i

KNOWLEDGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AMONG FARMERS IN

OKIGWE SENATORIAL ZONE OF IMO STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

OKOROH JUOCHI P. PG/MSc./08/49379

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

SUPERVISOR: PROF. E. M. IGBOKWE

October, 2011

ii

KNOWLEDGE OF CLIMATE CHANGE AMONG FARMERS IN

OKIGWE SENATORIAL ZONE OF IMO STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

OKOROH JUOCHI P. PG/MSc./08/49379

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL

EXTENSION, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION (RURAL

SOCIOLOGY)

October, 2011

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iv

CERTIFICATION

Okoroh, Juochi Patience, a postgraduate student in the Department of Agricultural

Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with Registration Number PG/MSc/08/49379, has

satisfactorily completed the requirements for course and research work for the Degree of Master

of Science (M.Sc.) in Agricultural Extension (Rural Sociology.)

The work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in part or full

for other diploma or degree of this or any other university.

………………………………. …………………………….

PROF. A. E. AGWU PROF. E. M. IGBOKWE

(Head of Department) (Project Supervisor)

Date ………………………….. Date ………………………....

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DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to God Almighty, the source and sustainer of my life and to my beloved

husband Mr. J. C. Okoroh and children, Chibuzor and Ogochukwu Okoroh.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to acknowledge with every sense of gratitude, the encouragement, guidance,

instructions, inspiration and advise from my supervisor, Prof. E. M. Igbokwe Your close

monitoring and meticulous supervision have made the completion of this programme a success,

I truly say thank you Sir.

My gratitude also goes to all other members of teaching staff of the Department of

Agricultural Extension: Profs M. C. Madukwe, A. C. Anyanwu, E. M. Igbokwe, A .E. Agwu, Dr

(Mrs.) Onwubuya, Dr. (Mrs) M. Dimelu, Dr. N. Ozor as well as Dr (Mrs) Jane Chah. Others

include Mrs. J. C. Iwuchukwu, Dr. O. M Akinnagbe, Rev. (Dr.) Enwelu, Mrs Asadu and Mrs

Cynthia; and to all non teaching staff particularly Mrs. Oledinma.

I sincerely thank my classmates and friends who made my stay in University of Nigeria

Nsukka an interesting one. Among them are: Olaolu, Michael; Egbule, Chukwudumebi; Mrs E.

Ogbonnah; Mr. P. Njom; Umaru; Chika; Chiebonam and Chimezie I really appreciate all the

moments shared together. God bless you all.

Okoroh Juochi P.

vii

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted to ascertain the knowledge of climate change among farmers in okigwe

senatorial zone of Imo State, Nigeria. Multi-stage sampling technique was used for the selection

of sample. The first stage involved the purposive selection of Okigwe senatorial zone out of the

three senatorial zones (Orlu, Owerri and Okigwe) in the state because of the proneness to

ecological instability arising from the rugged terrain and sandy soil. The second stage involved

random selection of four Local Government Area (LGAs) out of the six (LGAs) in the senatorial

zone. From each of the four LGAs two autonomous communities were randomly selected. The

third stage involved the selection of two villages from each of the 2 autonomous communities

using simple random sampling giving a total of 16 villages. A total of 15 farmers were selected

from each of the villages giving a sample size of 240 farmers. A set of interview schedule and

questionnaire were used to collect the data for the study. Descriptive statistics like frequency,

percentage and mean score were used to analyze the data collected while hypothesis was tested

using a multiple regression analysis. The result of the study showed that the majority of the

farmers (60%) were females, the mean age of the farmers was 50.63 years. Also, the average

years of respondents farming experience was 21.6 years ,This indicates that they had engaged in

farming for many years and probably would have noticed the changes in climate. Mean

household size in the study area was 7 persons. This indicates that the farmers had fairly large

households which could probably supply farm labour cheaper than hired labour. The farmers in

the study areas engaged more in crop farming (57.7%) and the major crop grown was cassava

and others included fluted pumpkin, maize and yam. The study showed that 75% of the

respondents were aware of climate change and their major source of awareness was through self

observation and experiences over the years (42.4%). The local names given to climate change

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were mgbanwo ubochi , mgbanwo urukpu, ntughari ubochi and mgbanwe eluigwe.The result

from the study reveals that about 54.6% of the respondents had no knowledge on the causes of

climate change while about 41.8 % had high knowledge of effects of climate change and 25%,

24.10% and 9.10.% had moderate knowledge, low knowledge and no knowledge respectively on

effects of climate change. Also the farmers identified the following: crop rotation ( 89.1%),

mixed cropping (86.7%), mulching (80.7%), use of water channel as drainage systems (83.7%),

regular weeding (80.1%), use of organic manure (83.7%), proper tillage to reduce soil water loss

(71.1%), reduced the use of generating set as a result of electrification of houses (91.6%) as the

mitigation strategies used in their community to cushion the effects of climate change. The

respondents perceived the following among other variables of indicators of climate change as the

indicators prevailing in their community: changes in temperature (55.4%), changes in rainfall

pattern (72%), increased in flood (97.5%) increased in pest and diseases (88.5%), incidence of

erosion (90.9%), low crop yield (92.1%) and high humidity (74.1%). The level of education (t=

10.420; P= 0.000), house hold size (t= 3.008; P= 0.003) and type of farming (t= 4.139P= 0.000),

had positive and significant influence on farmers’ level of knowledge of the causes of climate

change.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page ii

Certification iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Abstract vi

Table of contents viii

List of Tables x

List of Figures xi

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Purpose of the study 5

1.4 Hypotheses 6

1.5 Significance of study 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Concept of climate and Climate change 8

2.2 Concept of knowledge and knowledge of climate change 10

2.3 Causes of climate change 12

2.4 Climate change and agriculture 16

2.5 Effects of climate change 19

2.6 Mitigation/Adaptation strategies of climate change 23

2.7 Conceptual framework 26

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study area 29

3.2 Population and sampling procedure 32

3.3 Instrument for data collection 35

3.4 Measurement of variables 35

3.5 Data analysis 38

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Respondents’ socio-economic characteristics 39

4.2 Farmers awareness of climate change 44

4.3 Respondents’ sources of awareness and local name given to climate change 45

4.4 Local name given to climate change 46

4.5 Farmers knowledge of causes of climate change 48

4.6 Knowledge level of the farmers on the causes of climate change 50

4.7 Knowledge of effects of climate change 52

4.8 Adaptation/mitigation strategies used by Farmers to cushion the

effect of climate change 57

4.9 Farmers perception of the indicators of climate change 59

4.10 Influence of farmers knowledge level of causes of climate change 61

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of findings 63

5.2 Conclusion 65

5.3 Recommendations 66

REFERENCES 67

APPENDIX: Questionnaire 72

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population and sampling proportion for the study 32

Table 2: Distribution of the respondents by socio-economic characteristics 43

Table 3: Distribution of farmers’ source of awareness 46

Table 4: Distribution of farmers knowledge of causes 50

Table 5: Respondents’ distribution on the knowledge of effects of climate change 56

Table 6: Distribution of mitigation strategies used by farmers to cushion the effects of

climate change 58

Table 7: Perceived indicators of climate change 60

Table 10: Factors influencing farmers knowledge level of causes of climate change 62

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1:Conceptual Framework on knowledge of climate change 28

Figure 2: farmers’ awareness of climate change 45

Figure 3: Percentage distribution of the names given to climate change 47

Figure 4:Knowledge level of Farmers on the causes of climate change 52

Figure 5: Knowledge level of farmers on the effects of climate change 53

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of the study

Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time .

The elements of climate include rainfall, temperature, humidity, air pressure, wind, cloud and

sunshine (Iwena, 2008). Therefore, climate change is defined as a misnomer in the average

climatic condition (Anyadike, 2009). Climate change is a result of global warming which is

caused by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide being trapped in the atmosphere (Ibidun,

2009). Green house gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), methane

(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and water vapour (Kregger, 2008). These gases trap the terrestrial

radiations from the earth and re-radiate the heat. The Climate Change Information Resources

(CCIR), 2004) defines climate change as a change in either the mean state of the climate or in its

variability, persisting for several decades or longer. This includes changes in average weather

conditions on earth, such as a change in average global temperature as well as changes in how

frequently regions experience heat, droughts, floods, storms and other extreme weather.

Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural

variability or as a result of human activity and is widely recognized as the most serious

environmental threat facing our planet today (Ozor,2009). According to IPCC (2007),the change

in climate are attributed directly or indirectly to human activities and alter the composition of the

global atmosphere over comparable time periods.

Pollution from human activity in the last 200 years has released more carbon dioxide than

the planet can handle. The single human activity that is most likely to have a large impact on

climate is the burning of “fossil fuel” such as coal, oil and gas. These fuels contain carbon.

2

Burning them produces carbon dioxide gas (African Institute of Applied Economics

(AIAE,)2009). In addition, deforestation and agricultural activities such as “slash and burn”

practice remain important potential factors in climate change. The Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO, 1989) estimates the loss of forest to agriculture at the rate of 11 million

hectares per annum. This purposeful elimination of vegetation is commonly presented as

“deforestation” (Ebil, 2000). The menace to the environment includes soil erosion, loss of wind

break and crops against the excesses of warming of the areas and subsequently the entire planet

(WHO, 1992). The “slash and burn” practice associated with farming systems of forest and

savannah regions is blamed for its enormous contribution to the accumulation of carbon dioxide

and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere (Cleaver, Kevin and Goetz 1994). In the long run, the

climatic change could affect agriculture in several ways (http://ideas.repec.org/

p/fem/femwpa/2006.6.html):

1. productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops

2. agricultural practices, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural

inputs such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers

3. environmental effects, in particular in relation of frequency and intensity of soil

drainage (leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity

4. rural space, through the loss and gain of cultivated lands .

5. adaptation, organisms may become more or less competitive. Countries in sub-

Saharan Africa, including Nigeria, are likely to suffer the most because of their

geographical location, low incomes and low institutional capacity, as well as their

greater reliance on climate sensitive renewable natural resource sector like agriculture

(AIAE, 2009).

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Also climate change causes sea level to rise due to melting of ice into the sea (Anyadike,

2009).According to Ujah (2009) climate change increases poverty rate as a result of low

productivity. The effects of climate change include flooding, drought, erosion, desertification,

sea level rise, heat stress, pests and diseases, erratic rainfall pattern, among others (Ozor, 2009) .

Mitigation as being defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2006) as a reduction

in how unpleasant, serious etc something is. Therefore, mitigation strategies are the strategies

taken to reduce the effect of climate change. Climate change mitigation is increasingly important

since climate change is a global phenomenon that affects everybody (Eboh, 2009).

1.2 Problem statement

As a developing nation, Nigeria is particularly sensitive to the effects of climate change.

A large part of the economy depends on natural resources which are particularly vulnerable to

climate change. When those resources are affected, whole communities are implicated. Disease,

loss of livelihoods and settlements can force entire communities into relocation and even

refugee status. Due to the predominance of rural farmers in Okigwe senatorial zone couple with

the effects of climate change are prevailing in this zone, Okigwe zone has been selected for this

study.There is proliferation of disease-carrying insects and pests, namely, malaria, sleeping

sickness, dengue fever and schistosomiasis (a parasitic disease). An abundance of rain provides

more breeding sites. Wind helps to disperse them. Temperature, precipitation and wind are all

affected by climate change. Food crops are affected by the presence of pests (resulting in low

agricultural yields and food shortages, as well as human population problems such as

malnutrition). Pests can reduce meat supply and cause human suffering which in turn affects the

effectiveness and productivity of communities labour force. Okigwe senatorial zone is vulnerable

4

to climate change impact unless it adapts, or adjusts, to actual impacts of climate change. This

will require taking action, through preventive measures (to avoid the worsening of conditions)

or adjustment measures (changes in habits and the way things are done). Human settlements in

Nigeria will be affected by climate change in a variety of ways. Extreme climate change such as

tropical storms, floods, landslides, wind, heat and cold brings with it droughts, floods, and sea-

level rise. Urban and rural population concentration will be disrupted, especially along the coast

due to the rise in sea levels. Some settlements are known to have already relocated from their

original sites because of this. Rises in sea-levels will also threaten urban and rural facilities in

low-lying coastal regions, as evident in Lagos (Onyedika and Okonkwo, 2009). Climatic

catastrophes displace populations.

Farming activities such as “slash and burn” practice, which are associated with the

farming systems of forest and savannah regions is blamed for its enormous contribution to the

accumulation of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide in the atmosphere (Cleave, Kelvin, Schreiber,

Goetz, 1994). Also some vegetation are subjected to the threat of over-grazing by livestock. In

arid and semi-arid regions of sahelian countries of Africa, it is considered one of the chief factors

of desertification (Ebii, 2008). In addition to the issue of overgrazing, livestock contribute to

climate change by emission of methane gas through belches and flatulence (Durning and Brough,

1992). Domesticated animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses and

sheep produce methane during cud-chewing process (Rosenwig and Hillel, 1993). Agriculture

accounts for roughly 14% of global greenhouse gases and 75% of the world’s poor live in rural

areas in developing countries and most depend on agricultural activities for their livelihoods

(World Bank, 2008).

5

Onyedika and Okoronkwo (2009) have shown that several indicators or variables that

increase greenhouse gases, which are the major cause of climate change are very common and at

a very high volume in Nigeria. British Broadcasting Co-operation (BBC) Trust Research as

cited by Etim (2009) also reveals that many Nigerians think that climate change is caused by

God. The reason cited for this view was that divine punishment was being meted out for the

basket of sins of the world. The knowledge of a phenomenon is a determinant of attitudes

toward the issue. People who perceive climate change as man made and a detriment to their

welfare will work toward reducing the actions that cause it and vice versa. The knowledge, in

turn is molded by cultural, technological and educational levels which vary from place to place.

Consequent upon this, it is pertinent to ascertain knowledge of climate change among farmers’ in

Imo state, Nigeria. In view of this, pertinent questions that guided this study were:

Are rural farmers aware of climate change? Do farmers have knowledge of the causes of

climate change? Do they have knowledge of the effects of climate change? What are the

indicators of climate change perceived in their communities. What adaptation strategies have

they adopted? These and other questions were answered by the study.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The broad objective of the study was to ascertain the knowledge of climate change among

farmers in Okigwe senatorial zone of Imo State, Nigeria. Specifically the study sought to:

1. determine awareness of climate change among farmers in Imo State, Nigeria;

2. ascertain farmers knowledge of causes of climate change;

3. ascertain farmers knowledge of effects of climate change;

4. identify the mitigation/adaptation strategies used by farmers to cushion the effects of

climate change on agricultural practices; and

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5. identify indicators of climate change prevailing in the communities.

1.4 Hypothesis

Hypothesis: The characteristics of the farmers do not significantly influence the

knowledge of causes of climate change.

1.5 Significance of the study

The knowledge of the causes, effects and possible ways of adapting climate change by

the farmers will reveal the extent to which the farmers are at home with the concept of climate

change. It has been described in subtropical region that the agricultural sector is more vulnerable

to such as the landless farmers, livestock keepers, people in poor health, those who are

undernourished, people with low economic power, women and children including women

headed households, those with low level of education, and those with low technological know-

how are more exposed to the risk of climate change (Barber, 2003). Therefore having knowledge

of causes and effects of climate change will help the farmers in reducing the action that causes it.

The findings of this study will aid the extension agent to know the areas where farmers

need empowerment. The results of the study will equally aid the government in making sound

policy on climate change. Moreover policy makers and researchers will by the findings of this

study be intimated with the farmers’ needs for innovations needed to enhance the farmers’

ability to cope with the threats of climate change. Also, this research material will serve as a

reference paper for other researchers on climate change issues. This study will be made

available to the various stake holders when the findings are presented at conferences both

locally and internationally.

7

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review

Literature was reviewed under the following sub headings:

1. Climate and Climate change concept

2. Concept of knowledge and knowledge of climate change

3. Causes of climate change

4. Climate change and agriculture

5. Effects of climate change

6. Mitigation/adaptation strategies of climate change

7. Conceptual framework

2.1 Climate and climate change concept

According to Areola (1999) “ climate refers to the average atmospheric conditions

of an area over a considerable length of time and the elements of climate include: rainfall,

temperature, humidity .air pressure, winds cloud and sunshine.” The intergovernmental panel on

Climate Change (IPCC, 1992) has defined climate as the “average weather” or more rigorously,

as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a

period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30

years, as defined by the world meteorological organization (WMO) as cited by IPCC (1992). The

term ‘weather’ refers to the short term changes in temperature, wind and/or precipitation of a

region (Merrrits,1998) as cited by (kreger,2008). Climate encompasses the statistics of

temperature , humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, atmospheric particle over a long

period count and numerous other meteorological elements in a given region over a long period

8

The climate change information resources (CCIR,2004) defined climate change as a

change in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for several decades

or longer. This includes changes in average weather conditions on earth, such as a change in

average global temperature as well as changes in how frequently regions experience heat,

droughts, floods, storms and other extreme weather. Climate change refers to a statistically

variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability persisting for an extended

period (typically decades or longer) (IPCC,2007). United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC), as cited by baede in its article 1, defines ‘climate change’ as a

change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the

composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to the natural climate variability

observed comparable time periods. Human activity that contribute to climate change include in

particular the burning of fossil fuel, agriculture and land use changes like deforestation. These

cause emission of carbon dioxide (co2), the main gas responsible for climate change (UNFCC,

I992)

According to boto@ctaint climate change at a glance includes:

Increased warming: Eleven of last twelve years rank among the warmest years in global

surface temperature since 1850. The rate of warming average over the last 50 years is nearly

twice that for the last 100 years. The average global temperature went up about 0.74oC during

the 20th

century with the warming affecting land more than ocean areas.

There is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is the dominant contributor

to current climate change and its atmospheric concentration has increased from a pre-industrial

value of 278 parts – per million (ppm) to 379 in 2005.

9

More water, but not everywhere. More precipitation has been observed in the eastern parts of

North and South America, Northern Europe and Central Asia in recent decades. But Sahel, the

Mediterranean Southern Africa and parts of Southern Asia have experienced drying. More

intense and longer droughts have been observed over wider areas since 1970’s.

sea level is rising: The Intergovernmental Panel on climate change is highly confident that the

rate of observed sea level rise increased from the 19th

to 20th

century and the total century rise is

estimated to be 0.17 metres. The average temperature of the global ocean has increased to depths

of at least 3000 metres.

Less snow cover: Snow cover is decreasing in most regions, particularly in spring. The

maximum extent of frozen ground in the winter/spring season has decreased by 7% in average

rivers that freeze do some 5.8 days later than a century ago and their ice breaks up to 6.5 days

earlier. (American Meteorological society (AMS),2008).

2.2 Concept of knowledge and knowledge of climate change

Knowledge is defined as the state of knowing about a particular fact or situation, in other

words it means the information, understanding and skills that one gains through education or

experience (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th

ed.). In this context the ” particular fact”

here is climate change, climate change is a global phenomenon that is threatening the world

today, many people are already aware of this through either information, observation or

experience acquired over time. A research carried out by the British Council Nigeria in

collaboration with BBC world service on climate change and perception of Nigerians on the

issue revealed the following:

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1. Awareness of climate change as defined by the environmental community is low,

2. Climate change terminology currently fails Nigerians,

3. Most Nigerians associate climate change with weather and the resulting impacts of the

weather on their environment,

4. Associations with weather create a framework dominated by God, which evoked a sense

of powerless,

5. Most Nigerians do not connect local issues such as desertification, coastal flooding,

gulley erosion and urbanization to climate change, with the exception of Jigawa State,

6. There is little evidence of Nigerians taking substantive steps to adapt to the effect of

climate change,

7. Most Nigerians are not empowered to address environmental issues and responsibility

for dealing with these problem is often attributed to the government and Nigerians want

practical, local information that is grounded in local examples of how to deal with the

environmental challenges they face (Onyedika and Okoronkwo, 2009). BBC research has

revealed that many Nigerians think that climate change is caused by God, the reason cited

for this view was that divine punishment was being meted out for the basket of sins of the

world (Imisim, 2009). According to Apata (2008) “farmers in Osun state perceive climate

change as having a strong spiritual, emotional and physical dimension, as sign of divine

anger on many sinners and God is trying to punish us, also curse from their ancestors

who are unhappy due to lack of appeasement.”

A research carried out by Ibidun and Gbadegesin (2009) on “Analysis of the public

perception of climate change issues in an indigenous African City of Ibadan” indicated that a

significant proportion (92%) of the public is aware of the dynamics of the local climate. In

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addition, Almost 70% of the respondents have heard of global climate change but less than 25%

know the causes.

2.3 Causes of Climate Change

The change in the composition of the atmosphere is caused directly and indirectly by various

human activities in addition to natural climate variability over time (kppant@yahoo.com). The

causes of climate change that is the things that bring about climate change, according to

www.edugreenterites/explore/climate/Dg-072920 are as follows:

1. Those that are due to natural causes and

2. Those that are created by man

Those that are due to natural causes are as follows:

Volcanoes: When a volcano erupts out large volumes of sulphurdioxide (SO2), water

vapour, dust and ash into the atmosphere. Although the volcanic activity may last only a few

days, yet the large volumes of gases and ash can influence climate patterns for years. Millions of

tones of sulphurdioxide gas can reach the upper levels of the atmosphere (called the stratosphere)

from a major eruption (Pidwirny, 2006). The gases and dust particles partially block the

incoming rays of the sun, leading to cooling. Sulphurdioxide combines with water to form tiny

droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small that many of them can stay a lot of years.

They are efficient reflectors of sunlight, and screen the ground from some of the energy that it

would ordinarily receive from the sun. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippine Island erupted in April

1991 emitting thousands of tones of gases into the atmosphere, also Mount St. Helens erupted on

May 18, 1980 (cited by Pidwirny, 2006). Volcanic eruptions of this magnitude can reduce the

amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s Surface, lowering temperatures in the lower levels

of the atmosphere (called the troposphere), and changing atmosphere circulation patterns.

12

The earth’s tilt: The Earth makes one full orbit around the sun each year. It is tilted at an

angle of 23.50C to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path. For one half of the year when it is

summer, the northern hemisphere tilts towards the sun. in the other half when it is winter, the

earth is tilted away from the sun. If there was no tilt we would not have experienced seasons.

Changes in the tilt of the earth can affect the severity of the seasons. More tilt means warmer

summer and colder winters, less tilt means cooler summer and milder winter. Periods of a large

tilt result in greater seasonal climatic variation in the middle and high latitudes (Pidwirny, 2006).

At these times, winter produce less snow because of lower atmospheric temperatures. As a result

less snow and ice accumulates on the ground surface.

The ocean current: The oceans are a major components of the climate system. They

cover about 71% of the Earth and absorb about twice as much of the sun’s radiation as the

atmosphere or the land surface. Ocean currents have been known to change direction or slow

down. Much of the heat that escapes from the oceans is in the form of water vapour, the most

abundant greenhouse gas on Earth. Yet, water vapor also contributes to the formation of clouds,

which shade the surface and have a net cooling effect.

Any or all of these phenomena can have an impact on the climate, as is believed to have

happened at the end of the last Ice Age, about 14,000 years ago

Those that are human causes

The industrial Revolution in the 19th

century saw the large scale use of fossil fuels for

industrial activities. These industries created jobs and over the years, people moved from rural

areas to cities. This trend is continuing even today. More and more land that was covered with

vegetation has been cleared to make way for houses. Natural resources are being used

extensively for construction, industries, transport and consumption. Also our population has

13

increased to an incredible extent. All these have contributed to a rise in greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere. Green house gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),

methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), troposheric ozone (O3) and water vapour (Kregger, 2008).

According to Lockwood (2009) the gases that contribute to greenhouse effect include the

following:

Water vapour. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback

to the climate. Water vapour increases as the Earth's atmosphere warms, but so does the

possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback

mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.

Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere,

carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions

and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels.

Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by a third since the Industrial Revolution

began. This is the most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.

Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human

activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice

cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic

livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than

carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the atmosphere. ). Ruminant

animals are the major emitters of methane. Enteric fermentation in digestive process of animals

produces methane (Krishna,2009).

14

Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices,

especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid

production, and biomass burning.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds of entirely of industrial origin used

in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the

atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the ozone

layer. They are also greenhouse gases .

The presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is a natural component of the

climate system and helps to maintain the earth as a habitable planet (Climate Change Information

Resource CCIR, 2005). Greenhouse gases are relatively transparent to incoming solar radiation,

allowing the sun’s energy to pass through the atmosphere to the surface of the earth. The energy

is then absorbed by the earth’s surface, used in the processes like photosynthesis or emitted back

to space as infrared radiation (CCIR, 2005). Some of the emitted radiation passes through the

atmosphere and travels back to space, but some is absorbed by greenhouse gas molecules and

then re-emitted in all directions, the effect of this is to warm the earth’s surface. Water vapour

(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the two largest contributors to greenhouse effect (CCIR,

2205). Carbon dioxide is undoubtedly, the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.

Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) are present only in trace

amounts, but can still have a powerful warming effect due to their treat-trapping abilities and

their long residence time in the atmosphere (National Academy of Science, NAS, 2001).

According to Anyadike (2009), human causes of climate changes are the followings:-

Combustion of Fossil Fuel: such as petrol, kerosene, diesel etc The by-products of these

15

greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, sulphur(IV)oxide. He went further to say

that the properties of these gases lead to global warming. Concentration of greenhouse gases

especially carbon dioxide have risen over the past 250years, largely due to the combustion of

fossil fuels for energy production (CCIR, 2005).

Deforestation: Plants grow through the well known process of photosynthesis, utilizing

the energy of sunlight to convert water from the soil and carbondioxide from the air into sugar,

starch, cellulose and carbohydrates that are the foundations of the entire food chain (Rosenzwig

and Hillel, 1995). When these trees are felled the CO2 will be forced to stay in the air thereby

causing climate variations (Anyadike, 2009).

2.4 Climate change and agriculture

Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a

global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting

agriculture, including temperature, carbon dioxide, glacial run-off, precipitation and the

interaction of these elements These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere

to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. The overall effect

of climate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects. Assessment of the

effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt

farming to maximize agricultural production( Wikipedia).At the same time, agriculture has been

shown to produce significant effects on climate change, primarily through the production and

release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, but also by

altering the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light,

thus contributing to radioactive forcing. Land use change such as deforestation and

16

desertification, together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon

dioxide; agriculture itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxide

concentrations in earth's atmosphere.

The agricultural sector is a driving force in the gas emissions and land use effects

thought to cause climate change. In addition to being a significant user of land and consumer of

fossil fuel, agriculture contributes directly to greenhouse gas emissions through practices such as

rice production and the raising of livestock; according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, the three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed over the past 250

years have been fossil fuels, land use, and agriculture.

Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas increases through land use in four main ways:

• CO2 releases linked to deforestation

• Methane releases from rice cultivation

• Methane releases from enteric fermentation in cattle

• Nitrous oxide releases from fertilizer application

Together, these agricultural processes comprise 54% of methane emissions, roughly 80% of

nitrous oxide emissions, and virtually all carbon dioxide emissions tied to land use. The planet's

major changes to land cover since 1750 have resulted from deforestation in temperate regions:

when forests and woodlands are cleared to make room for fields and pastures, the albedo of the

affected area increases, which can result in either warming or cooling effects, depending on local

conditions. Deforestation also affects regional carbon reuptake, which can result in increased

concentrations of CO2, the dominant greenhouse gas Land-clearing methods such as slash and

17

burn compound these effects by burning bio matter, which directly releases greenhouse gases

and particulate matter such as soot into the air.

Also Agricultural practices cause climate change. Such practices like “slash and burn”

practice. This practice is associated with the farming systems of forest and savannah regions is

blamed for its enormous contribution to the accumulation of carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide in

the atmosphere (Cleave, Kelvin, Schreiber, Goetz, 1994)

Overgrazing: Some vegetation are subjected to the threat of over-grazing of livestock. In

arid and semi-arid regions of sahelian countries of Africa, it is considered one of the chief factors

of desertification (Ebii, 2008). In addition to the issue of overgrazing, livestock contribute to

climate change by emission of methane gas through belches and flatulence (Durning, Brough,

1992). Domesticated animals such as dairy cows, goats, pigs, buffaloes, camels, horses and

sheep produce methane during cud-chewing process (Rosenwig and Hillel, 1993).

Fertilizer Application: A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to

fertilizer application (Rosenweig et al 1993). This in turn depends on the type of fertilizer that is

used, how and when it is used and the method used. Agriculture accounts for roughly 14% of

global GHGs (IPCC, 2007). Human contribute everyday to climate change

(edu.een.teri.res.in/explore) itemized how we all contribute everyday to climate change.

Electricity is the main source of power in urban areas. All our gadgets run on electricity

generated mainly from thermal power plants. These thermal power plants are run fossil fuels

(mostly coal), and are responsible for the emission of huge amounts of greenhouse gases and

other pollutants cars, bushes and trucks are the principal ways by which goods and people are

transported in most of our cities. These are run mainly on petrol or diesel, both fossil fuels. We

generate large quantities of waste in the form of plastics that remain in the environment for many

18

years and cause damage or burnt in incineration. We use a huge quantity of paper in our work at

schools and in offices. Have we thought about the number of trees that we use in a day? Timber

is used in large quantities for construction of house, which means that large areas of forest have

to be cut down. A growing population has meant more and more mouths to feed. Because the

land area available for agriculture is limited, high yielding varieties of crop are being grown to

increase the agricultural output from a given area of land. However, such high yielding varieties

of crops require large quantities of fertilizers, and more fertilizer means more emissions of

nitrous oxide, both from the field into which it is put and the fertilizer industry that makes it.

Pollution also results from the run-off of fertilizer into water bodies.

2.5 Effects of climate change.

Rise in sea level: Global warming is predicted to lead to thermal expansion of sea water,

along with partial melting of land-based glaciers and sea-ice, resulting in a rise of sea level

which may range from 0.1 to 0.5 meters (4 to 20 inches) by the middle of the next century,

according to present estimates of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as

cited by (Rosenzwig and Hillel, 1995). Such a rise could pose a threat to agriculture in low- lying

coastal areas, where impeded drainage of surface water and of groundwater, as well as intrusion

of sea water into estuaries and aquifers, might take place. In parts of Egypt, Bangladesh,

Indonesia, China, the Netherlands, Florida, and other low-lying coastal areas already suffering

from poor drainage, agriculture is likely to become increasingly difficult to sustain.

Rise in sea level due to melting of ice sea (Anyadike, 2009). During the 20th

century, sea

level rose about 15cm (6inches) due to melting glacier ice

19

Rainfall Amount: Increased in rainfall in the other areas (flood) and decreased in rainfall

in other areas (drought) (Anyadike, 2009). Heavier rainfall cause flooding in many regions,

warmer temperatures have led to more intense rainfall events in some areas (Gardiner, 2009).

Drought is increasing, higher temperatures cause a higher rate of evaporation and more drought

in some areas of the world (Gardiner, 2009). It is expected that the availability of water in most

parts of Africa would decrease as a result of climate change (Boto and Peccerella, 2008).

Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture: Agriculture of any kind is strongly influenced by

the availability of water (Rosenzwig and Hillel, 1995). Climate change will modify rainfall

evaporation, run off and soil moisture storage. The occurrence of moisture stress during

flowering, pollination and grain-filling is harmful to most crops, particularly to corn, soya beans

and wheat. Increased evaporation in plants cause moisture stress, as a result there will be reduced

yield (Rosenzwig and Hillel, 1995). With increasing incidences of flooding, erosion, bush

burning, pests and diseases, increased temperature, erratic rainfall,, and drought, it is less

difficult to believe that agricultural productivity under these circumstances will be very low

(Ozor, 2009). In the long run, the climatic change could affect agriculture in several ways

(http://ideas.repec.org/p/fem/femwpa/2006.6.html):

1 productivity, in terms of quantity and quality of crops

2 agricultural practices, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs

such as herbicides, insecticides and fertilizers

3 environmental effects, in particular in relation of frequency and intensity of soil drainage

(leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, reduction of crop diversity

20

4 rural space, through the loss and gain of cultivated lands, land speculation, land

renunciation, and hydraulic amenities.

5 adaptation, organisms may become more or less competitive, as well as humans may

develop urgency to develop more competitive organisms, such as flood resistant or salt

resistant varieties of rice.

Pests and Diseases: Conditions are more favourable for the proliferation of insect pest in

warmer climates (Rosenwig and Hillel, 1995). Longer growing seasons will enable insects such

as grasshoppers to complete a greater number of reproductive cycles during summer, spring and

autumn. Warmer winter temperatures may also allow larvae to winter. Over in areas where they

are now limited by cold, thus causing greater infestation during the following season

consequently reducing crop quality, market value and yield.

Soil fertility and erosion: Higher air temperature will also be felt in the soil, where warmer

conditions are likely to increase the rates of the other soil processes that affect fertility, additional

application of fertilizer may be needed to counteract these processes and to take advantage of the

potential for enhanced crop growth that can result from increased atmospheric carbon dioxide

(Rosenzwig and Hillel, 1995). This can come at the cost of environmental risk, for additional use

of chemicals may impact water and air quality.

High temperature rise: In all regions of the world, faster temperatures rise, the greater

the risk of damage (http:/www.ipcc.ch/). According to projections by the IPCC (1996) the

average global air temperature will be 100C higher by 2040 if no additional steps are taken to

reduce emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.

Climate change and health: Climate change may directly affect human health through

increases in average temperature. Such increases may lead to more extreme heat waves during

21

the summer while producing less extreme cold spells during the winter. Particular segments of

the population such as those with heart problems, asthma, the elderly, the very young and the

homeless can be especially vulnerable to extreme heat(IPCC, 2007).According to Ola (2010 )

Maiduguri sun keeps shinning, with the temperature rising each day to between 42 and 48 degree

Celsius as a result of this many residents now suffer urinary problems due to dehydration, he

maintains that those who drink less than 5 litres a day are prone to painful urination known in

local parlance as “fzafi rana”

Increased health risk: Climate change is increasingly altering the distribution of

malaria mosquitoes and other carriers of infectious diseases (Boto and peccerella 2008)

Exposure of millions of people to new health risk vector-base diseases such as malaria and

schistomiasis water borne diseases as cholera typhoid and dysentery and increased cases of

cataracts especial in the Northern part of Nigeria because of increased solar radiation

(Anyadike 2009) patterns of infection insect and rodent- borne diseases and mortality will be

affected by changing weather, not only in development countries which already have

populations with poor health, but also in developed countries. For example, heat waves were

estimated to have killed up to 70,000 people in Europe in 2003 (European commission

Environment DG, 2009) Population and migration: Migration is likely to occur on a large scale

as people flee from inhospitable conditions.

Water and sanitation: clean water, suitable sanitation and drainage will be threatened.

Increased droughts will cause water shortages and floods will increase the occurrence of water –

borne diseases, such as diarrhea (European commission, Environment DG, 2009) Climate

change may also contribute to social disruption, economic decline, and displacement of

22

populations in certain regions), due to effects on agricultural production, already-scarce water

resources, and extreme weather events ( Schwartz and Randall, 2003 )

Migration: climate change results in migration of individuals to non affected areas.

There would be huge displacement of people from coastal and densely populated low-lying

areas like the Mekong and Yangtze Deltas (Anyadike, 2009). The number of environmental

migrants will substantially increase in future due to the impacts of climate change (German

Advisory Council on Global Change WBGU, 2007) in (Ozor, 2009). In developing countries

like Nigeria, the increase in drought, soil degradation and growing water scarcity in

combination with high population growth, unstable institutions, poverty or a high level of

dependency on agriculture means that there is particularly significant risk of environmental

migration occurring and increasing in scale

Loss of life and properties: Intense heat and flooding cause loss of lives and properties.

According to Ola (2010) intense heat in Maiduguri has led to loss of birds especially poultry

and equally cause dehydration among the residents of Maiduguri.

2.6 Mitigation/Adaptation strategies of climate change

Climate change mitigation are measures or actions to decrease the intensity of radiative

forcing in order to reduce global warming (Wikipedia). Mitigation as being defined by the

Oxford Advanced learner’s Dictionary (2006) as a reduction in how unpleasant, serious

etc something is. Therefore mitigation strategies are the strategies taken to reduce the

effect of climate change.

23

1. Arresting today’s high level of deforestation and planting new forest could considerably

reduce emissions at low cost (Boto and Peccerella, 2008) The Stern Review on the

Economics of Climate Change commissioned by the UK Treasury and published in 2007

[27] highlights the fact that 18 percent of the global greenhouse gas emissions (2000

estimate) comes from deforestation, and that putting a stop to deforestation is by far the

most cost-effective way to mitigate climate change,.

2. A major adaptive response will be the breeding of heat and drought- resistant crop varieties

by utilizing genetic resources that may better adapted to new climatic and atmospheric

conditions. A wide variety of adaptive actions may be taken to lessen or overcome adverse

effects of climate change on agriculture.

3. At the level of farms, adjustment may include the introduction of later – maturing crop

varieties, sowing earlier, conserving of soil moisture through appropriate tillage methods

and improving irrigation efficiency (Rosenzweig and Hillel, 1995).

Other options include improved management of crop and grazing lands (example improved

agronomic practices, nutrient use tillage and residue management); restoration of organic soil

that are drained for crop production and restoration of degraded lands land use change (e.g.

converting crop land to grassland) and agro-forestry; and livestock and manure management

(Boto and Peccerella, 2008).

According to Anyadike (2009), he identified the following measures to mitigate effects of

climate change:

1 massive electrification of the entire country to reduce the use of generating sets.

2 Re-build and re-introducing rail transport in order to reduce massive use of long distance travel

using lorries, trucks, buses et cetera.

24

3 Putting an immediate end to the present illegal practices of gas flaring in our oil fields in Niger

Delta. This can be achieved by gas re-injection and provision of very strict penalties to erring oil

exploring firms, establishment of nation-wide programme for re-aforestation. The harshest

effects of climate change will be felt most by the poor. Inadequate health care systems in

vulnerable and under-resourced countries must be strengthened and a greater efforts must be

made to address poverty. Many technological innovations need to be encouraged to address the

impact of climate change on health. More funding is needed for climate science and related

technological solution. Such as for food security, safe water supply and better buildings

(European Commission Environment- 2009). In 2004, Energy Research Institution of the

National development and reform commission was able to provide one estimate of 352 million

tons of CO2 for the total emission from the transportation sector in China ( Zhu, 2006).

The important mitigation strategy is to replace fossil- fuel based transportation sector

energy sources with alternative and renewable energy source such as ethanol which will result in

significant reductions in greenhouse gas emission (Wagner and Whitworth, 2006). IPCC (2007)

report on climate change mitigation strategies, recommends greater use of renewable energies

(e.g. solar or wind power) About 70 per cent greenhouse gas emissions are energy related

(Zhang, 2007) . Reports that, there is need for regional cooperation and partnership at a global

level. He went further to say that developing countries are in need of assistance in terms of

funding, capacity building and technology transfer to confront the challenges and opportunities

of climate change mitigation.

Nuclear power currently produces over 15% of the world's electricity. Due to its low

emittance of greenhouse gases (comparable to wind power) and reliability it is seen as a

25

possible alternative to fossil fuels, but is controversial for reasons of capital cost and possible

environmental impacts.

2.7 Conceptual framework

Knowledge is defined as the state of knowing about a particular fact or situation, in other

words it means the information, understanding and skills that one gains through education or

experience (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th

ed.). In this context the ” particular fact”

here is climate change. Climate change is a global phenomenon that is threatening the world

today. Many people are already aware of this through either information, observation or

experience acquired over time. Ibidun and Gbadegesin (2009), in their findings of the public

perception of climate change issues in Ibadan, showed that majority (92.0%) of the public were

aware of the dynamics of the local climate. Many people believe that climate change is caused

by natural phenomenon (de Wit, 2006) as cited by Umunnakwe (2011). Climate change is really

affecting African agriculture quiet heavily (Aklilu 2007). In Africa, majority of the people are

living on rain fed agriculture so due to climate change, rainfall patterns have changed in the past

few decades and rainfall has become unpredictable. Farmers used to have their own traditional

knowledge about rainfall but now, things happen which are beyond the traditional knowledge of

farmers, so they can no longer predict rainfall patterns, this has really affected the farmers

productivity. Some farmers still see climate change as something caused by God, those that have

adequate knowledge of causes of climate change will work towards cushioning the activities that

cause it. According to Bostrom, Morgan, Fischhoff & Read, 1994) the effectiveness to which the

society respond to this possibility depends on how well its understood by the individual citizens.

Block A presents the concept of climate change which is caused by various sources

which is block B. B1 comprises of those agricultural practices that contribute to climate

26

change. These practices include overgrazing, slash and burn system, deforestation, use of

herbicides/pesticides, use of fertilizers, waste decomposition and ruminant digestive system.B2

shows that industrial waste such as CO2 from generators used to generate electricity are sources

of climate change.B3 indicates that burning of fire wood used in cooking at homes is another

source of climate change. B4 shows that the transport sector is a source of climate change. It is

through burning of fossil fuel from vehicles such as cars and other automobiles. From the

above, Blocks B1, B2, B3 and B4 show the various sources of climate change. These sources

include agricultural activities, industries, homes and transport sector. Each of the sources have

various activities that eventually lead to change in climate. The extent of knowledge of these

activities with respect to them as causes of climate change is what is presented in Block C as

knowledge of causes of climate change. Block D gives a presentation of various effects /

indicators of climate change. Farmers’ knowledge of these indicators shows their knowledge

level which is what this study sought to find out. Block F shows the likely mitigation strategies

adopted by farmers to reduce the effects of climate change. Therefore farmers knowledge level

of climate change depends on their knowledge level of the various causes of climate change

presented in block B and the level of their knowledge of effects of climate change.

27

Fig 1: A Conceptual Framework on farmers’ knowledge of climate change

Green house gases

such as CO2,

Methane, NO2, CFC

,CH4

D

Use of generators

to generate

electricity

Burning of

firewoods

• Overgrazing

• Slash & burn system

• Deforestation

• Herbicides/Pesticides

• Fertilizers

• Waste decomposition

• Ruminant digestive system

Burning of fossil

fuel from vehicles

such as cars

• Proper conservation of seeds

• Use of drainage system

• Afforestation

• Use of Organic manure

• Cover cropping

• Mixed faming practices

• Policy on deforestation

• Erosion

• Drought

• Flooding

• Lost of Soil Fertility

• High disease & Pest

infestation

• Low crop yield

• Migration

• Health risk

E A

F

C

CLIMATE CHANGE FARMERS

KNOWLEDGE

SOURCES

INDUSTRIES HOMES

AGRICULTURE

TRANSPORT

SECTOR

Knowledge

CAUSES

B1 B2 B3

B4

MITIGATION/

ADAPTATIONS

STRATEGIES

Knowledge

EFFECTS

28

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Study area

The study was carried out in Imo State, Nigeria. Imo State lies within latitudes 4°45'N

and 7°15'N, and longitude 6°50'E and 7°25'E ("http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imo_State"). Imo

State is bounded in the east by Abia State, in the west by Delta state, in the north by Anambra

State and in the south by Rivers State. Imo State covers about 5,430 squuare kilometers

(Onuekwusi, 2007) and has a population of 3,927,563 (National Population Commission, 2006).

Administratively, Imo State comprises of three senatorial zones namely: Okigwe zone, Orlu zone

and Owerri zone.

The rainy season begins in April and lasts till October with annual rainfall varying from

1,500mm to 2,200mm (60 to 80 inches) and average annual temperature above 20 °C (68.0 °F)

creates an annual relative humidity of 75%, with humidity reaching 90% in the rainy season

("http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imo_State"). The dry season experiences two months of harmattan

from late December to late February . The hottest months are between January and March. Imo

state has many rivers but the main rivers are Imo river, Otamiri and Njaba and lakes such as

Abadaba and Ugwuta Lake. Due to the presence of these rivers and lakes communities around

the riverine areas engage in dry season farming most especially vegetable production. Women

participate more in agriculture in the State than men. Men are basically concerned with yam

production while women engage in the production of various crops like cocoyam, okra, garden

egg, pepper, cassava, groundnut, maize, fluted pumpkin ,oil palm, citrus and also small livestock

production. The State is rich in natural resources including crude oil and natural gas.

Picture 1:An eroded site in Avutu of Imo state An eroded site in Avutu of Imo state

29

30

Source: www.Africatalksclimate.com/gallaries/imo-state-nigeria

31

3.2 Population and sampling procedure

The population for the study comprised farmers in Imo state. Multi-stage sampling

technique was used for the selection of sample. The first stage involved the purposive selection

of Okigwe senatorial zone out of the three senatorial zones (Orlu, Owerri and Okigwe) in the

State because of the proneness to ecological instability arising from the rugged terrain and

sandy soil. Okigwe zone is made up of six Local Government Areas (LGAs) namely: Isiala

Mbano, Ihitte Uboma, Obowo, Okigwe South, Ehime Mbano and Okigwe North.

The second stage involved random selection of four LGAs out of the six LGAs in the senatorial

zone. From each of the four LGAs two autonomous communities were randomly selected in the

third stage.

The fourth stage involved the selection of two villages from each of the 2 autonomous

communities using simple random sampling giving a total of 16 villages. A total of 15 farmers

were selected from each of the villages giving a sample size of 240 farmers.

Table 1: Population and sampling proportion for the study

4Selected

LGAs

Number of autonomous

communities

Total number of villages Respondents

Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample

Obowo 14 2 25 4 142,340 60

Ihitte 15 2 30 4 119,419 60

Isiala Mbano 14 2 29 4 197,921 60

Ehime Mbano 15 2 31 4 170,824 60

Total 58 8 115 16 630,504 240

NPC 2006

32

Map 1: Map of Nigeria showing Imo state

N

Source:www.enwikipedia.org/file:Nigeria_Imo_state_map.png

Key

Orlu senatorial zone

Okigwe senatorial zone

Owerri senatorial zone

Map 2: Map of Imo state in Nigeria (Study area)

Source:www.imgre?q=map+of+imo+state+Nigeria&hl=en&sa=x&

Map 2: Map of Imo state in Nigeria (Study area)

Source:www.imgre?q=map+of+imo+state+Nigeria&hl=en&sa=x&

33

N

Sampled

LGAs

34

3.3 Instrument for data collection

Data for the study were obtained from primary sources. This was achieved through the

use of structured interview schedule and questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to

literate farmers while illiterate farmers were interviewed using the same instrument by the

researcher. The instrument for data collection was divided into six sections. Each section

contained relevant questions on each of the five objectives of the study for the purpose of

eliciting reliable information from the respondents. Two hundred and twenty questionnaire were

duly completed and returned.

3.4 Measurement of variables

Section A: The Socio-economic and personal characteristics of the respondents were

measured as follows: sex: sex was measured as female 1, male 2;

Marital status: The respondents were asked to indicate their marital status and nominal value

assigned to each of the categories were single 1, married 2;

Ages of farmers: The actual ages of the respondents in years were taken and later

grouped as follows: 20-29years, 30-39years, 40-49years,50-59years, 60-69years and 70years and

above; Educational level: Respondent were asked to indicate their educational level. The

categories of the educational level were scored as follows: no formal education 1, primary school

attempted 2, primary school completed 3, secondary school attempted 4, secondary school

completed 5,OND/NCE 6, HND/First degree 7, higher degrees (M.Sc.,Ph.D) 8.

.Number of years of farming experience: The respondents were asked to give the actual

number of years they had spent in farming. It was measured using the actual number of farming

35

experience in years and later grouped as follows:1-10years, 11-20years, 21-30years, 31-40years,

41-50years and51 years and above .

Household size: The respondents were asked to supply the actual number of persons that

constituted their respective households and it was later grouped as follows:1-3persons, 4-

6persons,7-9 persons and 10-12persons .

Number of organizational membership: This was measured by the actual number of

organizations which a farmer belonged to.

Type of farming: Farmers were asked to tick from the options the type of farming

practiced. The response categories were crop farming 1, livestock farming 2 and both 3.

Section B, determined farmers’ awareness of climate change. Respondents were asked to

indicate if they were aware of climate change by ticking against responses of “Yes” or “No”.

The respondents were asked to supply the source of awareness and were equally asked the local

name of climate change, if any.

In Section C, relevant questions were asked to ascertain farmers level of knowledge on

the causes of climate change. To ascertain the knowledge level of respondents, 15 questions on

the perceived causes of climate change were asked. The respondents were asked to tick either”

yes” or “No”, Out of the 15 questions on the causes of climate change, respondents were asked

to respond to each of the questions to ascertain their knowledge level on the causes of climate

change. Two marks were assigned to each question making a total of 30. Also, 2 each was

assigned for each correct answer while zero was assigned to a wrong answer; each of the

respondents was marked and scored over 30. Later the respondents were categorized into 4

groups based on their knowledge level, namely;

No knowledge ( for those respondents with 0 score),

36

low knowledge ( for those respondents with 1-10 scores),

moderate knowledge ( for those respondents with 11-20 score) and

high knowledge (for those respondents with 21-30 score ) .

Section D sought to ascertain farmers knowledge level of effects of climate change . To

ascertain the knowledge level of the respondents, 21 questions ranging from: Does climate

change lead to erosion problems; do you think climate change can cause flooding among other

questions were asked. A maximum of 2 points each was awarded to each question. The highest

score was 42 points and the lowest was 0. The respondents were then categorized into four

groups based on their knowledge level namely:

No knowledge ( for those respondents with 0 score),

low knowledge ( for those respondents with 1-14 scores),

moderate knowledge ( for those respondents with 15-28 score) and

high knowledge (for those respondents with 29-42 score )

Section E sought to identify the mitigation strategies used by the farmers to cushion the

effects of climate change. Respondents were asked to indicate from the list of variables

perceived as mitigation strategies of climate change that they had used to cushion the effect of

climate change.

In Section F, respondents were asked to tick either ‘yes’ or ‘No’ from the list of

indicators of climate change as perceived in their own community that is, the indicators of

climate change prevailing in their own community

37

To test the hypothesis which states that the characteristics of the farmers do not

significantly influence the knowledge of causes of climate change, a multiple regression analysis

was used.

The regression model was specified in the explicit form as follows; Y = b + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 +

b4x4 + b5x5 + b6x6 +b7x7 +e

Where y = knowledge of causes of climate change,

b = constant

b1-b7 = coefficient of all farmers socio-economics characteristics

x1 = sex (female 1, male 2)

x2 = age (years)

x3 = marital status( single 1, married 2)

x4 = level of education (No formal education 1,formal education 2)

x5 = type of farming (crop farming 1, livestock farming 2 and mixed farming 3)

x6 =years of farming experience(years)

x7 =No of organizational membership (actual number)

e = error term

3.4 Data analysis

Percentage and mean statistics were used to describe the socio-economic characteristics

of the respondents. Objectives 1, 2 ,3 ,4 and 5 were analyzed using frequencies, percentage and

chart while the hypothesis was tested using a multiple regression analysis.

The statistical package for the social science (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel constituted the

soft package used for the analysis.

38

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the Respondents

Sex

Data in Table 2 show that majority (60.0%) of the respondents were female, while the remaining

40.0% were male. This implies that more women were involved in farming activities than men. .

This study is in support of Mafimisebi and Fasina (2009) who In their findings, observed that

most farmers in Africa are women and they produce more than three –quarters of the region’s

basic foodstuff. Also, this supports the findings of Economic Commission for Africa (1996)

which observed that women produce up to four fifth of essential foodstuffs which they process

and sell in large quantities.

Age

Entries in Table 2 reveal that about 24% of the respondents were within the age range of 60-69

years, while 20.9% were within the age range of 40-49 years. Those who were between the

ages of 30 and 39 years accounted for15.0%; while those that were between the ages of 20 and

29 years of age accounted for 10.0%. The remaining 9.6% fell within the ages of 70 years and

above. The mean age of the respondents was 50.63 years. This indicates that elderly persons

constituted the farmers population in the study area. This could be attributed to migration of

youths to urban centres in search of white collar jobs. This result confirms the findings of Imoh

(2002) that younger women migrate to the cities for greener pastures.

39

Marital status

Entries on Table 2 further show that majority (85.9%) of the respondents were married,

while the remaining 14.1% were single. This suggests that married persons predominated in

farming activities in the study area.

Educational qualification

About 18.0% of the respondents had no formal education and 32.3% of the farmers

completed tertiary (OND/NCE, HND and first degree) education. About 24% and 8.2% of the

respondents completed their secondary and primary education respectively while the remaining

18.2 % of the respondents did not complete their primary and secondary education. This implies

that greater proportion(82.3%) of the respondents have had a form of formal education at

different levels. This will further imply that the farmers will likely be able to access information

that could increase make their knowledge of climate change.

Household size

Table 2 shows that about 38% of the respondents had a household size of 7-9 persons

while 32.2% of them respondents had a household size of 4-6 persons. Also ,about 17 % of the

farmers had a household size of 10-12 persons while the remaining 12.3% had a household size

of 1-3 persons. The average household size in the study area was 7 persons. This indicates that

the farmers had fairly large household which could probably supply farm labour even cheaper

than hired labour. Mafimisebi and Fasina (2009) in their findings observed that children are

desired to increase family labour need for agricultural purposes. Also, this household size could

serve as a means of disseminating information.

40

Type of farming

Table 2 also reveals that majority (57.7%) of the respondents were involved in crop

farming, while 12.3% were involved in livestock farming only. The remaining 30% were

involved in both crop farming and livestock keeping. This implies that farmers in the study area

are more involved in crop farming than in livestock farming. This could be as a result of the

higher cost implication of livestock farming than crop farming. This is in agreement with the

findings of Umunakwe (2011) who observed that most farmers turn away from livestock

production due to the high capital requirements and the higher risk involvements. This finding

could further imply that these farmers will likely be more knowledgeable in the areas of climate

change that borders on crop production than most other areas.

Major crop grown

Entries in Table 2 show that the major crop grown in the study area was cassava (32.9 %)

and other crops grown included fluted pumpkin ( 22.2%), maize (19.1%), yam (16.0%) Okro

(1.3%), ground nut (0.4%) and coco yam (4,9%). This means that the most popular crop grown

in Imo state is cassava. This could be as a result of the fact that the crop (Cassava) is known to be

able to survive adverse weather and even poor soil conditions. This result is in consonance with

the findings of Nweke, Spencer and Usman (2002) who opined that the most widely cultivated

crop in the southern part of Nigeria in terms of area devoted to it and the number of farmers

growing it is cassava. This was further confirmed by Ozor, Madukwe, Onokala, Enete, Garforth,

(2010) that cassava is the major crop grown in southern Nigeria. The particularity of cassava

production in Imo State was also observed by Umunakwe (2011). This implies that the most

likely knowledge of farmers on climate change will be in respect to cassava production and as

41

such the best acceptable adaptation strategy for coping with climate change will be those that are

related to cassava production.

Years of farming experience

From Table 2, 30.8% of the respondents had 11-20 years of farming experience. The

remaining 29%,10.9%,18.6 9.1 and 0.9% of the respondents had been into farming for 1-10

years, 21-30 years, 31-40 years, 41-50 years and 51-60 years respectively. The mean years of

farming experience was 21.6 years. This result reveal that most of the farmers had engaged in

farming for a long time. Farming in rural areas is a livelihood activity and this will explain why

the respondents have been long in it and are continuing ,as a result they would have noticed the

changes in their climate.

Organizational membership

Majority (81.8%) of the respondents belonged to 1-2 organization while 15.9% belonged

to 3-4 organizations (Table 2). Also entries in Table 2 show that 2.3% of the respondents

belonged to 5-6. The mean number of organizational membership was 2.These organizations

could serve as a medium for the farmers to share their experiences or create awareness on

climate change issues . This corroborates Ekong’s (2003) assertion that rural inhabitants belong

to groups which would help them to satisfy their innate need for belonging and affiliation and

also in solving their problems through collective efforts. Some of these problems could include

the climate change challenge facing the farmers today.

42

Table 2: Distribution of Farmers’ by personal/ socio-economic characteristics (N=220)

Personal/Socio-economic characteristics Frequency Percentages (%) Mean (M)

Sex

Male

Female

Age (years)

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70 -79

Marital status

Single

Married

Educational level

No formal education

Primary school attempted

Primary school completed

Secondary school attempted

Secondary school completed

OND/NCE

HND/First degree

Household size (Persons)

1-3

4-6

7-9

10-12

Type of farming

Crop

Live stock

mixed

major crop grown

Pepper

Ground nut

Okro

Cocoyam

Maize

Yam

Flueted pumpkin

Cassava

Years of framing Experience (Years)

1-10

11-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

51 years and above

Number of organization membership (persons)

1-2

3-4

5-6

88

132

22

33

46

46

52

21

31

189

39

12

18

28

52

37

34

27

71

84

38

127

27

66

2

1

3

11

43

36

50

74

65

68

24

41

20

2

180

30

10

40.0

60.0

10.0

15.0

20.9

20.9

23.6

9.6

14.1

85.9

17.7

5.5

8.2

12.7

23.6

16.8

15.5

12.3

32.2

38.2

17.3

57.7

12.3

30.0

0.9

0.4

1.3

4.9

19.1

16.3

22.7

336

29.5

30.9

10.9

18.6

9.1

0.9

81.8

13.6

4.6

50.63

7

21.6

2

Source: Field survey, December 2010.

43

4.2 Farmers’ awareness of climate change

The result in Figure 2 shows that 75.0% (166) of the farmers were aware of climate

change. The high percentage of awareness of climate change could be as a result of the long

years spent in farming and as such they could have observed the changes in their various farms.

This implies that most of the farmers in the study area could have at one point or the other

heard of the concept of climate change. It could also be as a result of observed changes in the

weather condition over the years. This finding agrees with Ibidun and Gbadegesin (2009). In

their findings of the public perception of climate change issues in Ibadan they showed that

majority (92.0%) of the public were aware of the dynamics of the local climate. This was

further buttressed by the assertion of the Southern African Catholic Bishops’ Conference

(SACB), (2010) that most Africans are aware that weather and climate patterns are changing

but their understanding of global climate change is limited. Also, the findings of Ozor,

Madukwe, Onokala, Enete et al. (2010) further confirm the situation in southern Nigeria to be

in agreement with the fact that most farmers in Southern Nigeria are aware of climate change

issues. And more particularly in Imo state, Umunakwe (2011) also found that majority of the

rural dwellers in Imo state were aware of climate change.

Figure 2: Farmers’ Awareness of climate change

4.3 Respondents’ sources of awareness and local name given to climate change

It is evident that from Table

through self observation and experiences over the years while 24.2%, 29.1% and 4.2

aware through interaction with enlightened farmers, radio and television respectively. This

result implies that farmers in Imo S

observation and experiences over the years. T

respondents see farming as a means of livelihood

This also means that most of what these farmers may know about climate may also be the

Not Aware

25%

: Farmers’ Awareness of climate change

of awareness and local name given to climate change

Table 42.4% of the respondents became aware of climate change

through self observation and experiences over the years while 24.2%, 29.1% and 4.2

aware through interaction with enlightened farmers, radio and television respectively. This

plies that farmers in Imo State got awareness on climate change most

and experiences over the years. This could be as a result of

respondents see farming as a means of livelihood and have been involved in it for a long time

This also means that most of what these farmers may know about climate may also be the

Aware

75%

44

of awareness and local name given to climate change

aware of climate change

through self observation and experiences over the years while 24.2%, 29.1% and 4.2% became

aware through interaction with enlightened farmers, radio and television respectively. This

mostly through self

of the fact that

and have been involved in it for a long time.

This also means that most of what these farmers may know about climate may also be the

45

much they could observe and make meaning out of. The findings of this study agrees with a

study carried out in Imo State, Nigeria on adaptation strategies for sustainable climate risk

management by Umunakwe (2011) that farmers(62.3%) in Imo State were aware of climate

change through personal experience and observations while 9.4%, 6.6%, 1.9% and 0.9%

became aware of climate change through radio, fellow farmers, extension agents, agribusiness

operators and newspapers respectively. This also opined the assertion of Ekong (2003) that

local people take cognizant of changes in their immediate environment .

Table 3:Distribution of farmers sources of awareness of climate change (N=166)

Source of awareness Frequency Percent(%)

Self observation and experience

over the years 70 42.4

Interaction with enlightened

farmer 40 24.2

Radio 48 29.1s

Television 7 4.2

Source: Field survey,December, 2010

4.4 Local name given to climate change

Data in Figure 3 reveal that different names were given to climate change in the local

language. The names include; mgbanwe eluigwe (12.7%), ntughari ubochi (12.7%), and

mgbanwo ubochi (13.3%).Also, 5.5% called it mgbanwo urukpu. This result shows that there

is no definite name for climate change and that people had different names for it. Mgbanwe

eluigwe meaning “changes at the heavenly body”. This could imply that the farmers who call

climate change mgbanwe eluigwe have observed that there has been changes in the way the

heavenly bodies such as moon, sun and clouds function. These bodies are responsible for the

various weather. Utughari ubochi which means “changes of the day” this means that there are

changes in the days, which were not the ca

observations of the days are with respe

way attributed to climatic changes.

could imply the various changes in day length, raining seasons, dry

and harmattarn.. Mgbanwo urukpu

the best understanding of the concept of climate change. Even though the latter gives the best

description of the concept, only about 6.0% of the respondents see it that way.

The findings here show that 44.2% of the

change and can even express it in Igbo language.

Mgbanwe

eluigwe

Ntughari ubochi

12.7% 12.7%

Figure 3: Percentage distribution of farmers bythe names given to climate

change.

which were not the case many years ago and as such for farmers the best

observations of the days are with respect to their farming activities. This to them is in every

way attributed to climatic changes. Mgbanwo ubochi meaning “changes of

could imply the various changes in day length, raining seasons, dry seasons, onsets of rains

Mgbanwo urukpu which means changes of the clouds or of the climate

the best understanding of the concept of climate change. Even though the latter gives the best

description of the concept, only about 6.0% of the respondents see it that way.

that 44.2% of the respondents have an idea of the concept of climate

change and can even express it in Igbo language.

Ntughari ubochi Mgbanwo

ubochi

Mgbanwo

urukpu

No idea

12.7% 13.3%

5.5%

55.8%

Figure 3: Percentage distribution of farmers bythe names given to climate

46

e many years ago and as such for farmers the best

his to them is in every

meaning “changes of the days” this

seasons, onsets of rains

the clouds or of the climate, gives

the best understanding of the concept of climate change. Even though the latter gives the best

respondents have an idea of the concept of climate

No idea

55.8%

Figure 3: Percentage distribution of farmers bythe names given to climate

47

Farmers knowledge of causes of climate change

Results in Table 4 show that use of generator to generate power (52.4%), burning of

fossils by industries (50.6%), gas flaring from oil companies (45.7%), burning of bush

(43.4%), burning of fossils from vehicular machines (40.4%) were the most popular opinion

on the respondents’ knowledge on the causes of climate change while deforestation (30.7 %),

burning of firewood for cooking (30.7%). Gases such as CO2 released from industries

(27.1%), swamp rice production (25.9%), overgrazing by livestock (21.6%), use of pesticides

and herbicides (15.6%) and use of excess fertilizers in farmland (13.2%), were those causes of

climate change that the respondents had a percentage range of 10% to about 23% . The result

implies that most of the respondents do not have a good knowledge of the causes of climate

change, even though they were aware of the concept of climate change they had very little

knowledge of the causes. This further confirms the fact that these farmers became aware of the

climate change just by observations which was more of personal and as such they could not

have really traced any particular factor to be the cause of the changes observed by them.

These findings agree with Lohmann (2006) that climate change is closely associated

with the burning of oil, coal or gas. This was further confirmed by Egbule (2010), who

observed that natural gas is still flared in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and farmers there

perceived it as a major cause of climate change.

The poor knowledge of climate change corroborates the findings of Akilu (2002) that

information on climate change is still confined to the academia and research institutes, while

Kelbessa (2003) as cited by Umunnakwe (2011), observed that the majority of the African

local people associate climate change to such issues as the violation of local customs, the

wrath of the gods, sinful generation and natural phenomenon. There is therefore a need for

48

sensitization of the farmers by the various extension agents as to help them guard against

practices that could cause climate change.

49

Table 4: Distribution of Farmers according to their knowledge of causes of climate

change(N=166)

Causes Yes Percentage

(%)

burning of fossil by industries 84 50.6*

Burning of firewood for cooking 51 30.7

Use of generator to generate electricity 87 52.4*

Burning of bush 72 43.3

Deforestation 51 30.7

Burning of fossil fuel from vehicle, machines. 67 40.3

Overgrazing of farm land by livestock 36 21.6

Use of excess fertilizer in farmland. 22 13.2

Use of pesticides and herbicides 26 15.5

Decomposition of organic waste 21 12.6

Gas flaring from oil companies 76 45.7

Gases such as CO2 released from industries 45 27.1

Swamp rice production 43 25.9

Source: Field survey, December 2010. Multiple response

Knowledge level of the farmers on the causes of climate change

Result on Figure 4 shows that about 55.0% of the respondents had no knowledge on the

causes of climate change, 16.7%, 16.8% had low knowledge and moderate knowledge of the

causes of climate change, respectively while the remaining 10% had high knowledge of causes

50

of climate change. It was observed that farmers perceived climate change as a natural

phenomenon that is being caused by God. This agrees with BBC research which revealed that

many Nigerians think that climate change is caused by God. The reason cited for this view was

that divine punishment was being meted out for the basket of sins of the world (Imisim, 2009).

Also, Ibidun and Gbadegesin (2009) confirm that 70% of the respondents have heard of global

climate change but less than 25% know the causes. Umunakwe (2011) in his finding observed

that respondents perceived climate change to be as a result of the violation of local customs. This

is a common belief system in the rural areas where people attribute any disaster in the

environment to the anger of the gods. They hold the view that certain evil deeds make the people

incur the wrath of the gods which sometimes can persist for generations. According to them such

wraths can alter the usual pattern of climate which can impact adversely on agriculture which

constitute means of livelihood for most rural people. For instance, some communities in Imo

State normally appease the gods each time one commits incest. The finding of this study also

agrees with the findings of Kelbessa (2003) that the majority of African local people associate

climate change to such issues as the violation of local customs, wrath of the gods, the end of a

sinful generation and natural phenomenon. The implication of this is that despite the fact that

farmers are aware of climate change they still lack knowledge on the causes

51

Fig 4: Knowledge level of the farmers on the causes of Climate change

Farmers’ level of knowledge of the effects of climate change

Data presented in Figure 5, revealed that 41.8% of the respondents had high knowledge

of the effects of climate change while 25% ,24.10% and 9.10% had moderate knowledge, no

knowledge and low knowledge, respectively of the effect of climate change. This could be as a

result of farmers’ personal observations and experiences over the years. These observations

could have been basically as the affect their agricultural/ farm practices which they have been

engaged in for many years. The reason for this could be attributed to the fact that the

respondents see farming as a means of livelihood over the years and in the course of that would

54.6%

16.7% 16.8%

10.0%

No Knowledge Low knowledge Moderate Knowledge High Knowledge

52

have been observing the effects in their various farm activities. This also agrees with Egbule’s

(2010) findings that 94.8% of farmers have knowledge of the effects of climate change and

this knowledge is more from personal observation and experience over the years. This could

also be the reason for the changes in the farming and cropping systems being practiced by the

farmers, many of whom now practice mixed farming as well as mixed cropping as to allow

room for diversification and a security against any failure in yields.

This finding also shows that farmers might be faced with the challenges of coping with

the effects of these changes. This is in agreement with Apata (2008) who asserted that fall in

temperature, change of timing of rains, among others are also significant factors that influence

adaptation negatively and thus diversification from farming to non-farm is the most common

practice and knowledge about the impact of climate change on agriculture is still a mirage. This

was also further buttressed by the International Food Policy and Research Institute (IFRI) (2008)

by stating that Africa is particularly vulnerable to climate change because of its limited ability to

adapt owing to its dependence on rain-fed agriculture.

Figure 5:Respondents distribution base

Knowledge of effects of climate change

Results in Table 5, indicate

following as effect of climate change : flooding (

(84.9%), excess soil moisture (

diseases (68.7%), high rain fall (

migration of the vulnerable (92.1

Anyadike’s , (2009) opinion that i

rainfall in other areas (drought)

cause flooding in many regions, warmer temperatures have led to more intense rainfall events in

No knowledge

24.1%

:Respondents distribution based on the knowledge level of effect of climate change

of effects of climate change

, indicate that majority of the respondents (more than 50%) saw the

of climate change : flooding (76.5%), increased erosion (8

%), excess soil moisture (66.2%), decrease in crop yield (77.1%), increase in pest and

%), high rain fall (71.1%), heavy wind (86.7%), increase in health risk (

92.1%) and over population (67.4%). This result agrees with

opinion that increase in rainfall in the other areas (flood) and decrease

as well as Gardiner, (2009), who asserts that

cause flooding in many regions, warmer temperatures have led to more intense rainfall events in

Low knowledge Medium knowledge High knowledge

9.1%

25.0%

41.8%

53

nowledge level of effect of climate change

respondents (more than 50%) saw the

(84.9%), drought

%), increase in pest and

%), increase in health risk (86.7%),

result agrees with

ther areas (flood) and decrease in

that heavier rainfall

cause flooding in many regions, warmer temperatures have led to more intense rainfall events in

High knowledge

41.8%

54

some areas. He further said that drought is increasing, higher temperatures cause a higher rate of

evaporation and more drought in some areas of the world (Gardiner, 2009). It is expected that the

availability of water in most parts of Africa would decrease as a result of climate change (Boto

and Peccerella, 2008). The result also agrees with German Advisory Council on Global Change

(WBGU), (2007) in (Ozor, 2009) who opined that the number of environmental migrants will

substantially increase in future due to the impact of climate change. Boto and Peccerella (2008),

stated that climate change is increasingly altering the distribution of malaria mosquitoes and

other carriers of infectious diseases. This opinion agrees with the response on Table 5. The

result implies that these effects as perceived by the respondents agree with literature on the

various effects of climate.

55

Table 5: Respondents’ distribution on the knowledge of effects of climate change(N=166)

Effects Yes Percentage (%)

Flooding 127 76.5*

Deaths of aquatic organisms like fish in recent times 78 46.9

Increase in erosion 141 84.9*

The incidence of drought 110 66.2*

Excess soil moisture. 120 72.28*

Decrease in yield of crops 128 77.1*

High humidity. 65 39.1

Decreasedin soil moisture 103 62.7*

Low fertility of the soil 102 61.4*

Increase in pests and disease infestation 114 68.7*

The high incidence of weed 49 29.5

Drying of rivers, lakes and soil water 104 62.7*

Low productivity of animals 83 41.5

Low rainfall intensity 96 57.8*

High rainfall 118 71.8*

Destruction of field crops by heavy wind 144 86.7*

Increased in health risk. 144 86.7*

Migration of the Vulnerable 153 92.1*

Over population of non affected areas

Loss of life and property

112

40

67.4*

24.1

Source: Field survey, December 2010. * Multiple response

56

Mitigation/Adaptation strategies used by farmers to cushion the effect of Climate change

Results from Table 6 show that 91.6% of the farmers used electrification of houses to

reduce the use of generating set as a mitigation strategy, also 89.1% of the farmers used crop

rotation, 86.7% of the respondent used mixed cropping ,83.7% of farmers used drainage system,

80.7% used mulching,80.1% used regular weeding and 77.1% used conservation of soil water

through appropriate tillage. This results reveal that the farmers have devised various ways to

reduce the effect of climate change. These strategies must have been tested by the farmers and

found to be effective and as such reflect in their perception. Land management practices such as

improved rotation, improved fallows, improved grazing and reduced tillage could serve as

mitigation strategies (Guardian Environment Network, 2009). This was also confirmed by

Rosenzweig and Hillel (1995) who found that conserving soil moisture through appropriate

tillage methods and improving irrigation efficiency could serve as mitigation strategies. This

supports (Anyadike, 2009) ”massive electrification of the entire country to reduce the use of

generating sets could serve as a mitigation strategy of climate change.

Those strategies with very low frequencies such as afforestation, use of train, planting of

drought resistant varieties, use of renewable energies such as solar power are strategies that

require much finances and much of which government interventions are usually needed to enable

farmers enjoy them.

57

Table 6: Distribution of farmers by mitigation strategies used to cushion the effect of

Climate change ( N=166)

Mitigation strategies Yes Percentage

(%)

Afforestation 14 8.4

Use of water channels as drainage system 139 83.7*

Use of organic manure 101 60.8*

Planting of cover crops 70 42.1

Mixed cropping practices 144 86.7*

Planting of pests and disease resistant crops 54 32.5

Mulching 134 80.7*

Crop rotation practices 148 89.1*

Regular weeding to avoid breeding of some insect pest 133 80.1*

proper conservation of seeds 118 71.1*

Avoiding deforestation 26 15.7

Breeding of drought and heat resistant crop varieties 61 36.7

Conserving of soil moisture through appropriate tillage operation. 128 77.1*

Reduced the use of generating sets as a result of electrification of

house

152

91.6*

Source: Field survey, December 2010. * Multiple response

58

Farmers’ perception of the indicators of climatic change

Data on Table 7 show that farmers in Imo state recognized the following as the factors

that made them to know that there is climate change: increase in incidence of pest and disease

infestation (88.5%), increase in flood (97.5%), increase in erosion (90.9%), low crop yield

(92.1%), change in rainfall patterns (72%), high humidity (74.1%), loss of soil fertility (52.4%)

and changes in temperature (55.4%). This result implies that farmers perceive climate change

indicators as occurrences that have effects on the soil moisture which eventually affects the farm

production. This result agrees with the views presented by Egbule (2010), as extreme weather

events such as heavy downpours and droughts are likely to reduce crop yields because the water

has negative impact on plant growth. This is in line with the findings of

(http://downloads.climatescience.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/agriculture.pdf), which shows that the

effects of climate change is being experienced both as an excess and decrease of soil moisture. It

was further stressed by the findings of Ola (2010 ) who found that at Maiduguri in Borno state

Nigeria, sun keeps shinning with the temperature rising each day to between 42 and 48 degree

Celsius. As a result of this many residents now suffer urinary problems due to dehydration.

According to projections by the IPCC (1996) the average global air temperature will be 100C

higher by 2040 if no additional steps are taken to reduce emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse

gases. Soil fertility would be affected by global warming (www.wikipedia.en.com,2010). This

agrees with the findings of the study.

This calls for innovation that will enhance adaptation by the farmers for the sustenance of

the agricultural productivity for the future generation.

59

Table 7: Farmers perception on the indicators of climatic change in their respective

communities

Items Yes Percentage

(%)

There has been increase in pest and diseases infestation on

farms

147 88.5*

In recent time, floods have increased 162 97.5*

There has been changes in temperature in recent times 92 55.4*

There is increased incidence of erosion in recent times 151 90.9*

There has been low crop yield 153 92.1*

There has been loss of soil fertility 87 52.4*

There has been excessive heat 80 48.1

There has been incidence of drought 45 27.1

There is low humidity 52 31.3

There has been change in rainfall patterns 121 72.0*

In recent times there has been high humidity 123 74.1*

Source: Field survey, December 2010. *Multiple response

60

Factors Influencing farmers knowledge level of the causes of climate change

The regression result in Table 8 reveals that there was a significant influence (F = 31.789;

p < 0.05) of the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers on the level of knowledge of the

causes of climatic change in the study area. The R Square (0.554) value indicates the proportion

of variability in the level of the knowledge of farmers of the causes of climate change (that is the

dependent variable) which accounts for the multiple regression equation. The adjusted R square

(0.536) is an estimate of R2

for the population. This implies that about 54% (adjusted R square)

of the variance in the level of the farmers knowledge is as a result of the personal /

socioeconomic characteristics as included in the model. The socio economic characteristics were:

Sex, age, marital status, level of education, house hold size, types of farming, years of farming

experience, number of organizational membership.

The level of education (t= 10.420; P= 0.000), house hold size (t= 3.008; P= 0.003), type

of farming (t= 4.139P= 0.000), had positive and significant influence on farmers’ level of

knowledge of the causes of climate change. Sex (t= 1.096; p< 0.275), age(t= 0.215; p< 0.830),

marital status (t= 0.420; p< 0.675), years of farming experience (t= 0.039; p< 0.969), and number

of organizational membership (t= 0.809; p< 0.420) had no significant influence on the farmers’

level of knowledge of the causes of climate change.

This means that the higher the level of education, the higher the respondents’ knowledge

of the causes of climate change. Education of an individual could enhance knowledge of causes

of climate change. This could be as a result of the fact that the educated people have been

exposed to a lot of areas in the course of learning, observation and experimentation and such as

get to know more things than those not educated. This is in consonance with the views of Obinne

(1991), that it has been established that the educational level of farmers determine their adoption

61

behaviour to a large extent. The higher the farmers involvement in farming activities, the higher

their the level of knowledge of the causes of climate change . Also, the higher the household size

of each respondent the higher the knowledge level of climate change causes. This could be

attributed to the different members of household serving as sources of information on the causes

of climate change

Table 8: possible Factors influencing farmers level of knowledge of causes of climate

change

Variables Unstandardized

coefficients

Standardized

coefficients

B Std. Error Beta T Sig.

(Constant) -1.797 .570 -3.153 .002

Sex .171 .156 .061 1.096 .275

Age .003 .012 .028 .215 .830

Marital status .132 .314 .031 .420 .675

level of education .445 .043 .664 10.420* .000

house hold size .095 .032 .177 3.008* .003

Type of farming .351 .085 .227 4.139* .000

Number of farming experience .000 .011 .004 .039 .969

Number of organizational

membership

.034 .042 .046 .809 .420

a. Dependent Variable: knowledge level of farmers on the causes of climatic change

R Square = 0.554; R2 = 0.536 ; F-value = 31.789 ; p < 0.05

Source :field survey, December 2010

62

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary

The overall purpose of the study was to ascertain the knowledge of climate change among

farmers in Okigwe senatorial zone of Imo state, Nigeria. Specifically the study sought to

determine the farmers’ awareness of climate change; ascertain the farmers’ level of knowledge

on causes of climate change; examine the farmers’ knowledge level of the effects of climate

change; identify the mitigation strategies used by farmers in the study areas to cushion the

effects of climate change and equally identify the climate change indicators prevailing in their

various communities.

The study was carried out in Imo state, Nigeria. The present study was purposefully

carried out in Okigwe senatorial zone of the state. The zone was selected for the study because

of the proneness to ecological instability arising from the rugged terrain and sandy soil. Four

local governments areas were randomly selected from six LGAs in the zone and a total of 220

farmers were used for the study.

(Farmers constituted the sample size for the study). Structured interview schedule and

questionnaire were used for collecting of data from the respondents. Percentage, frequencies

mean score and regression analysis were used in data analysis.

Results of the study show that 23.6% of the farmers were between the age range of 60

and 69 years and mean age was 50.63 years. Majority of the farmers (60% ) were female and

married ( 85.9%). In terms of educational qualification 32.3% of the farmers completed tertiary

(OND/NCE, HND and first degree) education while about 23.6% of the respondents completed

their secondary school education showing that they were moderately educated. Those without

63

formal education were about 18%. Also, the average years of respondents farming experience

was 21.6 years ,This indicates that they had engaged in farming for many years and probably

would have noticed the changes in climate. Mean household size in the study area was 7

persons. This indicates that the farmers had fairly large household which could probably supply

farm labour and equally cheaper than hired labour. The farmers in the study areas engaged more

in crop farming (57.7%) and the major crop grown was cassava and others included fluted

pumpkin, maize and yam.

The study showed that 75% of the respondents were aware of climate change and their

sources of awareness were through self observation and experiences over the years (42.4%),

interaction with enlightened farmers (24%), radio(29.1%) and television ( 4.2%). The local

names given to climate change were mgbanwo ubochi , mgbanwo urukpu, ntughari ubochi and

mgbanwe eluigwe.

The result from the study reveals that about 54.6% of the respondents had no knowledge

of the causes of climate change while about 41.8 % had high knowledge of effects of climate

change and 25%, 24.10% and 9.10.% had moderate knowledge, low knowledge and no

knowledge respectively on effects of climate change.

Respondents identified the following: crop rotation (89.1%), mixed cropping (86.7%),

mulching (80.7%), use of water channel as drainage systems (83.7%), regular weeding (80.1%),

use of organic manure( 83.7%), proper tillage to reduce soil water loss ( 71.1%), reduced the

use of generating set as a result of electrification of houses 91.6% as the mitigation strategies

used in their community to cushion the effects of climate change.

The respondents perceived the following among other variables of indicators of climate

change as the indicators prevailing in their community: changes in temperature (55.4%), changes

64

in rainfall pattern(72%), increased in flood (97.5%) increased in pest and diseases (88.5%),

incidence of erosion (90.9%), low crop yield (92.1%) and high humidity (74.1%).

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made:

1. About 75% of the respondents were aware of climate change

2. The sources of awareness of climate change in the study area were from personal

observations and experiences over the years, radio, interaction from enlightened farmers

and television.

3. Majority( 54.6%) of the respondents had no knowledge of the causes of climate change

while 46.4% of the respondents know the causes.

4. About42% of the respondents had knowledge of effects of climate change.

5. Respondents used mixed cropping, crop rotation, drainage system, electrification of

houses to reduce the use of generating set, organic manure etc as mitigation strategies to

cushion the effects of climate change.

6. The indicators of climate change include changes in temperature, changes in rainfall

patterns, increase in floods, high humidity, incidence of erosion, increase in pests and

disease infestation and low crop yield

7. Climate change does not have one definite local name rather respondents have different

interpretation of itwith close meaning to the concept of climate change.

65

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this research work, the following recommendations were made:

1 Awareness on the causes of climate change should be created by the extension agent.

2 The government should implement a policy on afforestation as a mitigation strategy.

3 Information on causes of climate change should be made accessible to farmers through public

awareness campaign using radio programmes, workshops, seminars, etc organized in local

dialect.

4 Extension personnel should organize seminars for the farmers on climate change issues and

should equally be discouraged from practicing indiscriminate burning of bush as a way of

clearing their farms.

5 Proper mitigation strategies should be used such as afforestation program.

6 Awareness on the causes of climate change to the farmers should be created to enable them

stop their activities that contribute to climate change.

66

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71

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Dear Sir/Madam,

Please this is a questionnaire intended to be used as an instrument for data collection on a

masters degree topic” knowledge of Climate change among farmers in Imo State, Nigeria”. You

are required to answer where appropriate as your responses shall be treated confidentially.

SECTION A: Personal and socio-economic Characteristics

Instruction: Please tick appropriately

1. Sex: (a) Female (b) Male

2. Age:

3. Martial status: (a) Married (b) Single (c) Divorced

(d) widow

4. Level of education: (a) Primary school attempted (b) primary school completed

(c) secondary school attempted (c)secondary school completed (d) OND/NCE

(e) HND/first degree (f) Ph.D (g)No formal education

5. Household size ?

6 type of farming (a) crop farming (b) livestock farming (c) both

8 Number of years of farming experience?

9. Major crops grown

10. Organizational membership (Number)

72

SECTION B: Awareness level relating to climate change phenomenon.

1 Are you aware of climate change (a) yes (b) No

2 if YES, what is your source of awareness___________

3 what is the local name of climate change _____________

SECTION C: knowledge level of causes of climate change

Answer the following questions by ticking “yes” or “no”

1 Does burning of fossil by industries contribute to climate change (a) No ( )(b) Yes ( )

2 Burning of firewood for cooking contribute to climate change(a) No ( ) (b) yes ( )

3 Can Climate change be caused by the use of generator to generate electricity(a) No (b)

Yes ( )

4 Can burning of bush results to climate change (a) No( ) (b)yes ( )

5 Does deforestation results in climate change (a) No ( ) (b)Yes ( )

6 Climate change is caused by burning of fossil fuel from vehicle, machines (a) No ( )

(b).yes

7 Can overgrazing of farm land by livestock causes climate change (a)No ( ) (b)yes ( )

8 Also, does the use of excess fertilizer in farmland contribute to climate change(a) No( )

(b) yes ( ).

9

Does the use of pesticides and herbicides contribute to climate change (a)No ( ) (b)yes

( )

10 Do you think Decomposition of organic waste contribute to climate change( a)No (b)yes

( )

73

11 Can Gas flaring from oil companies contribute to climate change (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( )

12 Can Gases such as CO2 released from industries cause climate change (a) No ( ) (b) yes

( )

13 Can Swamp rice production contribute to climate change (a) No ( ) (b)Yes ( )

14

15

High use of irrigation results to climate change (a)No ( ) (b) yes ( )

Does oil spillage cause climate change (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( )

SECTION D:knowledge level of effects of climate change

Answer the following questions by ticking “yes” or “no”

1 Do you think Flooding is as a result climate change (a)No ( ) (b) yes ( )

2 Climate change has led to the deaths of aquatic organisms alike fish in recent times (a) No

( ) (b) yes ( )

3 Can climate change lead to increased in erosion (a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

4 The incidence of drought is a result of climate change (a) No ( ) (b) yes( )

5 Can Climate change result in excess soil moisture (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( ).

6 Climate change can lead to Decrease in yield of crops change( a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

7 Climate change has resulted in high humidity (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( ).

8 The decreased in soil moisture is as a result of climate change (a) No ( ) (b)Yes( )

9 Climate change has led to low fertility of the soil (a) No ( ) (b)Yes ( )

10 Increase in pests and disease infestation is as a result of climate change (a) No ( )

(b) yes ( ).

11 The high incidence of weed is caused by climate change (a) No ( ) (b)yes ( ).

12 Do you think that Climate change can leads to high weed growth (a) No( ) (b)yes

74

13 Does climate change leads to drying of rivers, lakes and soil water (a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

14 Climate change leads to low productivity of animals (a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

15 Climate change results to low rainfall intensity (a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

16 Does climate change result to high rainfall (a) No ( ) (b) Yes ( )

17 Destruction of field crops by heavy wind is as a result of climate change (a) No ( )(b) Yes

( ).

18 Climate change results to increased in health risk (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( ).

19 Climate change leads to migration of non affected areas (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( )

20

21

Does climate change lead to over population of non affected areas (a) No ( ) (b) yes ( )

Does climate change lead to loss of life and property (a) no ( ) (b) yes ( )

SECTION D: mitigation strategies used by farmers in Imo to cob the effects of climate

change.

Which of the following mitigation strategies do you use to cushion the effects of climate change

in your community please, Indicate by ticking” yes” or” no” .

s/n Strategies No Yes

1 Afforestation

2 Use of drainage system

3 Use of organic manure

4 Planting of cover crops

5 Mixed farming practices

6 Planting of pests and disease resistant crops

7 Mulching

8 Crop rotation practices

9 Regular breeding to avoid breeding of some insect pest

10 proper conservation of seeds

11 Avoiding deforestation

12 Breeding of drought and heat resistant crop varieties

13 Conserving of soil moisture through appropriate tillage operation.

14 Massive electrification of the entire country to reduce the use of

generating sets

15 Use of train

75

SECTION E:please indicate the indicators of climate change perceived in your community

from the table below

s/n Items No Yes

1 There has been increase in pest and diseases infestation on

farms

2 In recent time, floods have increased

3 There has been increase in temperature in recent times

4 There is increased incidence of erosion in recent times

5 There has been low crop yield

6 There has been loss of soil fertility

7 There has been excessive heat

8 There has been incidence of drought

9 There is low humidity

10 There has been change in rainfall patterns

11 In recent times there has been high humidity