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Culture , Language and Communication
Communication
Definition: The transmission of information from one individual to another.
The Ethnography of Communication
Language+ Paralanguage
+ Kinesics+ Proxemics
+ Social Expectations+ Cultural Meanings
=Communication
Paralanguage
Definition: The pitch, tone and cadence of speech.
Kinesics
Definition: gestures, facial expressions and body language.
Phrases
Three examples of types of phrases;
1. Noun phrases = a noun and its modifiers
2. Verb phrases = a verb and its modifiers
3. Prepositional phrases = a preposition, it’s object and modifiers
Noun Phrases
Act as a subject in a sentence
The cute little boy threw John the ball.
boy + the cute little
Act as a direct object in a sentence
The cute little boy threw John the ball.
ball + the
Act as an indirect object in a sentence
The cute little boy threw John the ball.
John
Verb Phrases
Is made up of the verb and its modifiers.
Joan walked quickly and quietly.
walked + quickly and quietly
Clauses
Definition:
a group of two or more words which include its own subject and predicate within the expression, but as a whole form only a part of a complete sentence
Types of Clauses
Independent clauses are simple sentences
Eg. Sarah patted the dog.Sarah (subject) + patted (verb) + dog (object)
Dependent Clauses cannot stand alone
Eg. When Sarah patted the dog, . . .
Concordance Rules
(Also known as agreement)
Units within a sentence must match each other
Eg. Number: plural subject noun requires plural person verb
Short-Hand SymbolsSyntactic Categories
Subject = S, Verb = V, Object = ONP = Noun Phrase, VP = Verb Phrase,
PP = Prepositional Phrase, etc.
S+VS+V+O
NP+VP+PP Etc.
Displaying Sentence Structure
• Line Analysis• Bracket Analysis• Chinese Box Diagramming• Diagramming• Tree Diagram Analysis• Phrase Marker Structure
Line Analysis
Bracket Analysis
Chinese Box Diagram
Compound Sentence
Diagramming
Tree Diagram Analysis
Phrase Marker Analysis(P-marker)
Principles and Parameters
Noam Chomsky’s more recent theory about grammar and how children acquire it.
Principles are aspects of grammar that may have multiple parameters allowing variability in how languages address the principle.
Parameters are alternatives ways to deal with a given principle.
Examples of Principles and Parameters
Principle: Sentences must have a subject and a predicate. Can the subject be implied?“Pro drop” parameter options:
You must have a subject present.You can drop the subject and it will be
understood to be there.
English: I am going to the store . Head required.Spanish: (Yo) voy a la tienda. Head optional.
Examples of Principles and Parameters
Principle: The “head” of a phrase and its complements must be in linear order.
“Head parameter” options:The head always comes before the complement.The head always comes after the complement.
English: bought book Japanese: book boughtEnglish: in Japan Japanese: Japan in
Chomsky’s Earlier Theory
Generative Grammar
Assumes two levels of grammatical structure:
1. Deep structure which is universal and underlies all grammars in all languages
2. Surface structure which represents the specific uses of deep structure elements in specific languages.
Transformational Grammar
To get from deep structure to surface structure Chomsky proposed a set of rules called
TRANSFORMATIONS.
Deep structure Transformations Surface structure
Deletions
Chomsky’s Generative Grammar
Generative grammar is based on theidea that all grammatical constructions occur as a result of universal patterns and rules that can be applied to all languages.
All languages DO NOT, according to generative grammar, have unique sets of grammatical rules.
Example of a Deletion Rule
The dog played in the yard and the cat played in the yard.
The deletion rule says that you can eliminate redundancies, therefore:
The dog and the cat played in the yard.(“played in the yard” is deleted)
Structural Ambiguity Occurs when one surface structure
can represent two deep structure meanings.
Example:
Flying Planes can be dangerous.(Surface structure in English)
To fly planes Planes that are flyingCan be dangerous can be dangerous.
(2 deep structure meanings)
Understanding the Ambiguity
Planes can be dangerous.Embedding rule
Planes – planes flying – can be dangerous.Deletion rule
Planes - flying - can be dangerous.Transformation rule
Flying planes can be dangerous.
This seems to yield the correct meaning.
Understanding the Ambiguity
But there is also a transformational rule that says you can substitute infinitives for
participles.
Flying planes can be dangerous.Transformation rule
To fly planes can be dangerous.
This is where the confusion comes in.