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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition
William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources
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CHAPTER 1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
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What is Environmental Science?
• Environment
• Environmental Science
• History of Environmental Science– utilitarian conservation– altruistic preservation
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CURRENT CONDITIONS
• Planet Earth
• Environmental Dilemmas– population– food shortages– energy– pollution
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A DIVIDED WORLD
• Rich vs. Poor
• North vs. South
• Developed countries vs. undeveloped countries– First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries
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HUMAN DEVELOPMENT• Human Development Index
• Developmental Discrepancies– basic social services
• education
• health care
– agrarian reform– employment– civil rights– sustainable resource use
• Sustainable Development
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ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
• Neo-Malthusian
• Technological optimists/Promethean environmentalism
• “Cornucopian Fallacy”
• Lessons from the Past
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CHAPTER 2
TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD
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Environmental Ethics and Philosophy
• Universal Ethical Principles– Relativists– Nihilists– Utilitarians
• Modernism & Postmodernism
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Values, Rights & Obligations
• Morals
• Animal Rights
• Inherent Value
• Instrumental Value
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Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives
• Domination
• Stewardship
• Biocentrism
• Ecofeminism
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Environmental Justice
• Environmental racism
• Toxic colonialism
• Is Nature fragile or resilient?
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Science as a Way of Knowing
• Scientific Method
• Hypotheses Testing
• Indirect Scientific Evidence
• Technology and Progress
• Appropriate Technology
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CHAPTER 3
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE
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From Atoms to Cells
• Atoms– ions– atomic number
• Molecules– compound
• Organic Compounds– carbon
• Cells
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Energy Types and Qualities
• Kinetic Energy– heat– temperature
• Potential Energy
• Chemical Energy
• Conservation of Matter
• Thermodynamics– 1st law
– 2nd law
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Energy for Life
• Solar Energy
• Photosynthesis– Chlorophyll– cellular respiration
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From Species to Ecosystems
• Population
• Communities– biological community
• Ecosystems
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Food Chains• Productivity/biomass
• Food chain/food web
• Trophic level– producers– consumers
• Organisms– herbivores– carnivores– omnivores
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Material Cycles and Life Processes
• Carbon Cycle
• Nitrogen Cycle
• Phosphorus Cycle
• Sulfur Cycle
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CHAPTER 4
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION
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Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?
• Temperature
• Moisture levels
• Nutrient supply
• Soil chemistry
• Water chemistry
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• Natural Selection
• Adaptation
• Evolution
• HABITAT
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SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
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Predation
• Predators– parasites– Pathogens
• Prey
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Competition
• Intraspecific competition
• Interspecific competition
• Territoriality
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Symbiosis
• Commensalism
• Mutualism
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Community Properties• Productivity
• Abundance and Diversity
• Complexity and Connectedness
• Resilience and Stability
• Structure
• Edges and Boundaries
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Ecological Succession
• Primary Succession
• Secondary Succession
• Pioneer Species
• Ecological Development
• Climax Community
• Introduced Species and Community Change
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CHAPTER 5
BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT
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Terrestrial Biomes• Deserts
• Grasslands– Prairies– Savannas
• Tundra
• Conifer Forests
• Evergreen Forests
• Tropical Forests
• Tropical Seasonal Forests
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Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems
• Estuaries and Wetlands
• Shorelines and Barrier Islands– Coral reefs
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Landscape Ecology
• Patchiness & Heterogeneity
• Landscape Dynamics
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Restoration Ecology
• Rehabilitation
• Remediation
• Reclamation
• Re-creation
• Nature, self-healing
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CHAPTER 6
POPULATION DYNAMICS
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Population Growth
• Exponential Growth
• Geometric Growth
• Arithmetic Growth
• J Curve
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Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth
• Dieback
• Overshoot
• Irruptive or Malthusian growth
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Growth to a Stable Population
• Logistic growth
• Environmental resistance
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Strategies of Population Growth
• Malthusian Strategies
• Logistic Strategies
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Factors affecting Population
• Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility
• Immigration
• Mortality and survivorship
• Age Structure
• Emigration
• Education
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Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates
• Education/affluence
• Importance of children to family labor force
• Urbanization
• Cost - raising and educating children
• Education & Employment opportunity - women
• Infant mortality rate
• Average marriage age
• Availability - pension
• Birth control
• Religious beliefs, tradition and culture
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Factors Affecting Death Rate
• Nutrition• Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity• Health and technology
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• Teen Pregnancy in the USA
• Migration
• Immigration
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Population Age Structure
– Ways of classifying
• Pre-reproductive age
• Reproductive age
• Post-reproductive age
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Solutions Influencing Population
– Controlling Migration– Reducing Birth Rates
• Economic development• Family planning• Economic rewards• Empowering women
– Population Control Studies• India• China
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Population Distribution
– Urbanization and Growth• The future is urban
• Hyper-urbanization - LDCs
• The United States and other MDC’s
• Spatial patterns of development
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CHAPTER 7
HUMAN POPULATIONS
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Population Growth
• Birth Rates
• Over-population
• Technology and Ingenuity
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Limits to Population Growth
• Malthusian checks
• Karl Marx
• Neo-Malthusian– Technology solutions?– Can More people be Beneficial?
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Human Demography
• Fertility
• Birthrate
• Zero population growth
• Mortality and death rates
• Population growth rates
• Life span and life expectancy– dependency ratio
• Emigration and Immigration
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Population Growth: Opposition
• Pronatalist/Social Pressures
• Birth Reduction Pressures– Education– Birth control– Economics
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Demographic Transition
• Improved living conditions• Development and Population• Optimistic View• Pessimistic View• Social Justice View• Ecojustice View• Infant Mortality• Women’s Rights
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Family Planning & Fertility Control
• Birth Control– Celibacy– Mechanical barriers– Surgery– Chemicals– Implantation of physical controls– Abortion
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CHAPTER 8
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
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Classical Economics
• Diminished Returns
• Demand
• Supply
• Market Equilibrium
• Marginal Costs
• Price Elasticity
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• Neoclassical Economics– Karl Marx– E. F. Schumacher
• Ecological Economics– steady-state economy
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Resources, Capital and Reserves
• Resource Types– Capital– Resource– Nonrenewable resources– Renewable resources– Intangible resources
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Economic Resource Categories
• Proven resources
• Known resources
• Undiscovered resources
• Recoverable resources
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Population, Technology, and Scarcity
• Market Efficiencies
• Increasing Environmental Carrying Capacity
• Economic Models
• Why Not Conserve Resources?
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Natural Resource Accounting
• Gross National Product (GNP)
• Human Development Index (HDI)
• Non-market Values
• Cost/Benefit Ratios
• Green Business
• Jobs and the Environment
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Sustainability
Sustainable Development
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CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY
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Health Hazards
• Infectious Diseases
• Respiratory diseases– pneumonia– tuberculosis– influenza– whooping cough
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•Malaria•Parasitic Mematodes•Schistosomiasis•Onchocerciasis (river blindness)•Trachoma•STD’s
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Toxic Chemicals• Irritants
• Respiratory fibrotic agents
• Asphyxiants
• Allergens
• Neurotoxins
• Mutagens
• Teratogens
• Carcinogens
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• Natural and Synthetic Toxin
• Physical Agents– radiation
• Trauma– stress
• Diet
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Chemical Hazards and Toxicology
• Dose and response– LD5O factor
• Acute effect
• Chronic effect
• Types – toxic substances
– hazardous
– carcinogens
– mutagens
– teratogens
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Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins
• Solubility
• Bioaccumulation
• Biomagnification
• Persistence
• Chemical Interactions
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Minimizing Toxic Effects
• Metabolic Degradation
• Excretion
• Repair Mechanisms
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Measuring Toxicity
• Animal Testing
• Toxicity Ratings
• Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects
• Detection Limits
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Assessment
• Risks
• Acceptable risks??
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Risk Analysis
– Identifying Risks– The Greatest Risks– Problems - Risk Assessment– Risk-Benefit Analysis– Managing Risks
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CHAPTER 10
FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION
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Human Nutrition
• Energy Needs– undernourishment– over-nourishment
• Nutritional Needs– proteins– carbohydrates– lipids and oils– minerals– vitamins
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World Food Resoureces
• Major Crops– wheat– rice– corn– potatoes
• Meat and Milk
• Croplands
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Increasing Food Production
• Green Revolution– Technology– Genetic Engineering– Increased Farm Output
• New Food Sources
• Blue Revolution– Aqua-culture
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Agricultural Economics
• Food Supplies
• Food Subsidies
• Agricultural Aid
• International Food Trade
• Cash Crops
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• World Hunger– Famines– Food Shortages
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CHAPTER 11
SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
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What is soil?• Soil, a renewable resource
• Soil composition– humus
• Soil organisms
• Soil profiles– top soil– sub-soil– parent material– bedrock
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Use and Abuse of Soil
• Land Resources
• Land Degradation
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Erosion
• Types of erosion– sheet erosion– rill erosion– gully erosion– streambank erosion
• Erosion in the United States
• Erosion in other countries
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Agricultural Resources
• Water
• Fertilizer
• Climate
• Energy
• Crop Diversity
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Soil Conservation
• Managing Topography– contour plowing– strip-farming– tied ridges– terracing
• Providing Ground Cover– cover crops– mulch
• Reduced Tillage Systems
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CHAPTER 12
PEST CONTROL
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What are Pest and Pesticides?
• Biological Pests– Insects– Large animals
• Botanical Pests– Weeds
• Pesticides– Insecticides
• Herbicides– Fungicides
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Pest Controls
• Early Controls– Botanical– Chemical
• Modern Controls– Synthetic chemicals
• DDT
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Pesticide Types• Inorganic pesticides
• Natural organic pesticides– botanicals
• Fumigants
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons
• Organophosphates
• Carbamates
• Microbial agents
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Pesticide Benefits
• Disease control
• Crop protection
• Increased crop production
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Pesticide Problems
• Effects on Nontarget Species
• Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence
• Creation of New Pests
• Persistence and Mobility in the Environment
• Human Health Problems
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Alternative Pesticide Uses
• Crop rotation
• Biological controls – predatory insects– pathogens
• Herbivorous insects
• Genetic and bioengineering
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Reducing Pesticide Exposure
• Regulation– EPA– USDA
• Personal Safety
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CHAPTER 13
BIODIVERSITY
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Biodiversity and Species Concept
• What is Biodiversity?
• What are species?– Number of species
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Benefits of Biodiversity
• Food
• Drugs
• Medicine
• Ecological Benefits
• Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits
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Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction
• Natural Causes
• Mass Extinction
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Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity
• Habitat Destruction
• Hunting and Fishing
• Commercial products and Live Specimens
• Predator and Pest Control
• Exotic Species Introductions
• Disease
• Pollution
• Genetic Assimilation
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Biodiversity Protection• Hunting and Fishing Laws• Endangered Species Act• Recovery Plans• Private Land and Critical Habitat• Minimum Viable Populations• Habitat Protection• International Wildlife Treaties• Zoos• Botanical Gardens• Captive Breeding Programs
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CHAPTER 14
LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS
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World Land Use
• Forest, 30%• Range and pasture, 26%• Cropland, 1%• Other, 33
– tundra– desert– wetlands– urban areas
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World Forests
• Forest Distribution– Closed canopy– Open canopy– Woodland
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Forest Products
• Industrial Timber
• Fuelwood
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Tropical Forests
• Diminishing Forests
• Swidden Agriculture
• Logging and Land Invasions
• Forest Protection– Reforestation
• Debt-for-Nature Swaps
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Temperate Forests
• Ancient forest/old growth forests
• Wilderness Protection
• Wildlife Protection
• Harvesting old growth forests– clear-cutting– strip-cutting– selective-cutting
• Fire Management
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Rangelands
• Range Management
• Overgrazing and Land Degradation– desertification
• Forage Conversion
• Harvesting Wild Animals
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Rangelands in the U.S.
• Bureau of Land Management
• State of the Range– feral animals
• Grazing Fees
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Land Ownership
• Who owns what?
• Land Reform
• Indigenous Lands
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CHAPTER 15
PRESERVING NATURE
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Parks and Nature Preserves
• Origins and History
• Natural Landscaping
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North American Parks– Existing Systems– U.S. National Park System– Park Problems
• Over crowding
• Roads
• Commercialism
• Pollution
– Wildlife– New Directions– New Parks
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World Parks and Preserves• Biosphere Reserves
• Protecting Natural Heritage
• Size and Design of Nature Preserves– recreation areas– historic areas– conservation areas– pristine research areas
• Conservation and Economic Development
• Indigenous Communities
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Wilderness Areas
• Wildlife Refuges– Refuge Management– International Wildlife Preserves
• poaching
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Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions
• Wetland Values
• Wetland Destruction
• Floods and Flood Control– Floodplains
• Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries
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CHAPTER 16
EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES
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Earth, A Dynamic Sphere• Earth’s Layers
– Crust– Mantle– Outer Core– Inner Core
• Tectonic Processes– Tectonic Plates– Magma
• Shifting Continents
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Rock Types & How They Formed
• Igneous Rock
• Weathering
• Sedimentation
• Sedimentary Rock
• Biogenic Sedimentation
• Metamorphic Rock
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Mineralogy
• Metals
• Nonmetal Minerals
• Strategic Minerals
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Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction
• Mining– tunneling– water leakage– strip mining
• Processing– water pollution– chemical emissions
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Conserving Mineral Resources
• Recycling– Aluminum & Platinum– Steel & Iron
• Substituting New Materials for Old Ones
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Geologic Hazards
• Earthquakes– Tsunami
• Volcanoes
• Floods
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CHAPTER 17
AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER
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The Atmosphere,Composition & Structure
• Gas Mixture
• Layered Envelope– Troposphere– Stratosphere– Mesosphere– Thermosphere– Ionosphere
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Weather Engine
• Solar Radiation/ Heat– Albedo (reflectivity)– “Greenhouse effect”
• Convection Currents– Water vapor
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Weather• Energy Balance in the Atmosphere
• Convection Cells
• Prevailing Winds
• Jet Streams
• Frontal Weather
– cold and warm fronts
• Cyclonic Storms
– hurricanes and tornadoes
• Seasonal Winds
– monsoon
• Weather Modification
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Climate
• Climatic Catastrophes– Ice Ages
• Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes– Milankovitch Cycles
• El Niño
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Human-caused Global Climate Change
• Greenhouse Gases– Carbon Dioxide– Aerosols
• Sources– Burning Fossil Fuels– Industrial Processes– Deforestation– Agriculture
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Effects of Climate Change
• Temperature Changes
• Impact on Plants and Animals
• Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines
• Melting Ice Packs
• Possible Increase of Disease
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Cutting Emissions
• United Nations “Earth Summit”
• Kyoto Protocol
• Developed Nations
• Developing Nations
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CHAPTER 18
AIR POLLUTION
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Natural Sources of Air Pollution
• Volcanoes
• Emissions from vegetation
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Human-Caused Air Pollution
• Primary pollutants
• Secondary pollutants
• Fugitive emissions
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Conventional or “Criteria” Pollutants
• Sulfur compounds
• Nitrogen Compounds
• Carbon Oxides
• Metals and Halogens
• Particulate Materials
• Volatile Organic Compounds
• Photochemical Oxidants
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Unconventional Pollutants
• Emissions & emissions standards
• Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants
• Aesthetic degradation
• Indoor air Pollution– smoke
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Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes
• Inversions
• Dust Domes and Heat Islands
• Long Range Transport
• Stratospheric Ozone– chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
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Effects of Air Pollution• Human Health
– bronchitis– emphysema
• Plant Pathology
• Acid Deposition– pH and atmospheric acidity– aquatic effects– forest damage– buildings and monuments– visibility reduction
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Air Pollution Control• Moving Pollution to Remote Areas• Particulate Removal
– filters• Sulfur Removal
– fuel switching and fuel cleaning– limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion– flue gas desulfurization– sulfur recovery processes
• Nitrogen Oxide Control• Hydrocarbon Controls
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Clean Air Legislation• Clean Air Act of 1963• Amendments of 1970• Amendments of 1990
– Acid rain– Urban smog– Toxic air pollutants– Ozone protection– Marketing pollution rights– Toxic organic compounds
• EPA
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CHAPTER 19
WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT
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Water Resources• Hydrologic Cycle
– Evaporation/Sublimation– Saturation Point– Relative humidity– Condensation– Dew Point
• Rainfall & Topography– Rain Shadow
• Desert Belts• Balancing the Water Budget
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Major Water Compartments• Oceans• Glaciers, Ice, & Snow• Ground Water
– infiltration– water table– aquifers
• Rivers and Streams• Lakes and Ponds• Wetlands• The Atmosphere
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Water Availability and Use
• Water Supplies• Drought Cycles• Types of Water Use
– Withdrawal– Consumption– Degradation
• Quantities of Water Use• Use by Sector
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Freshwater Shortages
• A Scarce Resource
• Depleting Groundwater– subsidence– sinkholes
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Increasing Water Supplies
• Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs
• Desalination
• Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts
• Environmental Costs– Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation– Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers
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Water Management & Conservation
• Watershed Management
• Domestic Conservation
• Industrial and Agricultural Conservation
• Price Mechanisms
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CHAPTER 20
WATER POLLUTION
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Water Pollution
• Point Sources
• Non-point Sources
• Atmospheric Deposition
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Types and Effects of Water Pollution
• Infectious Agents• Oxygen-Demanding Wastes• Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication• Toxic Inorganic Materials
– Heavy Metals– Nonmetallic Salts– Acids and Bases
• Organic Chemicals• Sediments• Thermal Pollution
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Water Quality Today
• Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada
• Surface Water in other Countries
• Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies
• Ocean Pollution
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Water Pollution Control
• Source Reduction
• Non-point Sources and Land Management– Agriculture– Urban runoff– Construction sites– Land disposal
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• Human Waste Disposal– Natural Processes– Municipal Sewage Treatment
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment
– Low-Cost Waste Treatment• effluent sewerage
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Water Legislation
• Clean Water Act
• Clean Water Act Reauthorization
• Other Important Water Legislation– Safe Drinking Water Act– Superfund– Great lakes Water Quality Agreement
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CHAPTER 21
CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
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Energy• A Brief History
• Current Energy Sources– Fossil fuels– Nuclear power– Hydroelectric– Solar
• Per Capita Consumption
• Energy Use
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Coal
• Coal Resources and Reserves
• Mining
• Air Pollution
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Oil
• Oil Resources and Reserves
• Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies
• Oil Shales and Tar Sands
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Natural Gas
• Natural Gas Resources and Reserves
• Unconventional Gas Sources– Methane hydrate
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Nuclear Power
• Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?
• Types of Reactors
• Alternative Reactor Designs
• Breeder Reactors
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Radioactive Waste Management
• Ocean Dumping
• Land Disposal– high-level waste repository– monitored, retrievable storage
• Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants
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Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power
• Changing Public Opinion
• Nuclear Fusion– Magnetic confinement– Inertial confinement
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CHAPTER 22
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
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Conservation
• Utilization Efficiencies
• Energy Conversion Efficiencies– net energy yield
• Negawatt programs
• Co-generation
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Tapping Solar Energy
• A Vast Resource
• Passive Solar Heat
• Active Solar Heat– Eutectic Chemicals
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High-Temperature Solar Energy
• Solar Cookers
• Promoting Renewable Energy
• Photovaltaic Solar Energy– Photovoltaic Cells
• Storing Electrical Energy
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Energy from Biomass
• Burning Biomass
• Fuelwood crisis in LDCs
• Dung and Methane as Fuels
• Alcohol from Biomass– gasohol
• Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat
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Energy from the Earth’s Forces• Hydropower
– Dams and Hydro Generators
• Wind Energy– Wind Farms
• Geothermal Energy
• Tidal and Wave Energy– Tidal Stations
• Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion
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CHAPTER 23
SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE
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Solid Waste • Waste Stream
– Paper, 38%– Yard waste, 17%– Metals, 8%– Plastics, 8%– Glass, 7%– Food, 7%– Miscellaneous, 14%
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Waste Disposal Methods• Open Dumps
• Ocean Dumpings
• Landfills
• Export Waste
• Incineration and Resource Recovery– Types of incinerators
• refuse-derived fuel
• mass burn
– Incinerator Cost and Safety
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Reducing the Waste Stream
• Recycling
• Composting
• Energy from Waste
• Reuse
• Producing Less Waste– Photodegradable plastics– Biodegradable plastics
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Hazardous and Toxic Wastes• Hazardous Waste Disposal
• Superfund
• Hazardous Waste Management– Produce Less Waste– Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
• Physical treatments
• Chemical treatments
• Bioremediation
– Store Permanently• Retrievable Storage
• Secure Landfills
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CHAPTER 24
URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES
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Urbanization
• What is a city?– Rural area– Urban area– Village– City– Megacity– Core region
• World Urbanization
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Causes of Urban Growth
• Immigration Push Factors
• Immigration Pull Factors
• Government Policies
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Urban Problems
• The Developing World– Traffic and Congestion– Air Pollution– Sewer Systems and Water Pollution– Housing
• Slums
• Shantytowns
• Squatter Towns
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• The Developed World– Urban Problems– Urban Renewal– Noise
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Transportation and City Growth
• Transportation methods– horse & buggy– automobiles
• Roads/freeways
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City Planning
• History
• Garden Cities and New Towns
• Cities of the Future– technopolis
• Urban Redesign
• Design for Open space– conservation
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• Urban Redesign– Limit size– Development areas– Shopping malls into city centers– Convenience for shopping and services– Job location– Exercise areas– Diverse housing– “Superblocks”– Self-sustainable food and waste centers– Public participation
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CHAPTER 25
WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO?
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Environmental Education
• Environmental Literacy
• Environmental Careers
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Individual Accountability• Shopping for Green Products
– precycling– Non toxic products– recyclable products– natural products– Environmentally friendly products
• Blue Angels and Green Seals
• Limits of Green Consumerism
• Paying Attention to What’s Important
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Collective Actions• Student Environmental Groups
• Mainline Environmental Organizations
• Broadening the Environmental Agenda
• Deep or Shallow Environmentalism
• Radical Environmental Groups
• Anti-environmental Backlash
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Global Issues
• Public Opinions and Environmental Protection– “Post materialist” values
• Sustainable Development
• International Nongovernmental Organizations
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Green Government and Politics• Green Politics
– “Green” Parties
• Green Plans
• National Legislation
• Courts
• Executive Branch
• Environmental Impact Statements
• International Environmental Treaties and Conventions