by a rarefraction (sic), all right, and you listen to sound. It's very easy, I want to do it, I want to tell you so bad. but I know the concept I want to tell you, but I want you to construct it in your mind.

Bruno (continuing): OK, now, say, when I started honking the horn, and it was real loud, and then it goes down, and then it, as it passes me, it goes back up. OK, all right, so think about the wave, think about the whole wave. All right, now, think about I'm in the middle of a wave. OK, when it's loud, do a lot of waves hit me? as opposed to when the sound, when it's, it's down, the pitch is low?

Teacher-student Yeah.

Bruno: Which way would a lot of waves hit me?

Teacher-srodent: When it's up. When it's a compression.

Bruno: Well, when will a lot of waves .. J'm talking about waves now, and the number of waves?

Teacher-student: When it's a compression.

Bruno: OK, so, well, how is it going to sound? Here I am, standing, louder, or ...

Teacher-srudent: Louder than before,

Bruno: OK, at first, it' s going to be louder, and after a while it's going to go ... ?

Teacher-srodents (in unison): lower.

Bruno: It's going to go lower. Are you saying lower is a higber frequency or a lower frequency? Define higher and lower frequency . Is lower a higher frequency?

Teacher·student !fthe pitch increases, it's higher.

Bruno: OK

Teacher·srudent: !f the pitch decreases, it's lower. Is that what you are looking for?

Bruno: OK, Let's talk about pitch. Let's go to pitch. OK, let's talk about pitch. All right now.

Transcribing this lesson was an important way for the instructor to see how confused individuals can be on the basic concepts. When Bruno was explaining the experiment in class, he confused even the instructor. Wben Bruno said, "When I started honking the hom, and it was real loud, and then it goes down, and then it, as it passes me, it goes back up," he confused the concepts of amplitude and frequency of sound. Bruno also mispronounced the word, rarefaction, using "rarefraction" instead.

It was not clear why Bruno suggested that the teacher-srodents imagine that they were traveling along the sound wave. What insight is gained by the construction that the teacher­students imagine they are in the middle of the wave on the slinky? Tbe molecules in the

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medium only oscillate as the wave passes through the medium. Sound is the transmission of the vibration. Perhaps Bruno was trying to understand what happens to the sound in order for the pitch to be different for the receiver. With the Doppler effect the vibration itself remains the same, it is that either the vibrating object or the receiver of the sound is moving, which changes the frequency at which the vibrations are received.

Bruno was trying to use a constructivist epistemology in letting the teacher-students construct their own knowledge, as evidenced by his saying, "It's very easy, I want to do it, I want to tell you so had, but I know the concept I want to tell you, but I want you to construct it in your mind." However, Bruno did not have a clear idea of what sound was, so he could not answer the teacher-srudents' questions. In fact, he confused the teacher-students. However, this gel1Cfaled dissonance in the teacher-srudents' minds which they wanted to clear, thereby motivating them to think about sound more deeply.

Bruno also experienced dissonance as his ideas on sound were not consistent with those of other students. During the field experience, Bruno did come to understand some aspect of the frequency of sound waves and the Doppler effect by suggesting an experiment that teacher-students could use in their classroom.

Here is a teaching tip on the Doppler effect. Model frequency with a student slowly rolling golf balls, or other similar balls, down a long chalk tray at regular intervals, with the balls representing wave crests. Have a second student stand at the other end of the chalk tray, collect and count the balls, measuring the time to calculate frequency. To demonstrate the Doppler effect, have the receiving student walk toward the sending srudent counting the number of balls collected in the same time period. Collecting the balls while walking away will produce fewer balls in the time period, representing a lowered frequency . Your class is now ready to discuss the Doppler effect (Gordon, 1991).

Bruno's construction conveys the idea of the change in frequency wben the receiver of the ball approacbes or recedes from the person wbo is rolling the ball towards the receiver. One problem with this construction, bowever, is that with sound there is no mass being transmitted, it is only the vibration that is moving.

Another teacher-student, Paulerte, wbom the instructor had visited in her elementary scbool classroom during the academic year between the fust two summers of the program, asked a question on the Doppler effect in the dialogue journal on the web:

Do you know if the Doppler effect can be heard if the sound source is stationary, but the listener is moving? For example: If a car drives by a non-moving car that is blowing its horn, will the moving car hear the Doppler effect? I bad problem figuring that out. I know I can hear the Doppler effect if the sound source is in motion.

A teacher-student in Paulette's dialogue group wrote back the following entry, in response to Paulette's question on the Doppler effect:

As for the Doppler effect, I believe, that the car has to be moving because, according to our physical science book (Hewin et aI., 1994), the Doppler effect is a change in frequency of wave motion resulting from motion of the sender or receiver. I think the key words are 'motion of the sender or receiver.' On page 263 in the same book, it describes the bug moving in the water so I believe something has to be moving in order for it to happen. However, I could be wrong ..... .Iet me know!! ~

It was obvious that the Doppler effect was still not understood by the teacher-students. Therefore, after reading these dialogue journal entries, the instructor wrote back in the dialogue journal and suggested to Paulene that she try to do an action experiment herself, as we did in class. Penny, the instructor, wrote:

Proceedings of the Australasian Joint Regional Conference of GASAT and IOSTE

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You asked an interesting question about the Doppler effect-whether you get the Doppler effect if the sound is stationary and the listener is moving. I was glad to see the discussion hetween you two [of you in the dialogue journal] on this. It is a simple experiment, so you might want to try to do it. You get a portable tape Ieconlcc and drive past a friend who is sitting stationary·in the car blowing the hom steadily. You drive past the stationary car (with its hom blowing) and =ord what you hear. It would be a good experiment to include in your field experience for me. You coold save the recording for your students.

Paulette .conducted her field experience about sound. She was a researcher, and utilized the world wide web, her textbook, and the dialogue journal to discuss her ideas on our website. She chose her field experience to answer a question she had in her mind, based on what she did not understand in class. Paulette wanted to extend her knowledge:

My reason for selecting this experiment on sound is .. J couldn't visualize the Doppler effect after we discussed it in class. Before conducting this experiment, I thought it would seem sensible to assume the sound of a passing car would n:main monotonous and not change pitch since the sound itself had no pitch variations.

Paulette found an experiment on the Doppler effect from one described on the website for the Exploratorium Museum in San Francisco (<http://www.exploratorium.edu>). However, she innovated and modified an experiment that she found on the world wide web and so that she could use materials that she bad available. Paulette wrote the follOwing in her field experience paper:

I wanted to Jceep the experiments simple, so I decided to use things that were accessible around my house. The items I used were: a small battery~ alarm clock, a strong string (about two yards), and masking tape. I assembled the instrument by using the masking tape to tape one end of the string around the alarm clock. I wrapped both the string and tape around the clock tightly. I made sure not to tape the alarm clock buttons. I rotated the alarm hand until it buzzed. I then had a buzzer. I held the opposite end of the string and used my other hand to extend and hold some of it for leverage.

I twirled the buzzer around my bead. I noticed how the pitch changed as the buzzer approached and moved away from me. When the oscillator (i.e. , the buzzer) moved toward me, it, in effect, caught up slightly with its sound waves. WIth each successive pulse of the buzzer, the sound source was a little closer to me. The waves were being squeezed together, and more of them reached my ear each second than if the buzzer was standing still. Therefore, the pitch of the buzzer sounded higher. As the buzzer moved away from me, fewer waves reached my ear each second, so the resulting pitch sounded lower. The frequency of the buzzer itself did not change in either case. For my ears to detect the Doppler effect, the buzzer had to be moving toward or away from me at a minimum speed of about fifteen to twenty miles per hour. As the buzzer moved faster, the effect became more pronounced. The pitch of sound increased when the buzzer moved toward me and decreased when it IDOved away. After this experiment, I had a better understanding of the Doppler effect. By twirling the buzzer, I could hear the "neeeeeoowwm" sound.

Paulette really had her mind on her experiment, as she innovated and tested her ideas. These ideas became clear to her through experimentation. The experiments raisod new questions in her mind. She reflected further (Schon, 1983) in her field experience paper:

I wanted to take the experiment a step further and hypothesized if there would be a Doppler effect if the buzzer was stationary and I was in motion. I tried doing this by putting the buzzer in the middle of the floor and running around it as fast as I could. I am not a runner. I assume if I were to run around the buzzer at the same speed as I

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twirled it-about twenty miles per hour, I would bear the "neeeeeoowwm" sound. 111 barely four miles per hour, I did not hear the Doppler effect. I also tried running closer and farther away from the buzzer, to see if that would make a difference (but it didn't).

I also experimented moving my head while I slowly twirled the buzzer. I thought I would not hear the Doppler effect, but I did. No matter how slowly I twirled the buzzer, my head moved slower than my rotating arm. 1bis proves that the Doppler effect can JeSuit even with two moving objects. For example: When a car, blowing its hom, passes a slower moving car-the slower car will hear the Doppler effect. These experiments helped me realize that the Doppler effect is a result of a change in frequency due to the motion of the source or receiver.

A PERSPECTIVE OF STUDENT LEARNING

To understand bow a teacher-student comes to know and to learn science, it is best to listen to what Paulette reflects on her experience after the course is finished:

I gained knowledgeable insights on how students learn, both as a teacher and as a student I recognized that students learning about their surroundings naturally and enthusiastically, and with proper techniques, can be utilized for effective teaching. Research supported the conclusion that to improve teaching we must first understand how students learn.

Richardson, as cited by Collins and Spiegel (1995), stated that "research is conducted by practitioners to help them understand their contexts, practices and, in the case of teachers, their students. The outcome of the inquiry may be a change in practice or it may be an enhaneed understanding" (p. 118). Collins and Spiegel (1995) further state, "Whether it is termed action =h, classroom research, or practical inquiry, the genre formalizes an aspect of teaching that expert teachers have known about and employed for a long time. They observe situations in their classrooms that are less than optimal, they identify the problem, they think about what and how to change, they make the change, and they evaluate the impact of the change on the situation and begin again" (p. 118).

In the past two years, I have examined how students learn, and how they process science skills. Research and experience reveal that, in many cases, ttaditionai science classroom instruction led to less science understanding than I anticipated. "When the teacher alone assumes the role of information giver, students may misinterpret the teacher's explanation, ignore the teacber or decide that 'school' science does not make sense in 'real life'· (Rutherford and Ahlgren as cited in Science for All Students, p. 36, 1997). "Students often hold beliefs that are at odds with commonly accepted scientific thought These misconceptions must be identified and confronted, before effective learning can take place (Florida Department of Education, 1993, p. 41).

The ideal learning environment, to benefit the students, should involve cooperative learning, concept and process learning, hands-on experiences, and self-assessment techniques. The ability to self-assess understanding is an essential tool for self­directed learning. Students need the opportunity to evaluate and reflect on their own scientific understanding and ability. Before they can do this, they need to understand the goals for learning science. Through self-reflection, students clarify ideas of what they are supposed to learn. They begin to internalize the expectation that they can learn science (National Research Council, 1996).

Considerable information has been accumulated on the way students learn. As a student, I have explored the concept, skill, or behavior with hands-on or minds-on experiences. I also elaborated and evaluated my understanding of these ideas by

Proceedings of the Australasian JOint Regional Conference of GASAT and IOSTE

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applying them to other situations. Additionally, I discussed and compared ideas with other students, while evaluating my own understanding.

ID physical science class, my assignments were to read the textbook chapters, answer the questions at the end of each chapter, and select two activities to demoostrate in class, relating to the immediate lessons. These activities were done in class with pre­selected groups of four students. At the end of the term, I conducted a field experiment-a reflective thinking of what I read in the text, and of what I discussed and observed in group demonstrations. Reflective thinking helped me to store information in long-term memory, and assimilate what I learned. One of the advantages of reflection was thai it helped to connect the concepts, and made ideas more meaningful.

Learning bad a greater impact when it was combined with hands-on activities. By doing the hands-on activities, I was al>le to demonstrate what I read and how I understood it I had a language to communicate what I understood, by reading the textbook.

Students learn best when they are allowed to construct their own understanding of concepts over time, and by active engagement in the learning process. If students engage in exploratory investigations and are allowed to construct meaning out of their fmdings, they can propose tentative explanations and solutions, and relate concepts to their own lives. That is how meaningful learning will take place.

ID our groups, we selected activities we found interesting and/or which made us curious. We explained our ideas through demonstrations of the activities to the other students in class. 1be activities were simple and the materiaJs were easy to obtain. As a group, we figured out concepts by thinking it through, and experimenting with what worked and what didn't work. We experimented and predicted what would happen when changes were made. We asked questions for clarification, and hypothesized how activities can be extended. 1be class members observed. as we discussed differences between the predictions and observations. We learned from each other by observing group activities done in class.

As we experimented, we referred to the textbook constantly, to make connections to related ideas. This allowed us to use the language necessary to communicate our fmdings or understandings between the group members, and to the class. TIle more we experimented, the better the text's terntinology could be understood.

As a co-learner, I listened carefully to other students' explanations and questions. I justified my explanations and sometimes transferred an explanation to other situations in order to fully grasp a meaning. To understand a concept, I would ask myself questions that probed into how and why I thought of something. This helped to reveal how I was thinking, as I lried to restructure erroneous or incomplete ideas.

To understand science concepts, I predicted, observed, and explained my findings in conducting my action experiments. These strategies helped to support correct predictions, and helped to challenge incorrect ones.

After a concept or an idea was discussed in class, I reflected and evaluated my understanding of it. ID this way, I selected to either assess my understanding or to direct my learning. For example, for my field experience, I experimented with the Doppler effect (the "neeeeeoowwm" sound we hear from a passing car) because I could not visualize the Doppler effect after we discussed it in class. Before researching the topic by conducting the experiment, I assumed the sound of a passing car would remain monotonous and not change pitch since the sound itself had no pitch variations. I corrected my assumption after I researched it in the field. After the experiment, I reaJized that the Doppler effect was a result of a change in frequency

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due to the motion of a source or receiver. Through this example, it was obvious how learning was sustained with the application of hands-on activity, and by using reflective and self-assessment procedures.

As Paulette returns to her elementary school classroom, sbe plans to utilize action experiments in her classroom. She will do this in the context of action research (Collins and Spiegel, 1995), using fourth generation evaluation (Guba and Lincoln, 1989). this is all part of a graduate program PROMASE (pROgram in Mathematics And Science Education), funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) through the Miami Urban Systemic Initiative (USI).

In the physical science course, she also read and critiqued the recently published collection of action research experiences of elementary school teachers (Gilmer and McDonald, 1977) from the NSF-funded Science For Early Adolescence Teachers (Science FEAT) Program (Spiegel .1 al, 1995). As Paulette develops a theory of how children learn, she analyzes and describes her learning and her students' learning using a oonstructivist model (Glasersfeld, 1989; Tobin .1 al., 1990; Marzano, 1992; Tobin and Tippins, 1993; Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Appleton, 1997). Utilizing constructivism is a powerful way for all of us to learn.

We want to encourage all our students to learn. We need to remember that students must start with their current conceptions and build (and reconstruct) on them. As they realize that they can think analytically, a part of the world that may have been closed off to them opens up. Analytical thinking is challenging and stimulating. As Bruno tried to make sense of his data on the Doppler shift in his presentation to the class, he was obviously confused in his conceptions of frequency and amplitude, although he said that it was easy. I believe that be sensed that everything did not make sense probably during, and definitely after, his presentation to the class, especially when the students asked him questions and introduced conceptions that did not fit with his. After Bruno had a chance to reflect on his class presentation, he shared with the students on the course's web site how be realiz.ed he could do an experiment with his students to teach the frequency of a wave and the Doppler shift. In Bruno's suggested experiment as the student walks toward the rolling balls while catching them, he catches the balls more frequently than if he had stayed still (i.e., analogous to !he blue shift). When be catcbes the balls while walking away from the rolling balls, he catches the balls less frequently than if he had remained stationery (i.e., analogous to the red shift). Therefore, Bruno shared his understaoding on frequency with the other co-learners in !he classroom.

I suspect that Bruno will never forget the Doppler effect and his understaodings of frequency because he faced his misconceptions and figured out what makes sense and how he can teSt for it. He still needs to understaod how to differentiate frequency and amplitude, but that

. will be another lesson. I suspect now that be understaods frequency, amplitude will be much easier.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that teacher-students can learn physical science wben they utilize multiple opportunities to learn, including action experiments, texthook reading, dialogoe both m class and on the world wide web, field experiences, and opportunities to irmovate, utilizing everyday materials. Time will tell if the teacber-students incorporate a constructivist model for teaching pbysical science in their own elementary scbool classrooms, and if their students learn SClence when we teach science in this manner.

We need to belp our students face that dissonance, that uncomfortable feeling, wben everything does not make sense. We want our students to learn that if they conduct more acOOn ex!":nments, think deeply, usmg the language of science and confronting !hell" tulsconcepUons, they can learn to think analytically about pbysical science. Students will gain confidence in themselves, as evidenced in Paulette's statements, as they experience this.

Proceedings of the Australasian Joint Regional Conference of GASAT and IOSTE

The teacbcr-stud a new way of se

ACKNOWLE

We aclmowledg. selection of the , for elementary I reviewing an ear'

REFERENCE

Appleton classes using a ( 303-318.

Brooks, constructivist c/o Development

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Exploratc CA. <bttp:llwwv.

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; to utilize ;ean:h (Collins '89). this is aD

~~rban~~:~]

lisbed

that students \s they realize off to them DpeIII make sense of Ilia Iy confused in Ilia . I believe that be :finitely after, Ilia 'ns and introduced fleet on his class , realized he could the Doppl~ shift. ills while catching . analogous to the ; baJJs, he catches ; to the red shift). co-IeameIS in the

ingsoffrequeocy I how he can test nplitude, but \bat :unplitude will he

vhen they ulili1:e 'eading, dialogue tities to innovate. ce a constructivist 'oms, and if their

'e feeling, when ey conduct more confronting their oe. Students will . experience this.

IOSTE

73

'!be teaCher-students will want to share their way of thinking with their students. It opens up • pew way of seeing the world.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We acknowledge the help and vision of Ms. Elizabeth Williams for co-authoting the seJection of the experiments in the curriculwn that was used in the physical science course for elementary teachers. In addition, we thank Professor Kenneth Tobin for critically reviewing an early draft of the manuscript.

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