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CULTURES AND MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN AFRICA

By

IGUISI Osarumwense

Euro-African Management Research Centre

Maastricht-The Netherlands

E-mail: e-amac@cuci.nl

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CULTURES AND MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN AFRICA

Abstract

Of recent, some voices have been raised in opposition to what can be described as an

infatuation with theories and models of management developed in the western world. Some

researchers and scholars have been vigorous in their attack upon this form of westernization.

One cannot help feeling that there is indeed among some African scholars a certain implicit

trust in the theories or formulas, which have proved successful in the west and a deep distrust

in most part of Africa. It cannot be denied that in Africa, there is a strong tendency among

students and practicing managers to consider the science of management as another form of

technology, which can be imported and universally applied.

Up till now, there have been very little real research and analysis concerning the evolving

state of culture and management education in Africa, both in terms of what exists and what is

needed. Thus, while management education of all sort for students of Africa have developed

considerably, is this training the most relevant and feasible? To what extent are the various

westernly developed training approaches relevant and effective in the setting and managing

African indigenous organizations of various dimensions? Any contribution to answering and

resolving these questions can be welcome for what ever the management training part

chosen, effective and feasible management education will be a key determinant whether that

part leads to true national economic and managerial development and a better life for the

local people.

Introduction

African countries suffer from a number of problems ranging from poverty, ignorance,

diseases, and overpopulation, HIV/AIDS and compounded by economic decline. The death

rate is the highest in the world and the life expectancy the lowest (40 years). There are civil

wars and internal strife over geographical borders. In the meantime, Africa is drown in

external debt, which it can ill service. The debts are growing daily and accentuate the flow of

resources from poverty-ridden African countries to the developed world. The combinations

of these problems have resulted in abject poverty and starvation in Africa.

In official statistical data, Sub-Saharan African countries nearly always show up at the

negative end. This situation has therefore brought management education in most countries

of Africa under severe criticisms vis-a-vis its managerial training approaches to African

economic and managerial development. In Africa, there are a few examples if any, of very

successful management development and training institutions yet. Among several reasons for

this dramatic situation, a lack of adequate and feasible research and analysis of African

cultural values for local management development takes prominent position. The noticeable

lack of success of many African formal organizations created and managed by products of

African management institutions, using western management theories and models in

management schools can be attributable to the fact of the African scholars and managers

ignorant of African historical and cultural conditions. Thus, while management training in

Africa have no doubt, contributed somehow to the development and progress of African

countries, I am of the opinion that the economic and managerial performances of African

nations and organizations since decolonization have been disappointing compared to the

achievements of other countries considered developing.

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Because of the failure of westernized African elites, scholars and practicing managers to

identify and take advantage of the growth-positive cultural value-based factors of their

environment for effective and feasible management practices that the relevancy of western

management theories and models comes into question. Also in question are the various

western type management courses that are being offered in majority of African Universities,

management schools and management development and training institutions. If western

theories and models of economic and managerial development that have been imported and

applied by most African nations since decolonization have failed to produce the expected

results of sustainable development, is that not sufficient evidence to inform Africa that

something African needed to be carefully looked into? .

Clearly, Africa is not the nearest in culture to the western world, yet the continent has indeed

been experiencing perhaps the fastest pace of westernization this century of anywhere in the

non-western world. The colonial era in most of Africa has been one of the shortest in world

history. Most countries of Africa have been exposed to western colonial powers for less than

a century before reverting to independence in the second half of the twentieth century.

However, unlike in Europe and most part of Asia, the attempted westernization after

independence has completely neglected the cultural traditions of Africans and tried to import

or transplant ready-made western management theories and models to traditional African

soil. The results of this transformation, in most cases, have been disastrous.

If one thing has become clear, it is that the exports of western - mostly American type -

management theories and models to poor countries of Africa have contributed little or

nothing to their development. There have been no lack of efforts and money spent for this

purpose; students from Africa have been sent and trained in Europe and North America,

teachers and consultant-experts have been sent from Europe and America to Africa. Several

African countries have only become poorer since decolonization in the face of transplantation

or importation of radical managerial and economic theories and models from the western

world. If nothing else, the general lack of success in economic and managerial development

of African countries should be a sufficient argument to doubt the validity of western

management education approaches in the training and development of African managers.

This general failure of western theories and models in Africa is a sufficient evidence to

inform African scholars, politicians and development experts that something African need to

be carefully looked into, therefore the need for feasible management education rooted in the

cultures and values of the Africans.

It follows that where committed resources, both human and material are not achieving set

objects, there is the need therefore, to re-examine management theories and models, how they

have been applied, and why they have not achieved the expected results of managerial and

economic development. This is with the view to modifying and adapting them taking into

consideration the impact of cultural values and the local environment on development and

management practices.

Convergence versus Divergence Debate on Culture Influence on Management Theory

Cultural influence on management is a difficult topic to study. Cross-cultural nature of

research increases the research design complexity, complicates data gathering procedures and

makes the interpretation of the obtained results more difficult. A substantive complication in

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cross-cultural research is that the variety of contexts in which multicultural surveys are

embedded means that salient alternative explanations and hypotheses multiply, as do the

sources of error and bias that complicate and hinder understanding. Therefore, although many

studies on cultural influence on management theory have been conducted to date, the results

remain ambiguous and contradictory. Consequently, two opposing views on the nature of

cultural influence on management coexist simultaneously, both partially supported by

empirical studies. The basic argument of the culture-specific position is that different

environments create different management systems. What represents appropriate

management in one setting does not have to be appropriate for a differently programmed

management system.

Proponents of the divergence culture-specific perspective (Jackson, 2005; Hofstede, 2001;

Iguisi, 2012) maintained that the occurrence and effectiveness of management is likely to be

unique to a given culture. They argue that the values, beliefs, norms, and ideals that are

embedded in a culture affect, for example, leadership behaviour and goals, as well as

structure, culture, and strategies of organisations. Newman (1996) states: “National culture is

a central organizing principle of employees‟ understanding of work, their approach to it, and

the way in which they expect to be treated. National, regional, organisational culture implies

that one way of action or one set of outcomes is preferable to another.”

According to Berry, Poortinga, Segall (2002), culture affects personality, perceptions,

behaviours and work values of leaders and followers in a country. Personality can be viewed

as the outcome of a lifelong process of interaction between an organism and its ecocultural

and sociocultural environments. “The effects of these external factors make it likely that there

are systematic differences in the person-typical behaviour of people who have been socialised

and brought up in different cultures”.

Proponents of the convergence universalistic perspective argue that management is a

universal phenomenon. They argue that, although some differences across cultures are bound

to exist, there are many more similarities than differences in management across the world.

They maintain that increasingly common technological imperatives, common industrial logic,

and global technologies and institutions all serve to harmonise management practices and

structure (Carl & Javidan, 2001). They also point out that indigenous patterns of leadership

are often unjustifiably romanticized – in much the same way as some social anthropologists

used to champion the cause of the “noble savage,” a luxury less easily indulged by the

subjects of their concern (Blunt & Jones, 1997). Moreover, even when studies find

differences in management styles across cultures, they implicitly assume the universality of

constructs (and instruments) used to measure these or styles.

Three groups of arguments can be advanced in support of this position. First, management at

its broadest is a universal phenomenon, occurring in all societies across the world (Bass,

1997, 1990; Peterson & Hunt, 1997; 2002). Moreover, the simultaneous appearance of social

institutions such as government, organised religion, and a significant role of management for

individual leaders argue that there may well be something about people in complex

organisations that provides a social and economic value in management – they arise to fulfil a

basic social function. To the degree that management is culture-free means that a universal

constraint is placed on how much various contingencies, such as culture or training, impact

management behaviours. Finally, management requires a disposition to be influential, which

may result in some universal influence-oriented behaviour.

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Second, in many cases, observed cross-cultural differences are a product of research design

limitations and flaws (such as unmatched sampling and disregard for confounding variables),

or the differences could be attributed to some variables other than culture. Consequently, the

magnitude of “pure” cultural influence on management might be negligible and insignificant.

Finally, forces of modernization and globalization are boosting cultural congruence, at least

at the level of organisational and business practices. These are strongly influenced by

contingencies such as the size of organisations, their technologies, their strategy, and the

stability of their environments. It is likely that such variables have a much more direct and

significant impact on management than culture (Kerr, 1983; Blyton, 2001).

The basic argument of the universalistic perspective is that management is a basically

universal phenomenon, common to all cultures, which may sometimes vary because of local

cultural idiosyncrasies, but is generally more similar than different across cultures.

Converging Management Culture Debate: Management is Management

As observed above, beliefs in the convergence hypothesis of management practices are strongly

held among many management scholars and practicing managers. Their core argument is that

management is management, consisting of a set of principles and techniques (like Participative

Management, Management by Objective, etc) that can be universality applied. Management is

considered to be similar to engineering or science, and therefore transcends national boundaries.

And yet even in science and engineering, this assumption may be misplaced. For example, while

it may be true that civil engineers designing road systems have inherent logic about speed and

safety, this has not prevented them from implementing different systems, even in ostensibly

similar environments. If the practice of engineering or science can be shaped by its cultural

origins, why should the practice of management be any different?

Those who argue for the universality of management practice concede that management differs

in Malaysia and Hungary. This, they argue, is due to economic or technological lag. The

assumption is that once these countries catch up, then it will be business as usual. In fact, the

pace of technological and economic development in Eastern Europe and Southeast Asia has

been quite impressive, and indeed bears evidence of convergence.

Convergence is also encouraged through management education, which is being exported from

the west to non-western societies. This training not only provides the tools and techniques of

finance, accounting and marketing, but also transmits a particular business philosophy and

ideology, such as notions of the shareholders, and the bottom line. This economic, technological

and managerial development however, has not necessarily led to a warm embrace of western

style management, but can in fact trigger a forceful reassertion of local values and beliefs.

Given similar levels of technological and economic development, convergence of management

practice is not necessarily apparent. Comparing French with British firms, Italian with Dutch

firms, Iguisi (1998, 2007) found clear evidence of different accounting and marketing practices,

economic policies, and management approaches.

Kanter (1991) former editor of Harvard Business Review acknowledged that management

practice is not as global as once hoped. Following a massive survey conducted of 11,678

managers in 25 countries, she concludes that, "idea of a corporate global village where a

common culture of management unifies the practice of business around the world is more dream

than reality”.

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Thus despite technological and economic forces for integration or convergence, there are equal

or perhaps greater forces for fragmentation, one of them being culture. For this reason we need

to consider how culture can be a powerful force, undermining or shoring up our effectiveness as

nations, as enterprises, and as management trainers. We need to be able to recognize the

pressure and power of culture in order to be able to design appropriate and feasible management

programs. We need to discover how to harness the power of culture in marketing, accounting,

leading and motivating in order to effectively provide management education and training to

African managers towards the achievement of national and organizational goals.

Paradoxes in Management Education in Africa

In the introduction to this paper, a good number of questions were raised concerning

relevancy of prevailing adoption of western materials without consideration for the local

cultural values in training African managers. Have the products of local management

institutions had any significant or positive impact on the managerial and economic

development in African organizations? Can we authoritatively say that the economic

development of Africa since decolonization has improved or worsened? Where is the place of

culture in the development of materials for training modern day African managers in solving

the managerial and economic problems that pervades most African countries? Here lies the

management education paradox in Africa.

When all the current socioeconomic problems in Africa are carefully considered, the

problems are overwhelming. We can admittedly say that the fact that the economic and

managerial situations in Africa have not improved since deconolization, and there is no sign

as yet of radical positive improvement in the near future without a paradigm shift in the

approaches to solving these problems indicates that the western management theories and

training approaches imported into Africa management schools may not have been very

appropriate and feasible. Effective and feasible theories and models can only be developed

through culture and management research. In training managers in African management

institutions, it should be clear to know the relationships between cultures and management

and how they reinforce each other in research teaching and training.

Management education refers to the processes and activities by which continuous

development is sought in skills and abilities of managers and administrators through teaching

and learning processes by impacting theories from established existing body of management

knowledge.

Research encompasses all the activities dealing with the discovering of new knowledge or

information and relationships and expansion as well as the verification of existing knowledge

by using carefully designed systematic enquiry and analysis. Research in this regard is an

exercise in building management knowledge or building management theories. Thus, in

terms of the business language, research involves producing knowledge for theory building

and practical application.

There is a strong case to support the contention that, although management theories and

models are importable or exportable from one culture to another, nonetheless, it is so only to

a limited extent. The wisdom to import management theories from western to non-western

societies have been questioned by scholars and practicing managers Hofstede (1991), Iguisi

and Hofstede (1993). Iguisi (1999) demonstrated how certain types of management behavior

differ significantly among countries therefore making the idea of universal management

concept inconceivable.

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Culture Defined

The constituent elements of a culture consist of the whole complex of distinctive features that

characterized a society or social group. These features may be spiritual, intellectual, material

or emotional.

Culture is a common word and like most common words it comes with much conceptual

baggage, much of it vague, some of it contradictory.

UNESCO defined culture as:

The whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional

features that characterizes a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and

letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value

systems, traditions and beliefs.

Hofstede (1980) refers to what he calls “culture one” and “culture two”. He defines culture

one as manifested in music, painting, dances, art, folklore, and literature. The emphasis is on

a product, a performance, and an artifact-something, which makes up cultural heritage of a

society. In this sense, culture is the human made parts of our environment.

Hofstede (2001, p. 9) defines culture two as the “software of the mind”, a collective

phenomena, shared with the people who live in the same social environment. It is the

collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one social group or

category of people from another. It includes the society‟s institutions, legal system, method

of government, family patterns, social conventions-all those activities interactions and

transactions, which define the particular flavour of a society (Hofstede, 2005:5). Culture

consists of the patterns of thinking that parents transfer to their children, teachers to their

students, friends to their friends, leaders to their followers, and followers to their leaders

(Hofstede, 1984). According to Hofstede, culture is the „collective programming of the mind‟

and went on to explains that it lies between human nature on one side and individual

personality on the other (Hofstede, 1991).

Culture is a distinctly human capacity for adapting to circumstances, and then being able to

transmit this knowledge and experience to subsequent generations. Culture gives a particular

people sense of who they are, of belonging, of how they should behave, and of what they

should be doing. Culture impact behaviour, moral, and performance it influences perceptions

and attitudes, values and actions. Yet many people are totally unconscious of their cultural

conditioning, and do not fully utilize this valuable insight into human activity. For culture

provides a context for understanding so much that occurs in our daily lives, be it education or

economics, politics or productivity, science or religion. Culture can be the source of

cooperation, cohesion, and progress. It can also be the source of conflict, disintegration and

failure.

As Eagleton (2002) reminds us: „we owe our modern notion of culture in large part to

nationalism and colonialism, along with the growth of anthropology in the service of imperial

powers‟. This concept of culture deriving from anthropology as it evolved in the nineteenth

century permeates most organisation and management writings.

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Values in Management Discourse

The core of culture is formed by values. Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of

affairs over others. According to Hofstede (1991, 2001), Values are basic convictions that

people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important or unimportant. Some

values are related to relatively specific aspects of life-such as, what is socially appropriate

behaviour for people in different societies. Values are among the first thing children learn-not

consciously, but implicitly.

Values involve a collective, shared evaluation of what behaviour ought to be while

translating into sanctions to induce a particular behaviour or value (White, 1998). Kempton

et al. (1995) argue that the cultural framework shapes the issues people see as important and

effects the way they act on those issues. Early work by Rokeach (1973, as quoted by

Burroughs and Rindfleisch, 2002) considers values to be a centrally held, enduring belief that

guides actions and judgment across specific situations and beyond immediate goals. Jehn et

al. (1997) define values as individuals‟ fundamental beliefs regarding the desirability of

behavioural choices. Thomson et al. (1999) confirms values as implicated beliefs, discourses

and identities while simultaneously representing a given worth in particular communities or

economies.

According to Lindbeck (1997) values emerge as a result of spontaneous social interaction

between individuals in groups. Values are used as norms to express social identity and thus

serve as measures against which behaviour is assessed. Values thus constitute and reflect

expected behaviour and are used to enforce sanctions such as blame and praise, social

inclusion and exclusion (Anderson, 2000). People assess themselves in relation to others

through shared experiences which underscores the importance of group affiliations and

values as a socially embedded reality (Marske, 1996). Although values are thus lived

collectively and reflect the range of human experiences, they are neither a reflection of

behaviour nor solely dependent upon deeply held collective beliefs. The puzzle about

values, according to Anderson (2000) is not why people adhere to values but how these

values become normative to begin with. The duality of human nature is reflected in the

tension between individuality and social interaction.

People are born into existing norms and patterns of conduct as established in the society and

culture where they live. The values that evolve from this are socially transmitted from

generation to generation and further reinforced by social sanctions. Ultimately this

knowledge becomes part of one‟s worldview and ideology and forms one‟s individual

values. Values are rarely questioned within the society and it is assumed that everyone else

shares similar values (Robbins et al., 1999).

Smola and Sutton (2002) argue that the subject of values and value differences is important

in today‟s work and organisational environment while managers respond to the changing

values of their employees and individual value systems affect management values.

Employees in an organisation require from management an awareness of values held by

society. Their attitude, behaviour and work values will be shaped and influenced by their

cultural background but also their experiences. Home experiences and workplace

circumstances further shape the values of the employees in management (Loughlin and

Barling, 2001).

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From management perspective, values represent a fundamental starting point for the social

theory of motivation. Fehr and Gachter (as quoted by Anderson, 2000) found that although

motivation in modern environment is strongly driven by self-interest, underlying group

interaction, approval and cooperation is determined by group values.

The importance of values is reflected in the way they interact and influence social

organisations, behaviour and market outcomes (Anderson, 2009). Values play a crucial role

in everyday life in a society. They facilitate choices, motivate ideas and guide behaviour

(Oppenhuisen and Sikkel, 2010). From a social normative perspective, values give rise to

purposeful or „rational‟ behaviour in a society. Hosmer (1987) argues that values define

priorities that are crucial for the resolution of ethical dilemmas while Smola and Sutton

(2002) indicate that values define what people believe to be right or wrong.

We should remember that management scholars themselves carry with them several layers of

cultural software through socialization processes in the family, at school and in the

workplace. We are born within a family, within a nation and subject to the mental software of

our national culture from birth. Here we acquire most of our values.

It is neither possible nor particularly useful to draw hard and fast rules about management

training within a particular culture. However, the idea of culture provides a perspective and

might suggest an approach. Management scholars must recognize that their own decision-

making regarding management programs are the product of their cultural experiences.

Adoption of Western Management Theories and Models in Africa Management Schools

What are some of the factors that are likely to make wholesale adoption of western

management theories and models in developing managers in Africa not very relevant or

feasible?

The failure of many African scholars including practicing managers to notice that theories of

management made social and cultural assumptions have left a hidden factor in the application

of the principles of management in training and developing African managers.

One factor is the cultural assumptions that underlie most western management theories.

There are empirical evidences to show that management theories and models are not value-

free (Hofstede, 1980, 1991; Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, 1993; Iguisi, 1994, 1999,

2001, 2012; Deresky, 2000; Jackson, 2000, 2005; Holden, 2002). There are assumptions

about motivation and leadership theories. For example, Herzberg‟s popular low-factor theory

of motivation assumes that there are “motivators” with positive but no negative motivation

potentials and “hygienic” factors, with negative but no positive motivator potentials. The

motivators are the “intrinsic” aspects of work-basically those related to Maslow‟s higher

needs: esteem and self-actualization. The hygienic factors are the “extrinsic” aspects-

basically those related to Maslow‟s lower needs: social and security. If Maslow‟s hierarchy is

culturally determined, however, Herzberg‟s two-factor theory is to a greater degree. These

have been shown not to apply or partially apply to Nigerian trainees and in a wide variety of

work settings in the Netherlands, Italy, Scotland and France (Hofstede, 1980; Iguisi 1998,

2009, 2012).

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Almost without exception, the cultural assumptions that went into management development

and training packages have not been explored. What most of the management education

materials have in common is that they advocated universality of their theories and models

where for example, leadership theories advocated participation in the leaders‟ decisions by

the subordinates (participative management). Nevertheless, these packages have been

exported to African management schools and institutions as magic recipes for management

development and training of managers.

In western management literature, there are numerous unquestioning extrapolations of

managerial solutions beyond the borders of the country in which they were developed. This is

especially true for the exportation of management theories from the west to African societies.

However, the empirical basis for western management theories is western organizations; and

we should not assume without proof that they can be universally applied. This assumption is

not found only in popular political, management and development literature, the silent

assumption of universal validity of culturally restricted findings is frequent. There exists a

widespread tendency to underestimate the importance of deeply rooted societal norms for

arriving at political or managerial solutions, which will work and be stable.

This does not mean that countries cannot learn from one another. On the contrary, looking

across the border is one of the most effective ways of getting new ideas in the area of

management education. However, applying these in one‟s own setting calls for prudence and

judgment.

Management Education Discourse in Africa- a Paradigm Shift

Looking at the paradoxes in the adoption of western programs and approaches to

management education in Africa, it will be beneficiary to divide management training

concepts and methods into three categories. Firstly, there are management concepts and

theories that are universally valid and can be applied across borders, for example, the

quantitative aspects of management. Secondly, there are theories that are economically

conditioned and therefore can be applied across cultures with creative adaptation. Thirdly,

there are management concepts and techniques that are essentially culture-bound and are

feasible only in a given sociocultural environment, for example, the concepts of managing

the human side of organization.

The prevailing situation in African management schools today is given priority to

management training using imported theories and models without regards to the local cultural

values. Local culture concept is either given lip services or completely ignored in the training

of managers in African management schools. Westernly trained scholars, western

management and business textbooks, Journals and teaching materials are and continue to be

imported in large quantities in African management schools to accelerate a process that is

believed likely to result in training managers. Can we therefore be sure that these managers

are trained in the right way to contribute something original in the managerial and economic

development of their societies?

One of the major ways in which management school programs in Africa can start to make

their programs relevant and feasible in the local environment is to start researching into the

effects of cultural value factors for designing appropriate and feasible management training

materials for their potential participants. Management training that would integrate culture

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into their programs is urgently required if Africa is to make any headway in their quest for

feasible management practices. Research should be conducted in identifying the “growth-

positive” culture-based factors that enhance and promote management education in Africa.

This means that culture and management education has to be better integrated for

management education in Africa.

What I am suggesting is that transformation of hitherto management schools in Africa is to

design culture-guided programs and teaching materials for training managers in Africa.

Although not all management schools or faculties may have the capacity and know-how on

ways this can be done, at least a few carefully selected faculties or Centres should be

identified and assigned the responsibility of conducting this culture and management research

for theory building and practical application in management schools throughout Africa. This

will be a radical paradigm shift from the prevailing situations in most management schools in

Africa.

In this suggested framework, culture is put ahead of every other program activities, which

includes training and consultancies. Before programs are designed and training conducted,

cultural values should provide the needed partway that makes management theories and

training activities feasible in the local environment of operation. Culture should also come in

evaluating the effectiveness and impact of the programs. Culture research data can throw

light on how to integrate theories with practical realities.

Lack of proper integration of culture and management education in Africa will deny Africa

the resultant synergy needed in national economic, managerial and social development.

It will be evident from what I have written in this paper that there is no one single formula for

management education or training to be used in different cultures. A meeting of International

Labor Office Experts concluded long ago stated that:

One of the most important areas for research is the determination of exactly what is meant

by managerial success and the identification of successful managers in different cultural

settings. This would provide all those concerned with developing managers with clearer

ideas of the sort of results they should aim at in attempting to provide knowledge and

modify management training to meet managerial attitudes and behavior. [ILO, 1966: 185]

Not only is success differently defined in different cultures, but also systems of initial

management education in schools and training on the job are also very different.

Management education across cultural barriers could be seen as an impossible task, but

fortunately it should not be judged exclusively from its cognitive content, it has other

important functions, which probably outweigh its cognitive role. It brings people from

different cultures and subcultures together and by this fact only broadens their outlook. In

many organizations it has become essential rite de passage, which indicates to manager-

participant as well as to his or her environment that from now on he or she belongs to the

manager caste. It provides socialization in the managerial subculture, either company-specific

or in general. It also provides a break with the job routine, which stimulates reflection and

reorientation.

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The logical conclusion of the above assumptions is that Africa‟s management education and

training must be stimulated from the assumptions of the cultures in which most of the

theories were developed (the western cultures), through export of ready-made western

management models. The empirical evidences presented by Iguisi (1994, 1999, 2001)

strongly suggests that majority of western assumptions concerning management education

and training are not or partially valid within the African cultural settings. Therefore, the

applicability of these management theories and systems for educating and training African

managers from a high power distance and collectivistic societies is doubtful and suspect.

As noted by Hofstede (1991), we should remember that management scholars and

researchers are human. They are children of their culture. Management Theories reflect the

country in which they were written and when exported, some fit better than others, but all

should be culturally translated.

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