Data Collection and Analysis in Sociolinguistics
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Transcript of Data Collection and Analysis in Sociolinguistics
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Data Collection and Analysis in SociolinguisticsPractical elements for research methods in sociolinguistics
Enrico GiaiBA in Translating and InterpretingMA Student in Translation Studies Turin University
Email: [email protected]
Turin, 07-08 April 2014
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2 Monday, April 7th Main topics Sociolinguistics: basic notions
Collecting data
Tool for data analysis
Descriptive statistics: basic notions
Example: using Excel for basic statistics
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3 Sociolinguistics and sociology of language
Sociolinguistics Effects of society on language
use
Language variation & change (variationist sociolinguistics)
Sociology of language Effects of language use on
society
Who speaks what language to whom and when
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4 Quantitative and qualitative approaches
New theory
Data analysis
Theory test
Quantitative approach
Qualitative approach
Data collection
Data analysis
New theory
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5 Quantitative sociolinguistics
Quantitative analyses are all about counting something […]. In order for something to be counted, two conditions are normally considered to be necessary: (a) what you want to count must itself be ‘countable’ (i.e. quantifiable), and (b) what you want to count must have the potential to be variable (i.e. be able to change).
Levon(2010:68)
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6 Interviews: how to 1st type: Structured
Guided by set of questions on the topic Standardised & replicable Low degree of digression from the topic Yes/No, True/False, closed questions
2nd type: Unstructured Free flowing Non standardised Higher degree of digression from the topic W-, open questions
3rd type: Semi-structured Mix
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7 Interviews: pro & con
Pros Immediate results Face-to-face Prosodic features of the
language can be analysed Elements of culture and self
identity can be grasped
Cons Possible bias and manipulations Problems with generalisation
interviewees/society Expensive in terms of time and
money Must be transcribed
The transcription process can be made easier by means of computer programmes (e.g. ELAN)
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8 Interviews: analysis
Content analysis Discourse analysis Relational analysis
Three main steps: Noticing concepts Collecting examples Analysing examples to find commonalities
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9 Questionnaires and language surveys: how to 1st type: desctiprive questionnaires
How many people participate in a certain behaviour 2nd type: analytical questionnaires
Theory building and testing Questionnaire admininistration
Self-administration Interview type situation
Types of questions (level of measurement) Category type questions Ordinal type questions Continuous questions
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10 Questionnaires and language surveys: pro&con
Pros Useful for surveying people from
different locations Not expensive Perfectly standardised &
replicable Easy to compare with other
questionnaires
Cons Not face-to-face Low response rate No certainty whether:
Who filled it out When was filled out In what order was filled out How much time did it take to fill
it out
The analysis of questionnaires can be made easier by means of computer programmes (e.g. Excel)
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11 Questionnaires and language surveys: analysis
Code the questions Transfer the information Establish strategy for analysis Summarise the responses
Category and ordinal questions: frequency, charts Continuous questions: mean, median, mode, distribution
Univariate vs bivariate vs multivariate analysis
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12 Web: how to
Using the Web as a source for corpora
Tools: Google Advanced Search (e.g. http://www.google.com/advanced_search) WebCorp (e.g. http://www.webcorp.org.uk/live/) Twitter (e.g. https://twitter.com/search-advanced) Facebook (e.g. https://www.facebook.com/imatitikua.kokolet/about)
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13 ELAN ELAN: freely downloadable (http
://tla.mpi.nl/tools/tla-tools/elan/download/) For audio and video interviews Helps the user to transcribe audio and/or video texts Transcription process in two steps
Segmentation phase Transcription phase
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14 ELAN: the basics (1)Main page
New transcription
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15 ELAN: the basics (2)
Grid selection and main controls
Sound spectrum
Tier bar
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16 ELAN for Interview Transcription – An example Interview with a member of the Nigerian community in Turin, Italy Recorded file audio in .wav format Number of speakers
1 interviewer 1 interviewee
Transcription work step-by-step Create a tier for each speaker Segment the utterances Annotate the utterances Save the transcription
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17 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Create New Tiers (1) “Tier” → “Add new tier” One for each participant to
the interview Add Tier Name Write your name in the
“Annotator” blank space
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18 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Create New Tiers (2) The tiers referred to the two participants should appear
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19 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Segment the Utterances (1)
“Options” → “Segmentation mode”
Double click the tier to select the speaker
Hit the Enter key once to open a new segment. Another time to close it
Click on the play button to start and stop the file
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20 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Segment the Utterances (2)
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21 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Annotate the segments (1) “Option”→ “Annotation mode” Double-click the segment you want to transcribe and write the utterance
down
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22 ELAN for Interview Transcription – Annotate the segments (2)
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23 ELAN for Interview Transcription – What now? (1)
You can Export it as an interlinear text, to have a Word version of the transcription
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24 ELAN for Interview Transcription – What now? (2)
You can Export it as a Tab-delimited
text, which can be transferred to an Excel document and analysed
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25 PRAAT
PRAAT: freely downloadable (http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/download_win.html)
For speech analysis
Source: audio files (.wav and .mp3)
Annotation: Phonetic Orthographic
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26 PRAAT – Main page
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27 PRAAT – An example (1)Open > Read from file
Example: interview with a Nigerian immigrant
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28 PRAAT – An example (2)Annotate > To TextGrid
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29 PRAAT – An example (3)Define number and name of tier(s) for each speaker(s)
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30 PRAAT – An example (4)Select both > View&Edit
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31 PRAAT – An example (5)
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32 PRAAT – An example (6)Mouse on spectrogram > select passage (Tab=play)
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33PRAAT – An example (7)
Click on spectrogram>click on circle: delimitate tag
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34 PRAAT – An example (8)Enter key > annotate
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35 WordSmith Tools Wordsmith Tools: freely downloadable (
http://www.lexically.net/wordsmith/)
For concordances & word lists
Source: corpus/linguistic database in .txt format Example: see next slide
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36 WordSmith Tools – Excel to .txt
Source .txt file
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37 WordSmith Tools – Main page
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38 WordSmith Tools – An example (1)
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39 WordSmith Tools – An example (2)
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40 WordSmith Tools – An example (3)
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41 WordSmith Tools – An example (4)
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42 WordSmith Tools – An example (5)
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43 Basic statistics notions Average/aritmethic mean
Median
Mode
Frequency
Minimum values
Maximum values
Range/standard deviation
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44 Microsoft Excel (1)
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45 Microsoft Excel (2)
Font selection and customisation;cell borders
Alignment Merge cells Insert/delete rows/columns Find
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46 Microsoft Excel (3)
Rows
Columns
Cell: A1
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47 Microsoft Excel (4)
Right click>’Formato celle’
Insert text: double click on cell
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48 Microsoft Excel – Basic Notions Formulae are inserted clicking on the “Inserisci funzioni” button, or
typing them in a cell
Rules Preceded by an equal sign; Use of coordinates;
Types of formulae: Arithmetic Statistical Logical
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49 Microsoft Excel – Entering data
Collect data using questionnaires or language surveys
Codify your questions and answers
Arrange them Row 1: questions. Each column represents a question Row 2 to ∞: answers
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50 Microsoft Excel – Coding a questionnaire/language survey Coding your responses/data
Allocating a number to the answers of each question Coding category type questions
e.g. gender (M=1; F=2) Coding ordinal questions
e.g. age brackets (1=15-20; 2=21-25; …) Coding continuous questions
Already numbers
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51 Using Excel for basic descriptive statistics
A language survey on the linguistic repertoire of Filipino immigrants in Turin
Features: 122 questioned people so far (Dec 2013)
Heterogeneous population
Questionnaires collected in Microsoft Excel
Linguistic and ethnographic data
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52 Example of language survey
Linguistic data Mother tongue Known languages Language use in different
contexts Code-switching
Ethnographic data Age Gender Education Occupation Length of stay in Italy
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53 Excel worksheet layout (1)
Layout Column A to BB, row 1 (A1:BB1)
Questions (“Factor Groups”)
Column A, row 2 to 123 (A2:A123) Speakers’ ID
Column B to BB, row 2 to 123 (B2:BB123) Answers
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54Excel worksheet layout (2)
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55 Notations
N/A: data not available #: empty cell BC: blue collars PC: pink collars WC: white collars Length of stay in Italy expressed in months Age and school attendance expressed in years N.B.
Each cell contains only 1 piece of information
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56
CodingLanguages Language use Occupation English varieties Y/N Gender
N/A 0 N/A 0 N/A 0 N/A 0 N/A 0 N/A 0Arabic 1 English 1 BC 1 American
English 1 Yes 1 M 1
Bicol 2 Italian 2 PC 2 British English 2 No 2 F 2Bisaya 3 Tagalog 3 WC 3 Standard English3Cebuano 4 English/Italian 4 Unemployed 4Chinese 5 English/Tagalog 5Danish 6 Italian/Tagalog 6English 7 No 7Filipino dialect 8 Ita/Tag/English 8French 9 French 9German 10 Ilocano 10Ilocano 11 Other 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20Vietnamese 21
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57 Language survey analysis with Microsoft Excel Descriptive statistics Most useful formulae for descriptive statistics in Excel
Average: “=MEDIA()” Median: “=MEDIANA()” Mode: “=MODA()” Minimum point: “=MIN()” Maximum point: “=MAX()”
Creation of charts and graphs Bar graphs Pie charts
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58 What can we analyse using descriptive statistics formulae? Age Length of stay in Italy School attendance Number of known languages Number of languages used at school (PH) Number of languages used at work (PH) Number of languages used at work (IT) Number of languages used with family (PH) Number of languages used with family (IT) Number of languages used with friends (PH) Number of languages used with friends (IT)
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59 What can we draw graphs and charts of? (1) Gender Occupation (PH) Occupation (IT) Nationality of friends (IT) Contacts with Filipinos Mother tongue Other known languages
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60 What can we draw graphs and charts of? (2) Languages used at school Languages used at school (PH) Languages used at work (PH) Languages used at work (IT) Languages used with family (PH) Languages used with family (IT) Languages used with friends (PH) Languages used with friends (IT) Code-switching Use of Italian in the Philippines
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61 Layout of the analysis table (1) See analysis worksheet Column A, row 2 to 206 (A2:A206)
Questions (“Factor Groups”) Column B, row 2 to 206 (B2:B206)
Possible answers Type of calculus
Column C, row 2 to 206 (C2:C206) Number of occurrences Results
Column D, row 2 to 206 (D2:D206) Percentage values
Column E, row 2 to 206 (E2:E206) Total amount of factor group
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62Layout of the analysis table (2)
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63 Number of known languages (1)Number of known languages: (L2:L123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Average number of known languages in C2
=MEDIA(Questionnaire!$L$2:$L$123) Median number of known languages in C3
=MEDIANA(Questionnaire!$L$2:$L$123) Mode number of known languages in C4
=MODA(Questionnaire!$L$2:$L$123) Minimum value of number of known languages in C5
=MIN(Questionnaire!$L$2:$L$123) Maximum value of number of known languages C6
=MAX(Questionnaire!$L$2:$L$123)
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64 Number of known languages (2)
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65 Mother tongue (1)Mother tongue: (M2:M123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Number of N/A in C7
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”0”) Number of Italian mother tongue people in C8
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”13”) Number of English mother tongue people in C9
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”7”) Number of Tagalog mother tongue people in C10
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”20”) Number of Cebuano mother tongue people in C11
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”4”) Number of Ilocano mother tongue people in C12
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”11”)
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66 Mother tongue (2)Mother tongue: (M2:M123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Number of Bisaya mother tongue people in C13
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”3”) Number of Kapampangan mother tongue people in C14
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”14”) Number of Pampango mother tongue people in C15
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$M$2:$M$123;”16”) Percentage of C7 to C15
In D7: =(C7*100)/122 click on the lower right corner of D7 and drag it down to D15
N.B. Write cell name instead of language and drag it down
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67 Mother tongue (3) Total amount of the Mother tongue factor group
=SOMMA(C7:C15)
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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68 Other known languages (1)Other known languages (apart from Mother tongue): (N2:S123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Number of Italian speakers in C16
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$N$2:$S$123;B16)
Click on the lower right corner of C16 and drag it down to C36 to get all the results
Percentage of C16 to C36 click on the lower right corner of D15 and drag it down to D36
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69 Other known languages (2) Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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70 Number of languages used at school PH (1)
Number of languages used at school: (T2:T123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Average number of languages used at school in C37
=MEDIA(Questionnaire!T2:T123) Median number of languages used at school in C38
=MEDIANA(Questionnaire!T2:T123) Mode number of languages used at school in C39
=MODA(Questionnaire!T2:T123) Minimum value of number of languages used at school in C40
=MIN(Questionnaire!T2:T123) Maximum value of number of languages used at school C41
=MAX(Questionnaire!T2:T123)
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71 Number of languages used at school PH (2)
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72 Languages used at school PH (1)Languages used at school PH: (U2:W123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) Number of Italian in C42
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$U$2:$W$123;B48) Click on the lower right corner of C42 and drag it down to C53 to get
all the results
Percentage of C42 in D42 =(C42*100)/122 click on the lower right corner of D42 and drag it down to D53
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73 Languages used at school PH (2) Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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74Number of languages used at work PH/IT Number of languages used at work PH: (X2:X123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet Number of languages used at work IT: (AB2:AB123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
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75Languages used at work PH/IT (1)
Languages used at work PH: (Y2:AA123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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76Languages used at work PH/IT (2)
Languages used at work IT: (AC2:AF123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect 18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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77Languages used at work PH/IT (3) Bar graph
Code
N/A 0Bisaya 3English 7Ilocano 11Italian 13Kapampangan 14Tagalog 20
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78Languages used at work PH/IT (4)
Bar graphCode
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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79 Number of languages used with family PH/IT Number of languages used with family PH: (AG2:AG123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheetNumber of languages used with family IT: (AK2:AK123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
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80Languages used with family PH/IT (1)
Languages used with family PH: (AH2:AJ123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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81Languages used with family PH/IT (2)
Languages used with family IT: (AL2:AO123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect 18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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82Languages used with family PH/IT (3)
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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83Number of languages used with friends PH/IT Number of languages used with friends PH: (AP2:AP123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheetNumber of languages used with friends IT: (AT2:AT123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
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84Languages used with friends PH/IT (1)
Languages used with friends PH: (AQ2:AS123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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85Languages used with friends PH/IT (2)
Languages used with friends IT: (AU2:AW123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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86Languages used with friends PH/IT (3)
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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87 Code-switching (1) Code-switching: (AX2:AX123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet ($: fixed reference) 0 in C156
=CONTA.SE(Questionnaire!$AX$2:$AX$103;B156) 1 and 2 in C157 and C158
Drag C156 down
Code
N/A 0Yes 1No 2
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88 Code-switching (2)
Code
N/A 0Yes 1No 2
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89Language use – Television (1)Languages used to watch TV: (AY2:AY123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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90 Language use – Television (2)
Code
N/A 0 Danish 6Arabic 1 English 7
Bicol 2 Filipino dialect 8
Bisaya 3 French 9Cebuano 4 German 10Chinese 5 Ilocano 11
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91Language use – Books (1)
Languages used to read books: (AZ2:AZ123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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92 Language use – Books (2)
Code
N/A 0 Danish 6Arabic 1 English 7
Bicol 2 Filipino dialect 8
Bisaya 3 French 9Cebuano 4 German 10Chinese 5 Ilocano 11
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93Language use – Dreams (1)Languages used to dream: (AA2:AA123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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94 Language use – Dreams (2)
Code
N/A 0 Danish 6Arabic 1 English 7
Bicol 2 Filipino dialect 8
Bisaya 3 French 9Cebuano 4 German 10Chinese 5 Ilocano 11
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95Language use – Thoughts(1)Languages used to think: (AB2:AB123) in the “Questionnaire” worksheet
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11Ilonggo 12Italian 13Kapampangan 14Norsk 15Pampango 16Pangasinan 17Piedmontese dialect18Spanish 19Tagalog 20
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96 Language use – Thoughts (2)
Code
N/A 0 Danish 6Arabic 1 English 7
Bicol 2 Filipino dialect 8
Bisaya 3 French 9Cebuano 4 German 10Chinese 5 Ilocano 11
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97 Language use: to sum up (1)
Code TV Books Dreams Thoughts0 23,00 42,00 48,00 46,001 6,00 10,00 4,00 6,002 62,00 56,00 23,00 30,003 5,00 4,00 16,00 0,004 17,00 8,00 11,00 15,005 1,00 1,00 2,00 0,006 4,00 1,00 7,00 0,007 0,00 0,00 0,00 12,008 4,00 0,00 0,00 0,009 0,00 0,00 2,00 1,00
10 0,00 0,00 0,00 3,0011 0,00 0,00 9,00 9,00
Code
N/A 0Arabic 1Bicol 2Bisaya 3Cebuano 4Chinese 5Danish 6English 7Filipino dialect 8French 9German 10Ilocano 11
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98 Language use: to sum up (2)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 110
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
23
6
62
5
17
14
04
0 0 0
42
10
56
48
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
48
4
23
1611
27
0 0 2 0
9
46
6
30
0
15
0 0
12
0 1 39
Language use
TV Books Dreams Thoughts
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99 Results (1)Ethnographic data Men and women are equally partitioned Average age: ca 33 yrs Average length of stay: ca 15 months Average education: ca 12 years (medium/high) Occupation: more PC than BC WC once in Italy; same unemployment rate Almost all friends in Italy are Filipinos Frequent contacts with Filipinos living in the PH once in Italy
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100 Results (2)Linguistic data Average known languages: ca 4 Most common mother tongue: Tagalog Most common known languages: English and Italian Most common language at work PH: English and Tagalog Most common language at work IT: Italian and English Most common language with family PH: Tagalog and English Most common language with family IT: Tagalog and Italian Most common language used with friends PH: Tagalog and English Most common language used with friends IT: Tagalog and Italian Code switching: Yes in more than ¾ of cases
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101 Results (3)Linguistic data Most commonly used languages to watch TV: Italian and English Most commonly used languages to read books: Italian and English Most commonly used languages to dream: Italian and Tagalog Most commonly used languages to think: Italian and Tagalog
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102 What now?Data analysis and hypothesisCan we say that the high rate of code-switching is influenced by ethnographic and/or linguistic factors?
Multivariate analysis and Rbrul
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103References
BLOOMER A. & WRAY A., 2006, Projects in Linguistics 2nd Edition, Hodder Arnold, London and New York. EDLEY N. & LITOSSELITI L., 2010, "Contemplating Interviews and Focus Groups", in Litosseliti L. (ed.), Research Methods in Linguistics, Continuum, London and New York: 155-179HON, K., 2013, “An Introduction to Statistics”, retrievable from the World Wide Web: http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/LaTeX/Examples/statistics_firstfive.pdfLEVON, E., 2010, "Organizing and Processing Your Data: The Nuts and Bolts of Quantitative Analyses", in Litosseliti L. (ed.), Research Methods in Linguistics, Continuum, London and New York: 68-92.
See the e-book in my blog
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104
Thank you