Culture and Religion in Eurasia/North Africa · 76 CHAPTER 4 • CULTURE AND RELIGION IN...

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CHAPTER

4 Culture and Religion in Eurasia/North Africa 500 B.C.E.–500 C.E.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES • To point out the enormous influence on world history of the religious and cultural traditions developed in Eurasia and North Africa between 500 B.C.E. and 500 C.E. • To examine the reasons behind the development of these religious and cultural traditions • To consider the common ground and significant differences between these religious and cultural traditions and examine possible reasons behind them

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. Opening Vignette A. In 2009, China celebrated the 2,560th

birthday of Confucius, despite Communism. 1. Buddhism, Daoism and Christianity also

growing rapidly in China 2. part of enduring legacy of the second-

wave civilizations B. In the period around 500 B.C.E., there was a

great emergence of durable cultural traditions that have shaped the world ever since.

1. China: Confucius and Laozi 2. India: Upanishads defined Hinduism;

Siddhartha Gautama set Buddhism in motion

3. Middle East: development of monotheism a. Persia: Zoroastrianism (prophet

Zarathustra) b. Israel: Judaism (prophets such as

Isaiah) 4. Greece: rational humanism (Socrates,

Plato, Aristotle, et al.) 5. all sought an alternative to polytheism,

placating of gods through ritual and sacrifice

a. quest for source of order and meaning in the universe

b. guide humans to personal moral or spiritual transformation (especially development of compassion)

c. the questions they pose still trouble and inspire humankind

d. they defined their distinctive cultures C. Why did all these traditions emerge at about

the same time? 1. some historians point to major social

changes

76 CHAPTER 4 • CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA

a. iron-age technology led to higher productivity and deadlier war

b. growing cities, increasing commerce c. emergence of new states and empires d. new contacts between civilizations 2. it’s a mystery why particular societies

developed particular answers II. China and the Search for Order A. China had a state-building tradition that went

back to around 2000 B.C.E. 1. idea of Mandate of Heaven was

established by 1122 B.C.E. (foundation of the Zhou dynasty)

2. breakdown into the chaos of the “age of warring states” (403–221 B.C.E.)

B. The Legalist Answer 1. Han Fei was a leading Legalist

philosopher 2. principle: strict rules, clearly defined and

strictly enforced, are the answer to disorder

3. pessimistic view of human nature; only the state can act in people’s long-term interest

4. promotion of farmers and soldiers, who performed the only essential functions in society

5. Legalism inspired the Qin dynasty reunification of China

C. The Confucian Answer 1. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) was an

educated, ambitious aristocrat a. spent much of life looking for a

political position to put his ideas into practice

b. Confucius’s ideas had enormous impact on China and the rest of East Asia

c. his teachings were collected by students as the Analects

d. elaboration and commentary on his ideas by later scholars, creating Confucianism as a body of thought

2. principle: the moral example of superiors is the answer to disorder

a. society consists of unequal relationships

b. duty of the superior member to be sincere and benevolent

c. will inspire deference and obedience from the inferior member

3. humans have capacity for improvement: education is the key

a. advocated a broad liberal arts education

b. application of liberal arts education to government problems

c. need for ritual and ceremonies 4. after Legalism was discredited,

Confucianism became the official ideology of the Chinese state

5. the family as a model for political life, with focus on filial piety

a. defined role of women as being humble, serving husbands

b. woman writer Ban Zhao (45–116 C.E.): Lessons for Women

6. Confucian virtues for ideal men contained in the paired concepts of wen and wu

a. wen = refined qualities of rationality, scholarship, and literary and artistic abilities

b. wu = physical and martial achievements

c. wen considered superior to wu 7. emphasized the great importance of

history a. ideal good society was a past golden

age b. “superior men” had outstanding moral

character and intellect; not just aristocrats

c. created expectations for government: emperors to keep taxes low, give justice, and provide for material needs

8. Confucianism was nonreligious in character

a. emphasis was practical, focused on this world

CHAPTER 4 • CULTURE AND RELIGION IN EURASIA/NORTH AFRICA 77

b. did not deny existence of gods and spirits, but the educated elite had little to do with them

D. The Daoist Answer 1. associated with the legendary Laozi (sixth

century B.C.E.), author of the Daodejing (The Way and Its Power)

2. Daoism was in many ways the opposite of Confucianism

a. education and striving for improvement was artificial and useless

b. urged withdrawal into the world of nature

3. central concept: dao: the way of nature, the underlying principle that governs all natural phenomena

4. Daoism invited disengagement with public life

a. simple self-sufficient living b. abandonment of education and active

self-improvement c. family still central d. complementarity and balance between

sexes rather than hierarchy 5. elite Chinese often regarded Daoism as a

complement to Confucianism 6. Daoism entered popular religion a. sought to tap the power of the dao for

practical purposes (magic, the quest for immortality)

b. provided the ideology for peasant rebellions (e.g., Yellow Turbans)

III. Cultural Traditions of Classical India A. Indian cultural development was different 1. elite culture was enthusiastic about the

divine and about spiritual matters 2. Hinduism (the Indian religious tradition)

had no historical founder a. developed along with Indian

civilization b. spread into Southeast Asia, but

remained associated with India and the Indians above all

c. was never a single tradition; “Hinduism” is a term invented by outsiders

B. South Asian Religion: From Ritual Sacrifice to Philosophical Speculation

1. widely recognized sacred texts provided some common ground within the diversity of Indian culture and religion

2. the Vedas (poems, hymns, prayers, rituals) a. compiled by Brahmins (priests),

transmitted orally b. were not written down (in Sanskrit)

until around 600 B.C.E. c. provide a glimpse of Indian civilization

in 1500–600 B.C.E. d. competing chiefdoms or kingdoms e. a clearly patriarchal society but less

restrictive than later periods f. role of Brahmins in practicing

elaborate ritual sacrifices gave them power and wealth

3. the Upanishads (mystical, philosophical works) developed in response to dissatisfaction with Brahmins

a. composed between 800 and 400 B.C.E. b. probe inner meaning of Vedic

sacrifices—introspection c. central idea: Brahman (the World

Soul) as ultimate reality d. atman, the individual human soul, was

part of Brahman e. ultimate goal moksha union of atman

with Brahman f. achieving union involved many

lifetimes g. samsara reincarnation/rebirth central to

the process h. karma governed samsara 4. Hinduism legitimated and expressed

India’s gender system a. women increasingly forbidden to learn

Vedas and participate in public rituals b. Law of Manu defined women as

beholden to men in every phase of life c. sexual pleasure legitimate goal for men

and women as detailed in the Kamasutra

d. many Hindu deities were female


5. multiple paths to fulfillment in Hindu religious thought

a. Brahmin priests and especially wandering ascetics spread ideas

C. The Buddhist Challenge 1. developed side by side with philosophical

Hinduism 2. Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 566–ca. 486

B.C.E.) a. spiritual journey led to

“enlightenment” (insight) at age 35 b. his followers saw him as the Buddha,

the Enlightened One 3. central Buddhist teaching: life is suffering a. sorrow’s cause is craving for individual

fulfillment, attachment to self b. “cure” it with modest and moral life,

meditation c. goal is achievement of enlightenment

or nirvana (extinguishing of individual identity)

4. large elements of Hinduism are present in Buddhist teaching

a. life as an illusion b. karma and rebirth c. overcoming demands of the ego d. practice of meditation e. hope for release from the cycle of

rebirth 5. much of Buddhism challenged Hinduism a. rejection of Brahmins’ religious

authority b. lack of interest in abstract speculation c. need for individuals to take

responsibility for their own spiritual development

6. also challenged inequalities of caste system

7. while at first opposed, Buddha ultimately allowed separate female orders of nuns

a. rules clearly subordinated nuns to men b. Buddha viewed women as an obstacle

to male enlightenment c. nuns found relative freedom and

independence

8. appealed especially to lower castes and women in India

a. teaching was in local language, not classical Sanskrit

b. linked to local traditions with establishment of monasteries and stupas (shrines with relics of the Buddha)

c. state support from Ashoka (268–232 B.C.E.)

9. the split within Buddhism a. early Buddhism (Theravada, the

Teaching of the Elders) b. by early in the Common Era,

development of Mahayana (Great Vehicle)

D. Hinduism as a Religion of Duty and Devotion

1. Buddhism was gradually reincorporated into Hinduism in India

2. Mahayana Buddhism in particular spread elsewhere in Asia

3. first millennium C.E.: development of a more popular Hinduism

a. expressed in epic poems, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana

b. action in the world and performance of caste duties provide a path to liberation

c. bhakti (worship) movement began in south India

IV. Toward Monotheism: The Search for God in the Middle East

A. The radical notion of a single supreme Deity developed in Zoroastrianism and Judaism and became the basis for both Christianity and Islam.

B. Zoroastrianism 1. Persian prophet Zarathustra traditionally

dated to sixth or seventh century B.C.E. 2. some state support during Achaemenid

dynasty (558–330 B.C.E.) 3. single god Ahura Mazda is source of truth,

light, goodness a. cosmic struggle with Angra Mainyu

(force of evil)


b. Ahura Mazda will eventually win, aided by a final savior

c. judgment day: restoration of world to purity and peace

d. need for the individual to choose good or evil

4. Zoroastrianism did not spread widely beyond Persia

a. Alexander and the Seleucid dynasty were disastrous for it

b. flourished in Parthian (247 B.C.E.–224 C.E.) and Sassanid (224–651 C.E.) empires

c. final decline caused by arrival of Islam; some Zoroastrians fled to India, became known as Parsis (“Persians”)

5. Jews in the Persian Empire were influenced by Zoroastrian ideas

a. idea of God vs. Satan b. idea of a last judgment and bodily

resurrection c. belief in the final defeat of evil, with

help of a savior (Messiah) d. remaking of the world at the end of

time C. Judaism 1. developed among the Hebrews, recorded

in Hebrew scripture a. early tradition of migration to

Palestine, led by Abraham b. early tradition of enslavement in Egypt

and escape c. establishment of state of Israel ca. 1000

B.C.E. 2. Judean exiles in Babylon retained their

cultural identity, returned to homeland 3. distinctive conception of God a. Yahweh demanded exclusive loyalty b. relationship with Yahweh as a

covenant (contract) c. lofty, transcendent deity—but

communication was possible d. from god of war to god of social justice

and compassion 4. foundation for both Christianity and Islam

V. The Cultural Tradition of Classical Greece: The Search for a Rational Order

A. Classical Greece did not create an enduring religious tradition.

1. system of polytheism, fertility cults, and so on, remained

2. Greek intellectuals abandoned mythological framework

a. world is a physical reality governed by natural laws

b. humans can understand those laws c. human reason can work out a system

for ethical life 3. perhaps was caused by diversity and

incoherence of mythology a. intellectual stimulation of great

civilizations b. possible influence of growing role of

law in Athenian political life B. The Greek Way of Knowing 1. flourished 600–300 B.C.E. (same time as

city-states flourished) 2. key element: the way questions were

asked (argument, logic, questioning of received wisdom)

3. best example: Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.) of Athens

a. constant questioning of assumptions b. conflict with city authorities over

Athenian democracy c. accused of corrupting the youth,

sentenced to death 4. earliest classical Greek thinkers a. applied rational questioning to nature b. application to medicine 5. application of Greek rationalism to

understand human behavior a. Herodotus: why did Greeks and

Persians fight each other? b. Plato (429–348 B.C.E.) outlined design

for a good society (Republic) led by a “philosopher-king”

c. Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) most complete expression of the Greek way of knowing


C. The Greek Legacy 1. many people continued traditional

religious beliefs and practices 2. Greek rationalism spread widely a. helped by Alexander’s Empire and that

of the Romans b. Christian theology was expressed in

Greek philosophical terms c. classical Greek texts preserved in

Byzantine Empire d. Western Europe: neglect of classical

scholarship after fall of Roman Empire e. part of Islamic culture VI. The Birth of Christianity . . . with Buddhist

Comparisons A. The Lives of the Founders 1. Gautama was royal, Jesus was from a

lower-class family 2. both became spiritual seekers a. both were mystics: claimed personal

experience of another level of reality b. based life’s work on their religious

experience 3. both were “wisdom teachers” a. challenged conventional values b. urged renunciation of wealth c. stressed love or compassion as the

basis of morality d. called for personal transformation of

their followers 4. important differences a. Jesus had Jewish tradition of single

personal deity b. Jesus’ teaching was more social and

political than Gautama’s c. Jesus was active for about three years;

Gautama for over forty d. Jesus was executed as a criminal;

Gautama died of old age B. The Spread of New Religions 1. probably neither intended to create a new

religion, but both did 2. followers transformed both into gods 3. how Christianity became a world religion a. process began with Paul (10–65 C.E.)

b. women had more opportunities (but early still reflected patriarchy of time)

c. early converts were typically urban lower class and women

d. attraction of miracle stories e. attraction of Christian care for each

other 4. spread of Christianity a. Paul spread to modern Turkey and

Syria b. Syria and Persia heartlands of the

Church in the East with own organization and liturgy

c. Armenia first place where rulers adopted Christianity as a state region

d. Syrian and Persian missionaries brought Christianity to southern India and Central Asia

e. by 570 C.E. some Arabs had become Christians

f. Coptic church emerged in Egypt g. North Africa furnished intellectuals

and martyrs h. during fourth century Christianity

became state religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia)

i. Axum Christianity linked to Coptic Church, but used local Ge’ez language

5. Roman persecution of Christians as “atheists” for their antagonism to all divine powers except their one god

a. ended with conversion of Emperor Constantine in early fourth century C.E

b. later Roman emperors tried to use Christianity as social glue

c. Theodosius ordered closure of all polytheistic temples

d. start process by which Roman Empire and later all of Europe became overwhelmingly Christian

6. Buddhism: Ashoka’s support helped, but Buddhism was never promoted as India’s sole religion

a. Buddhism ultimately absorbed into Hinduism in India


7. In Roman empire no renewal of Roman polytheism

a. Christianity endured in Europe b. but took up some practices from

Roman world 8. both Buddhism and Christianity created

networks of cultural connections C. Institutions, Controversies, and Divisions 1. Christianity developed a male hierarchical

organization a. women were excluded from priesthood b. concern for uniform doctrine and

practice c. emergence of bishop of Rome (pope)

as dominant leader in Western Europe 2. Buddhism clashed over interpretation of

the Buddha’s teachings a. series of councils did not prevent

divisions b. less sense of “right” and “wrong” than

with Christian conflicts 3. Buddhism did not develop an overall

church hierarchy VII. Reflections: Religion and Historians A. Religion is a sensitive subject for historians,

too. B. There are important points of tension

between believers and historians. 1. change: religions present selves as

timeless, but historians see development over time, as a human phenomenon

2. experience of a divine reality: historians have trouble dealing with believers’ experiential claims

3. which group within a religion is “authentic”: historians usually refuse to take sides

C. It can be difficult to reconcile personal religious belief with historical scholarship.

D. Second-wave religious traditions are enormously important in world history.

CHAPTER QUESTIONS Following are answer guidelines for the Big Picture Questions, Seeking the Main Point Question, Margin

Review Questions, Portrait Question, and Documents and Visual Sources Feature Questions that appear in the textbook chapter. For your convenience, the questions and answer guidelines are also available in the Computerized Test Bank.

Big Picture Questions 1. Is a secular outlook on the world an essentially modern phenomenon, or does it have precedents in the second-wave era?

• The philosophical systems of both China and Greece are central to any possible answers. • In China, Legalism possessed several features of a modern secular political philosophy in its reliance on law and the enforcement of law to secure a stable society. • The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical. Confucianism was primarily concerned with human relationships, with effective government, and with social harmony. • Greek thought, with its emphasis on argument and logic, relentless questioning of received wisdom, confidence in human reason, and enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods, also provides a precedent for modern secular outlooks on the world.

2. “Religion is a double-edged sword, both supporting and undermining political authority and social elites.” How would you support both sides of this statement?

• In answering this question students must consider the issue of what is and what is not a religion. Legalist and Confucian ideas along with Greek rationalism should be placed to one side, although students could note that (like religions) philosophies can both support and threaten political authorities and social elites. Both Legalist and Confucian traditions are largely supportive of political authorities and social elites, while Greek rationalism, as seen in Socrates’ death, could threaten the political and social elites. • In support of political and social authority, students could readily point to individual instances where new and popular religions were adopted by elites. Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism in Mauryan India provides one example, the support of the Achaemenid dynasty for Zoroastrianism another. Finally, the adoption of Christianity by Constantine and the ultimate reinforcement of patriarchy by the


Christian church speak to the political and social support that a new religion could provide to established power structures. • More generally, the tendency of several religions to focus the believer’s attention away from action in this world also served to support political authority and social elites. This was true of Daoism in China, Buddhism in India, and Christianity in the Roman Empire. • However, if followed, the teachings of many religions put real constraints on political and social authorities. For instance, Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhism limited the scope for his legitimate use of violence, while dictates about the treatment of the poor and the equality of all believers in the Christian faith brought into question the social norms of Roman society. • Religious leaders could prove subversive to the current system, as the execution of Jesus by the Roman authorities indicates. Also, the teachings of a faith could potentially challenge established authorities. • For instance, the strict monotheism practiced by early Christians effectively precluded the worship of Roman gods, which traditionally was seen as a sign of obedience and loyalty to the Roman Empire.

3. How would you define the appeal of the religious/cultural traditions discussed in this chapter? To what groups were they attractive, and why?

• Some religious/cultural traditions, including Legalism and Confucianism, found widespread appeal among the elite because they reinforced the established social structure that defined the elites. • Other traditions, like Buddhism and Christianity, appealed to the lower strata of society because they offered universal salvation to all believers regardless of class or gender. • Traditions such as Judaism appealed to all strata of one ethnic group because they defined a special relationship between that group and a powerful divine entity. • However, each cultural and religious tradition explored in this chapter appealed to its adherents because it brought guidance for living along with meaning and order to life.

4. In what different ways did these religious or cultural traditions define the purposes of human life?

• Chinese and Greek thinkers focused more on affairs of this world crediting human reason with the power to guide one to happiness through fulfillment of duty and living a moral life.

• Indian, Persian, and Jewish religious traditions focused on the realm of the divine and the relationship of God or the gods to human life. • Whether religious or philosophical in approach, these traditions defined the task of humankind as personal moral or spiritual transformation, often expressed as the development of compassion.

5. Looking Back: What relationships can you see between the political dimensions of second-wave civilizations described in Chapter 3 and their cultural or religious aspects discussed in this chapter?

• In the case of China, Legalism was the defining political ideology that the Qin used to reunite the Empire; • Confucian ideas underpin the bureaucratic organization of the empire and reinforce the Mandate from Heaven. • In the case of India, the rich diversity in the Hindu faith reflects the cultural diversity that made empires more difficult to create and sustain in the region; • Buddhist thought helps to explain Ashoka’s ruling principles. • Zoroastrianism casts light on the Persian imperial traditions that sought to link the emperor with Ahura Mazda. • Greek Rationalism sheds light on why Greeks were willing to experiment with popular participation in government and legitimacy based on law rather than supernatural authority.

Seeking the Main Point Question Q. Fundamentally, religions are basically alike. Does the material of this chapter support or challenge this idea?

• In support of the thesis that religions are fundamentally alike, students could point to influences like that of Zoroastrianism on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam or the influence of Judaism on Christianity and Islam. • Students could also note similarities across traditions, like those between Buddhism and Christianity highlighted in the chapter. • To emphasize differences, students could point to differences even within cultural traditions, such as the beliefs that separate the Hindu and Buddhist faiths.


• Students could also point to important differences across cultural traditions, such as the difference between the conception of God in the Jewish and Christian traditions, Brahman in the Indian tradition, or the Dao in the Chinese tradition. • Students could also note the difference between Greek, Legalist, and Confucian philosophies and those traditions that focus on the supernatural.

Margin Review Questions Q. What different answers to the problem of disorder arose in classical China?

• Three major schools of thought emerged from the Warring States period. • Legalism was a hardheaded practical philosophy based on a rather pessimistic view of human nature that assumed people were stupid and shortsighted. • Supporters of Legalism argued that only the state could act in the long-term interests of society as a whole. They advocated a system of clearly defined laws and rules, strictly enforced through rewards and punishments, as the best means of securing desirable behavior from subjects. • Confucianism argued that social harmony could only be restored through the moral example of superiors. Confucius emphasized that, because human society (both within the family and in public life) consisted primarily of unequal relationships, social harmony relied on the superior party in these relationships behaving with sincerity, benevolence, and genuine concern for others. Only then would the inferior party be motivated to respond with deference and obedience. • Daoism provided a third alternative, arguing that disorder stemmed from human actions and that order could return to life if people withdrew from the world of political and social activism and instead aligned themselves with dao, the way of nature. In practice, this meant simplicity in living, small self-sufficient communities, limited government, and the abandonment of education and active efforts at self-improvement.

Q. Why has Confucianism been defined as a “humanistic philosophy” rather than a supernatural religion?

• The thrust of Confucian teaching was distinctly this-worldly and practical, concerned with

human relationships, effective government, and social harmony. • Confucianism is based on the cultivation of ren—translated as human-heartedness, benevolence, goodness, nobility of heart. Ren is not achieved through divine intervention but rather is nurtured within the person through personal reflection, education, and a willingness to strive continuously to perfect one’s moral character. • Ritual and ceremonies nurture ren, not because of contact with the supernatural but because they convey rules of appropriate behavior in the many and varying circumstances of life.

Q. How did the Daoist outlook differ from that of Confucianism?

• Daoists found Confucian emphasis on education and the earnest striving for moral improvement and good government artificial and useless. Instead, Daoists urged withdrawal into the world of nature and encouraged behavior that was spontaneous, individualistic, and natural. • Daoists turned the spotlight onto the immense realm of nature and its mysterious unfolding patterns, while Confucians focused on the world of human relationships.

Q. In what ways did the religious traditions of South Asia change over the centuries?

• It is difficult to generalize about religious tradition in South Asia because of the variety of religious patterns in the region. However, there was a general evolution away from a religion based on external sacrifice and ritual to one of philosophical speculation, and finally to one of devotional worship and detached action in the world.

Q. In what ways did Buddhism reflect Hindu traditions, and in what ways did it challenge them?

• Buddhism reflected Hindu traditions in the idea that ordinary life is an illusion, in the concepts of karma and rebirth, the goal of overcoming the incessant demands of the ego, the practice of meditation, and the hope for final release from the cycle of rebirth. • Buddhism challenged Hindu traditions through its rejection of the religious authority of the Brahmins, the lack of interest in abstract speculation about the creation of the world or the existence of gods, and its rejection of the inequalities of a Hindu-based caste system through its belief that neither


caste position nor gender was a barrier to enlightenment.

Q. What is the difference between the Theravada and Mahayana expressions of Buddhism?

• The Theravada expression was championed by monks and nuns who withdrew from society to devote themselves fully to the quest for nirvana. It portrayed the Buddha as an immensely wise teacher and model, but certainly not divine. It was more psychological than religious, a set of practices rather than a set of beliefs. And the gods, while never completely denied, played little role in assisting believers in their search for enlightenment. • The Mahayana expression proclaimed that help was available to reach enlightenment. Within this expression, bodhisattvas, spiritually developed people who postponed their own entry into nirvana in order to assist those who were still suffering, could help the believer. The Buddha himself could also help. The Buddha became something of a god, and both earlier and future Buddhas were available to offer their help on the path to enlightenment. The Mahayana expression developed elaborate descriptions of these supernatural beings, together with various levels of heavens and hells that ultimately transformed Buddhism into a popular religion of salvation. As part of this development, religious merit leading to salvation might now be earned by acts of piety and devotion, and merit might be transferred to others.

Q. What new emphases characterized Hinduism as it responded to the challenge of Buddhism?

• Hinduism emphasized more clearly that action in the world and the detached performance of caste duties might provide a path to salvation. • Another emphasis was on devotion to one or another of India’s many gods and goddesses. One manifestation of this emphasis was the bhakti movement, which involved intense adoration of and identification with a particular deity through songs, prayers, and rituals associated with the many cults that emerged throughout India. The most popular deities were Vishnu and Shiva.

Q. Summing Up So Far: How did the evolution of cultural traditions in India and China differ during the era of second-wave civilizations?

• India’s tradition focused on divine or spiritual understanding of the world, whereas China focused more on philosophical ideas and the here and now.

• Indian cultural traditions underpinned a caste-based social system, while China’s supported the Chinese imperial system.

Q. What aspects of Zoroastrianism and Judaism subsequently found a place in Christianity and Islam?

• Zoroastrian concepts of the conflict between God and an evil counterpart, the notion of a last judgment and resurrected bodies, a belief in the final defeat of evil, the arrival of a savior, and the remaking of the world at the end of time all influenced Judaism. Some of these teachings, especially the concepts of heaven and hell and of a coming savior, also became prominent in Christianity and Islam through this influence on Judaism. • From Judaism, both Christianity and Islam drew a distinctive conception of the divine as singular, transcendent, personal, separate from nature, engaged in history, and demanding social justice and moral righteousness above sacrifices and rituals.

Q. What was distinctive about the Jewish religious tradition?

• Unlike other Mesopotamian peoples, the Jewish people through time came to believe in a single god, whom they called Yahweh. • The Jews came to understand their relationship with Yahweh as a contract or covenant. In return for their sole devotion and obedience, Yahweh would consider the Jews his chosen people. • Unlike other gods in Mesopotamia, Yahweh was increasingly seen as a lofty, transcendent deity of utter holiness and purity, set far above the world of nature, which he had created. • Unlike the impersonal conceptions of ultimate reality found in Daoism and Hinduism, Yahweh was encountered as a divine person with whom people could actively communicate. He was also a god who acted within the historical process. • Yahweh was also distinctive in that he was transformed from a god of war into a god of social justice and compassion for the poor and marginalized.

Q. What are the distinctive features of the Greek intellectual tradition?

• Emphasis on argument and logic • Relentless questioning of received wisdom • Confidence in human reason


• Enthusiasm for puzzling out the world without much reference to the gods

Q. How would you compare the lives and teachings of Jesus and the Buddha? In what different ways did the two religions evolve after the deaths of their founders?

• Their backgrounds were very different. Jesus was a rural or small-town worker from a distinctly lower-class family, while Gautama was born into a ruling family and was surrounded by luxury. • Both became spiritual seekers, mystics in their own traditions, who claimed to have personally experienced another level of reality. Those powerful religious experiences provided the motivation for their life’s work and the personal authenticity that attracted their growing band of followers. • Both were “wisdom teachers,” challenging the conventional values of their time, urging the renunciation of wealth, and emphasizing the supreme importance of love or compassion as the basis for a moral life. • Both called for the personal transformation of their followers. • Jesus inherited from his Jewish tradition an intense devotion to a single personal deity with whom he was on intimate terms. According to the New Testament, the miracles Jesus performed reflected the power of God available to him as a result of that relationship. • The Buddha’s original message largely ignored the supernatural, involved no miracles, and taught a path of intense self-effort aimed at ethical living and “mindfulness” as a means of ending suffering. • Jesus’s teachings had a sharper social and more political edge than those of the Buddha. • Jesus’s public life was very brief, probably less than three years compared to over forty years for the Buddha. • Neither Jesus nor the Buddha probably planned to found new religions. • Both the Buddha’s and Jesus’s messages emerged soon after their deaths as separate religions proclaimed to much wider and more inclusive audiences. • Both the Buddha and Jesus were transformed from teachers into gods by their followers. • The Christian faith was ultimately promoted as the single legal faith in the Roman Empire. Buddhism, while supported by some rulers, was never promoted to the exclusion of other faiths in India.

• Both Buddhist and Christian followers clashed over interpretation of their respective founder’s teachings. • However, Buddhist disagreements generally lacked the clear-cut distinctions defined by “right” and “wrong” that Christian disagreements developed.

Q. In what ways was Christianity transformed in the five centuries following the death of Jesus?

• Jesus became divine in the eyes of his followers. • Christianity developed from a small Jewish sect into a world religion that included non-Jews. • A Church of the East developed with its own organization and liturgy. Its heartland was in Syria and Persia, but with adherents in southern India and Central Asia. • Armenia became first kingdom where rulers adopted Christianity as a state region. • A Coptic church emerged in Egypt. • Christianity became the state religion in Axum (modern Eritrea and Ethiopia). • It spread throughout the Roman Empire, first largely among the “lower stratum” of people in the towns and cities, but as it gained in popularity, Roman rulers sought to use its popularity as a glue to hold together a very diverse population in a weakening imperial state. • In the fourth century, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, and all polytheistic religions were banned. • Christianity adopted elements of religious practice in the Roman world as it spread and converted the population. • It developed a hierarchical organization, with patriarchs, bishops, and priests. • It ultimately developed a patriarchal, male-dominated clergy. • It sought unity in matters of doctrine and practice, but ultimately permanent divisions formed.

Q. Summing Up So Far: How might you understand the appeal of Buddhism and Christianity as opposed to the more rationalist approaches of Greek and Confucian philosophy?

• Buddhism and Christianity offered the promise of a better life after this one, whereas both Greek and Confucian philosophy dealt only with this life. • Buddhism and Christianity focused on the realm of the divine whereas neither Confucianism or Greek Rationalism offered much in the way of spiritual fulfillment.


• Buddhism and Christianity offered universal salvation to all believers regardless of class or gender, whereas Confucianism reinforced unequal class and gender roles in society and Greek rationalism was open only to those with education.

Portrait Question 1. How might you understand the actions and attitudes of Perpetua? Is her experience accessible to people living in a largely secular modern society?

• Perpetua placed devotion to her faith above all other parts of her life, including her responsibilities as a daughter and mother. • Her decision to help the gladiator cut her throat reflects her deep belief in the promise of a Christian afterlife. • In terms of the accessibility of Perpetua’s martyrdom, on one level it is a very human story. She is torn between conflicting concerns: her father’s wishes and the reputation of her family, the terrible condition in prison, her desire to take care of her baby, and her devotion to her faith. It is not hard to have empathy with someone in such a difficult and trying situation. • However, in modern secular societies people are not normally put to death for their beliefs and so her experience may seem remote to some modern readers. • Her willingness to die for her faith may not resonate with some in modern society who either do not have a faith or are not as attached to theirs as Perpetua was to hers.

Using the Documents and Visual Sources Features Following are answer guidelines for the headnote questions and Using the Evidence questions that appear in the documents and visual sources essays located at the end of the textbook chapter.

Headnote Questions

Document 4.1: China: Reflections from Confucius

Q. How would Confucius define such a person?

• To obtain perfect virtue, Confucius would require a person to fully subdue one’s self and return to propriety.

• He would also expect a person “to behave to every one as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country and none in the family.” • Confucius would also advocate that such a person possess sincere reverence, love, and submission to parents, elders, and social superiors as expressed both through daily actions and rituals. He would expect one to obtain riches and honors only in the proper way. • One should also possess wisdom by “giving one’s self earnestly to the duties due to men” while respecting but also keeping aloof from spiritual beings; and undertake extensive study of all learning while maintaining restraint as defined in the rules of propriety.

Q. How might one become this kind of person?

• Confucius makes clear that only propriety in one’s day-to-day actions leads to virtue. • However, he also promotes the concept of learning from parents, superiors, and through formal study.

Q. What role does propriety or ritual play in the making of a virtuous man?

• Propriety plays an important role, as Confucius defined propriety as appropriate behavior in every aspect of life. • Ritual also plays an important role; the philosopher Tsang notes in this selection “Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents, and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice; then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence” (p. 199).

Q. What understanding of “learning” or education comes through in this text?

• Polite studies should only be undertaken after a person has mastered loyalty to his or her parents, reverence for elders, and the virtues of earnestness, truthfulness, love, and friendship. • Learning is displayed in sincerely serving parents and prince, and even without formal education such displays make one learned. • For the superior man, “extensively studying all learning” can help one avoid “overstepping what is right,” by which he means practicing propriety and restraint.


Q. What is “filial piety” and why is it so important in Confucius’s understanding of a good society?

• Filial piety is a child’s reverence for and commitment to his or her parents and by extension to all superiors, especially one’s elders. • The cultivation of filial piety in all members of society is a key to a happy, peaceful, well-run society, for through filial piety children learn propriety and virtue.

Q. How do “virtue,” “filial piety,” and “learning” relate to the larger task of creating good government and a harmonious society?

• The cultivation of virtue is critical because it creates subjects who are deferential to authority and seek to act in the interests of the community rather than individual self-interest. • Virtue teaches individuals to conform to laws out of shame and desire to do good rather than fear of punishment. This understanding of the law strengthens good government and social harmony. • The cultivation of virtue is also critical among rulers and social superiors, because only through their virtuous and selfless leadership will they succeed in cultivating the reverence and submission of lesser members of society through the system of filial piety. As Confucius states “He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn toward it.” • The system of filial piety is essential for regulating harmonious social relations at every level of society and for teaching children propriety and virtue. • The system of filial piety also underpins good government, for to govern the ruler relies on this tradition of reverence and submission to superiors and the aspects of virtue and propriety it inculcates in subjects. • Learning is essential because the concept does not just refer to formal learning (although especially for elite members of society formal learning can play a role), but rather the cultivation of a true commitment to virtue and filial piety in day-to-day life by individual members of society. It is the cultivation of virtue and filial piety that underpins social harmony and good government.

Q. How does Confucius understand the role of the supernatural—gods, spirits, and ancestors, for example?

• Confucius explicitly advocates respecting spiritual beings and careful attention to the performance of rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices due to the ancestors. But his teachings are concerned with living in this world, not in explaining the spiritual world. Respect toward one’s ancestors and the spirits, as shown through the careful adherence to ritual traditions, helped to cultivate virtue and propriety in the living. • Confucius argues that until you have mastered the virtues of this world you are in no position to speculate on nor address the needs of the spirit world. As Confucius states, “While you are not able to serve men, how can you serve their spirits,” or again, “While you do not know life, how can you know about death?” (p. 200)

Document 4.2: Reflections from the Hindu Scriptures

Q. What is Krishna’s answer to this dilemma?

• That Arjuna’s anguish is misplaced, death is part of the natural cosmic order of the universe, and following death will come rebirth. • In order not to incur sin, Arjuna must fulfill his caste function, which in this case requires him to kill his kinsmen. It would be sinful to become attached to the illusions of this world and fail to fulfill his duty.

Q. What reasons does Krishna give for urging Arjuna to perform his duty as a warrior?

• As a member of the Kshatriyas warrior caste there is nothing better than a righteous battle. • If Arjuna failed to fight then he would have abandoned his duty, lessened his fame, and incurred sin. • Arjuna’s ordained role in the world is as a warrior; to fail to fulfill his role is to become attached to the illusions of this world. • He must cast off all attachments to the material world and perform his caste functions. • Only by doing this can he work toward ending the shackles of reincarnation and enter a place where there is no attachment or unhappiness.

Q. How does Krishna describe the good society?

• The good society is one where every person performs the duties of his or her caste without attachment.


Q. What major themes of Hindu teaching can you find in this passage?

• That worship of “him from whom all things proceed” (Brahman) is fulfilled in day-to-day life by performing without attachment the duties of one’s own caste. • The cycle of reincarnation means that all living creatures are part of the same life force and that everyone on earth is part of the cycle. • That attachment to this world distances one from spiritual fulfillment. • Detachment from this world and the removal of self-restraint and affections is the pathway by which one reaches supreme perfection by attaining Brahman, the highest culmination of knowledge. Krishna, in the conclusion, states that this is accomplished by “A man possessed of a pure understanding, controlling his self by courage, discarding sound and other objects of sense, casting off affection and aversion, who frequents clean places, who eats little, whose speech, body, and mind are restrained, who is always intent on meditation and mental abstraction, and has recourse to unconcern, who, abandoning egoism, stubbornness, arrogance, desire, anger, and all belongings, has no thought that this or that is mine, and who is tranquil, becomes fit for assimilation with the Brahman.” • Deities like Krishna have come to earth to help humans, to advise the spiritually troubled, to explain the cosmic world, and to teach humankind about how to break the cycle of reincarnation.

Q. How does this text differ from that of the Analects? Are they asking the same questions? What similarities in outlook, if any, can you identify in these two texts?

• Confucius focuses on advice for promoting virtue in individuals and harmony in human societies, avoiding a detailed explanation of the workings of the spiritual world. The Bhagavad Gita purports to recount the words of the deity Krishna and focuses on explaining how the cosmic order of the universe impacts the material world and on what is virtuous action. • Duty and fulfillment of one’s prescribed social roles in the Analects were sanctioned by a desire for a harmonious society and a peaceful existence in this life. In the Bhagavad Gita, duty and fulfillment of caste functions is also important to the harmonious working of society, but the nature of the cosmic order of the universe and a quest for personal

salvation inspire right actions rather than a quest for happiness and social order in this life. • Both selections ask related questions about how society is organized and what ensures its smooth running, but their answers to these questions are very different. • Both selections offer paths that are intended to help people live happier, more contented lives, and both address the question of what creates and underpins a harmonious social order.

Document 4.3: Reflections from Socrates

Q. How does Socrates respond to the charges laid against him?

• Socrates indicates that those who brought charges against him were embarrassed by his questioning, which revealed their foolishness. • He states that if the Athenian jury finds him guilty, he will choose death over a life without the right to continue his quest for knowledge.

Q. How might Socrates define “the good life?” How does he understand “wisdom” and “virtue”? Do you think that Confucius and Socrates would agree about the nature of virtue?

• Socrates’ definition of the good life would center on intellectual freedom and the right to constantly question authorities in search of truth. • Only God possesses true wisdom, although humans can strive toward wisdom through philosophical speculation and the questioning of authority. Such efforts would be strengthened if those seeking wisdom recognized human—and especially their own—shortcomings. • For Socrates, virtue is closely linked to sticking to one’s principles, recognizing one’s weaknesses, and seeking truth. • Confucius would have difficulties with Socrates’ conception of virtue, especially in his lack of reverence and obedience to social superiors and elders, and his unwillingness to acquiesce to social superiors once his objections had been heard and rejected.

Q. Why does Socrates believe he has been useful to Athens?

• He improves the state through his questioning of authorities by stirring it to examine and respond to his criticisms. • He exposes those men of repute who pretend to be wise but are not.


Q. What do his frequent references to God reveal about his understanding of the supernatural and its relevance to social life?

• Only God is wise, and God possesses wisdom and knowledge beyond what humans are capable of. • God shapes human events, in part by revealing truth and wisdom through figures like Socrates.

Q. Why did he accept the death penalty and refuse to consider a lesser sentence? (See the image on p. 185.)

• He would rather die than end his pursuit of wisdom and knowledge through the teaching of philosophy. • He feared that any compromise would be unrighteous. • He argued that life was not worth living if he had to limit his quest for truth and knowledge.

Document 4.4: Reflections from Jesus

Q. In what ways does his teaching challenge or contradict the conventional outlook of his time?

• Jesus defines as blessed those in society with the least power, wealth, or status. • He rejects the premise that the laws apply only to actions (like committing a murder), arguing instead that merely thinking of such action is breaking the law. • He rejects the retributive aspects of law and instead emphasizes unconditional forgiveness. • He rejects the pagan focus on this world.

Q. What criticisms does he make of those referred to as hypocrites, Pharisees, and the teachers of the law?

• Jesus states that those who hope to enter the kingdom of heaven will need to have greater righteousness than either the Pharisees or the teachers of the law. • Jesus criticizes those who give to the needy and pray in very public ways in order to attract attention and the esteem of men.

Q. How would you summarize “the good life” as Jesus might have defined it?

• forgiveness of others’ transgressions • love for even your enemies • adherence to Jewish laws and the teachings of the prophets • generosity toward the needy and prayer to God, but not if your intention in undertaking these

activities is to cultivate personal prestige or others’ esteem • a focus on the life to come, not worldly matters • not to judge others

Q. How might Jesus and Confucius have responded to each other’s teachings?

• Confucius might appreciate Jesus’s message that all should act with restraint in relations to others; that motivations matter when taking actions; and that traditional laws and teachings should be respected. • Confucius might have some problems with Jesus’s focus on a next life rather than this one; his lack of focus on filial piety and obedience to social superiors; and his explicit criticism of Pharisees and teachers of the law. • Jesus might appreciate Confucius’s emphasis on the requirement that social superiors treat their inferiors fairly and put the interests of society as a whole ahead of their own. • Jesus may have taken issue with Confucius’s lack of concern for God or how individuals entered into the kingdom of heaven.

Q. What is Jesus’s posture toward Jewish law?

• Jesus teaches that he came to fulfill, not abolish, the law, which remains in its entirety important until “everything is accomplished.” • Jesus also teaches that anyone who breaks or teaches others to break any aspect of the Jewish law “will be called least in the kingdom of heaven”; anyone who practices or teaches the law “will be called great in the kingdom of heaven.”

Q. Beyond its use as a guide for personal behavior, what are the larger social implications of the Sermon on the Mount?

• The poor and powerless are the most blessed in society. • Forgiveness and reconciliation rather than retribution should lay at the heart of personal interactions with others. • Social esteem should not be sought through public acts of charity and religious piety.

Visual Source 4.1: Footprints of the Buddha

Q. Why might artists have been reluctant to portray the human figure of the Buddha?

• In the Buddhist spiritual tradition the material world is a place of illusion from which detachment is


sought. The Buddha’s physical body had nothing to do with his spiritual essence (atman). • It is possible that no contemporary image of the Buddha existed, so his physical appearance was unknown.

Q. Why might the wheel serve as an effective symbol of the Buddha’s message?

• The wheel symbolizes the Buddha’s teaching—the dharma. These teachings are said to roll endlessly into the future. • The wheel also symbolizes the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth that is central to Buddhist teachings.

Q. What does the inclusion of the yakshis add to the message of this image?

• These figures show the incorporation of earlier religious symbols into the emerging iconography of Buddhism. • Many of them are portrayed as beautiful, seductive, voluptuous female figures, often offering assistance to people, but sometimes perhaps distracting people from the path of spiritual growth.

Q. What overall religious message might this footprint convey to those who gazed on it?

• The footprints and associated symbols call to mind the entire message of the Buddha—his personal example and purity, his teachings, and the community of followers he left behind. • It suggests that he and his teachings were spiritually available to the faithful, despite the physical absence of the Buddha.

Visual Source 4.2: A Gandhara Buddha

Q. How are Mara and his daughters, shown on the right, portrayed in this relief?

• They are shown in human form; • the daughters are bare breasted representing the temptations of this world; • Mara himself strikes a relaxed pose as he seeks to tempt the Buddha.

Q. What attitude characterizes the Buddha, shown on the left and surrounded by attendants?

• The Buddha’s serene facial expression may represent detachment; • or the ineffectiveness of Mara’s efforts at temptation.

Q. Why might Greco-Roman cultural influence have stimulated physical representations of the Buddha?

• In the Greco-Roman world, gods took human forms and were regularly depicted in art. • The naturalistic style of Greco-Roman art and the focus on the individual resulted in a tradition of statues representing specific historical figures.

Q. What larger meaning might the Buddha’s followers take from this story?

• The story is didactic in purpose, revealing how the Buddha overcame earthly temptations. • It is also a cautionary tale, warning that there are deities in this world who seek to tempt the faithful. • It might provide inspiration for a follower struggling with earthly temptation.

Visual Source 4.3: A Bodhisattva of Compassion: Kannon of 1,000 Arms

Q. What elements of Buddhist imagery can you identify in this statue?

• a lotus flower • a representation of 1,000 arms • female features • seated in a meditative pose

Q. To whom might such an image appeal? And why?

• The image might appeal to a follower of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, or to those seeking intercession or help from the Bodhisattva of Compassion. • The statue’s many arms remind the viewer of the Bodhisattva of Compassion’s role in helping people, and the presence of the lotus flower reminds the viewer of the Bodhisattva’s role in freeing devotees from hatred.

Q. Notice the lotus flower, for centuries a rich Buddhist symbol, on which the bodhisattva is resting. With its roots in the mud, the lotus emerges on the surface of the water as a pure, beautiful, and fragrant flower. Why would the artist choose to place the bodhisattva atop such a flower?

• To associate the Bodhisattva of Compassion with the Lotus Sutra. • The symbolic meaning of the lotus flower (rising out of the mud, associated with the material world, to hover nearly detached from this world,


representing a purer spiritual existence) can imply that devotion to the Bodhisattva of Compassion provides this same pathway, or that the more general teachings of the Buddhist faith mastered by the Bodhisattva of Compassion offer a route to detachment from desire.

Q. Some scholars have identified similarities between the Bodhisattva of Compassion and the Virgin Mary in the Christian tradition. What common elements and what differences can you identify?

Common elements:

• their associations with compassion • the tradition of believers directly petitioning them for help • their positions as holy figures who were nonetheless human • their reputations for helping individuals • their feminine features

Differences:

• their coming from very different religious traditions • their relationships with the divine • their life stories

Visual Source 4.4: The Chinese Maitreya Buddha

Q. How does this Buddha image differ, both physically and in its religious implications, from other Buddhas already discussed in this feature?

• Physically, this Buddha is plumper, in a more relaxed pose, and has jovial rather than contemplative facial features. • Regarding religious implications, his features and the iconography that surrounds him tells us little about the historical Buddha or his teachings. • While approachable, he does not offer a believer the spiritual help that the Bodhisattva of Compassion does. • While he may have been modeled on a Chinese monk, the devotion around him identifies him as a Buddha who will appear in the future, making him a very different subject of devotion from a teacher like the historical Buddha or the Bodhisattvas who have already lived on earth.

Q. Why might this image be appealing to some Buddhists, and why might others take exception to it?

• The Maitreya Buddha is an approachable and likeable figure. • He offers security for the Buddhist faith in the future. • However, he undermines the central position of the historical Buddha in the faith. • He implies that at some point in the future the teachings of the historical Buddha will disappear. • He was not part of early Buddhist beliefs.

Q. In what ways does this figure represent an adaptation of Buddhist imagery to Chinese culture? Consider what you know about Confucian and Daoist postures to the world.

• The modeling of a future Buddha on a Chinese monk provides a tangible link to China for what was in large part a foreign religion. • In the Chinese system, this figure represents some features of the Daoist tradition, in that his countenance evokes a sense of spontaneity and the happiness that comes from such spontaneity. • Unlike other Bodhisattvas, he does not seek learning or control over his environment through meditation, thereby practicing the Daoist tradition of eschewing learning. • Moreover, his promised appearance in the future fits well with concepts of the Dao where individuals are encouraged not to seek to force change but rather to accept it when it happens.

Using the Evidence Questions

Documents: The Good Life in Eurasian Civilizations

1. Making comparisons: In describing the “good life” or the “good society,” what commonalities do you see among these four documents? What differences are apparent? How might the authors of each text respond to the ideas of the others?

• All except Document 4.3 define systems that reduce internal conflicts and foster social stability. • All provide approaches to living that define a person in the wider social world and provide rules to live by that can bring happiness and/or solace regardless of one’s social rank or prestige. • Confucius’s system focuses on the nature of human relationships, whereas the Bhagavad Gita and Sermon on the Mount focus more on the cosmic workings of the universe or Yahweh’s intentions.


• In contrast to the others, Socrates advocates the right of individuals to actively question authorities even if this causes political or social disruption. • Both the Bhagavad Gita and The Sermon of the Mount define the “good life” and “good society” in terms of a wider concern for harmonizing oneself with the nature of Brahman or the teachings of Yahweh.

2. Placing texts in context: In what ways was each of these texts reacting against the conventional wisdom of their times? How was each shaped by the social and political circumstances in which it was composed?

• Document 4.1 clearly offers a reaction against the Legalist thought of the period. This is explicit when Confucius states that it is better that people uphold the laws because of shame and a desire to be good rather than just fear of punishment. His focus on establishing a stable and harmonious society based on a good and just government was shaped by the problems of the Warring States period. • Document 4.2 offers a reaction against Buddhist rejections of caste in favor of equality among all believers. The Bhagavad Gita was shaped by the emergence of a well-defined caste system in India, the emergence of philosophical Hinduism, and the Upanishad tradition. • In Document 4.3, Socrates makes an impassioned plea for intellectual freedom and the freedom to criticize rulers, which reacts against the norms of second-wave era civilizations. He was shaped by the Greek rationalist tradition and the emergence of democratic systems of government in some Greek city-states, including his own, Athens. • In Document 4.4, Jesus reacts against conventional wisdom by defining as blessed those in society with the least power, wealth, or status; rejecting the premise that the laws apply only to actions (like committing a murder), arguing instead that merely thinking of such action is breaking the law; rejecting the retributive aspects of law and instead emphasizing unconditional forgiveness; and rejecting the pagan focus on this world. Jesus was shaped by the debates and ferment within Jewish culture during his lifetime as well as the recent incorporation of Palestine into the Roman Empire.

3. Relating spirituality and behavior: What is the relationship between religion, which explores the transcendent realm of the gods or the divine, and moral behavior on earth in each of these documents? How does the “good life” relate to politics?

• In Document 4.1, the relationship between religion and moral behavior on earth is not emphasized, although the virtue of the people is associated with the careful attention to the performance of the funeral rites for parents and continued ceremonies of sacrifice for deceased parents after their deaths (p. 199). In terms of politics, Confucius argues that the practice of virtue through propriety by both rulers and the population is critical for a successful and smooth-running state. • In Document 4.2, religion and moral behavior on earth are intimately linked, with the practice of self-restraint, detachment, and the fulfillment of caste functions being defined as advancing a soul’s efforts to become one with Brahman. The good life is related to politics, in that the right of Kshatriyas to rule is defined through their requirement that they fulfill their caste functions. • In Document 4.3, religion plays little direct role in moral behavior although God is credited with true wisdom. The “good life” does have some relation to politics in that Socrates’ search for wisdom (which he claims is divinely sanctioned) ultimately serves a political purpose: his reasoned criticisms challenge the state by stirring its leaders to examine and respond to his criticisms • In Document 4.4, Jesus argues that the Jewish God created a set of laws and inspired the message of the prophets precisely to guide moral human behavior. His Sermon on the Mount is intended to supplement this message by revealing that God required all to forgive the transgressions of others, love their enemies, show generosity toward the needy and pray to God (but not to cultivate personal prestige or the esteem of others), focus on entry into heaven (not worldly matters), and not judge others. Jesus does not explicitly deal with the relationship between the “good life” and politics; however, his message was intended for all including rulers and so would have an impact on politics.

4. Defining the “good person”: How do each of these texts characterize the superior person or the fully realized human being? How do they define personal virtue?

• For Confucius, the superior person or fully realized human being is one that practiced virtue through propriety as achieved by possessing sincere reverence, love, and submission to parents, elders, and social superiors. This was expressed both through rites of propriety and daily actions. Personal virtue might be defined as possessing reverence, love, and submission; practicing ritual propriety; and


especially, if in a position of authority, to do to others as you wish they would do unto you. • The superior or fully realized human being of the Bhagavad Gita would fulfill his or her caste function with detachment. Personal virtue in this tradition is defined in part by fulfilling caste functions, but also by seeking personal spiritual fulfillment by achieving detachment from this world through self-restraint. Ultimate success in cultivating personal virtue helps to unblock the pathway by which one reaches supreme perfection by attaining the Brahman, the highest culmination of knowledge. • Socrates defines the superior or fully realized human being as one who constantly strives for knowledge and who does not allow political or social considerations to get in the way of the pursuit of knowledge. One might argue that in this tradition Socrates’ decision to accept death rather than forsake these principles could be considered a distinctive mark of personal virtue. • The Sermon on the Mount defines the superior or fully realized human being as one who follows the Jewish laws and the teachings of the prophets, but also forgives those that wrong them, loves their enemies, practices anonymous charity and prays in private, focuses on entry into heaven rather than the concerns of this life, and does not judge others. Personal virtue according to the Sermon on the Mount is related to one’s ability to live life as Yahweh commands.

Visual Sources: Representations of the Buddha

1. Tracing change: What transformations in Buddhist belief and practice are disclosed in these images?

• the use of art to recount tales of the Buddha’s life • the emergence of a tradition of depicting the historical Buddha as a person • bodhisattvas as subjects of devotion in the Mahayana tradition • other Buddhas in the tradition • Chinese and Japanese influences on the religion

2. Identifying cultural adaptation: What evidence do these images provide about the blending of Buddhism into a variety of cultural settings?

• Visual Source 4.3 provides evidence of the influence of Buddhism in Japan, particularly of the adoption of the Mahayana tradition and of the influence of Buddhist artistic traditions in this region.

• Visual Source 4.4 provides evidence of the influence of Buddhism on China and how Chinese cultural traditions like Daoism shaped Chinese adoption of Buddhist ideas.

3. Understanding the growth of Buddhism: What do these images suggest about the appeal of Buddhism to growing numbers of people across Asia?

• They reflect the spread of Buddhism into China and Japan. • They reflect the multiple devotional traditions centered around bodhisattvas and new Buddhas that attracted large numbers of followers.

4. Considering cultural boundaries: To what extent are these images meaningful to people outside of the Buddhist tradition? In what ways do they speak to universal human needs or desires? What is specifically Buddhist or Asian about them?

• They are accessible in that the aesthetic beauty and the skill of the artists can be appreciated even without an understanding of Buddhist beliefs and traditions. • With some context, an outsider could discern the centrality of the Buddha and the bodhisattvas, along with some of the teachings of various Buddhist traditions. • The role of bodhisattvas as helpers and intercessors, as depicted in Visual Source 4.3, also has a widespread if not universal appeal. • Much of the iconography is specifically Buddhist, requiring a knowledge of his life and message to fully understand. The story told in Visual Source 4.2 would be unfamiliar to someone outside the Buddhist tradition. • The artistic styles of these statues and painting are Asian.

LECTURE STRATEGIES Lecture 1: Religion and government

The purpose of this lecture strategy is to give deeper consideration to the ways in which governments in the ancient world could use religion—and how religion could use government—to further its own ends. The main objectives are:

• to consider religion as a tool of state control • to examine the symbiotic relationship between

religions and states, and the reasons why that symbiosis sometimes fails to take place


• to review the material covered in the chapter • to avoid excessive cynicism.

Start the class by soliciting points from the students:

• Ask students to rate the religious and cultural systems covered in this chapter on a line that ranges from “most closely integrated with the state” to “least closely integrated with the state.” This should encourage some discussion in cases of change over time or in cases where a religion did not win state support in one region but did in another.

• Ask students to come up with cases in which they think the religion or cultural system “took advantage of ” a state. With luck, this will spark at least some debate, especially for traditions that lack a clear hierarchy or “mastermind” to direct policy, such as Confucianism, Greek rationalism, or Buddhism. (Don’t let the students get away with thinking of any of these traditions as a single corporate entity that is centrally controlled.)

Go over some of the advantages of a symbiotic relationship between a religion and a state. Some examples you might find useful are:

• the Roman Empire’s adoption of Christianity in the fourth century C.E.

• Hellenistic rulers’ patronage of Greek rationalism

• Han support of Confucianism • Sassanian Persian sponsorship of

Zoroastrianism • Qin support of Legalism • Israel (during the Monarchy) and Judaism

Present (or encourage the students to discuss, if you have a small enough class for interaction) possible reasons why states supported a particular religion/cultural tradition in these cases. Then consider some cases of state persecution of a religion/cultural tradition and discuss the common ground between those cases. Some possibilities for consideration:

• Roman persecution of Christians • Christian persecution of Greco-Roman

philosophers (the case of Hypatia of Alexandria is a good example that is easy to research)

• Sassanian Persian persecution of Christians • Qin persecution of Confucian scholars • the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes’s

attempt to suppress Judaism

Lecture 2: Digging in the past: The hidden roots of the great monotheisms

The purpose of this lecture strategy is to delve more deeply than the chapter can go into the historical roots of the three great monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). It has several objectives:

• to emphasize the point that few ideas in world civilization spring fully developed from nothing

• to review and add further detail to earlier material about the First Civilizations and second-wave empires

• explore how religious tradition can be shaped by individual genius (or enlightenment) from diverse strands

This is a topic that when approached carefully and with sensitivity can help teach students the ways of historical analysis without insulting their faith. The most convenient place to start is with the Hebrews and their wanderings. Abraham is described in Genesis as coming from “Ur of the Chaldeans”—in other words, ancient Mesopotamia. Consider what Hebrew pastoralists would have seen in the states of Mesopotamia and what would have impressed them. It’s important to note that this was a selective process; the Hebrews adopted elements of belief and social organization that resonated with their own beliefs in a highly selective process. Possible points to consider:

• Mesopotamian ziggurats as the inspiration behind the “Tower of Babel”

• the similarity of the Genesis flood story to that told in the Epic of Gilgamesh (reading an excerpt from each is a good idea, as is going over handouts of both in class)

• the many points of close kinship between Old Testament law and Mesopotamian law codes like the Code of Hammurabi

Move from there to a discussion of how Jews would have become familiar with Zoroastrianism, asking the class to provide the main points at which Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism. Finally, consider the large number of cultural influences that were present in Palestine at the beginning of the Common Era. Points to consider:

• the strong influence of Greek rationalism on Judaism

• reaction against Greek rationalism within Judaism (the pharisees)

• Greco-Roman polytheism


• heaps of Greco-Roman mystery religions • Zoroastrianism • perhaps some Buddhism • and, of course, the teachings of Jesus

Lecture 3: The rise of Christianity

If approached carefully, this is a good topic for introducing issues of social dislocation in cities, hybridization of traditions (in this case, Judaism with Greek rationalism), and the power of emperors (most notably Constantine, Julian the Apostate, and Theodosius the Great). The objectives of this lecture strategy are:

• to examine how Christianity became a major religion in the period between the apostles and around 400 C.E.

• to consider the cultural and social conditions of the Roman Empire

• to engage in a frank discussion of historical method vs. belief

Begin by carefully reminding students that historians cannot take a stand (in their professional work) on issues of religious truth. It is useful to point out that the divine is rather beyond scholarship, but that religion by contrast is the way human societies have tried to understand the divine and is thus subject to historical analysis. The lecture could be approached in a number of ways. Some points to consider:

• the existence of noncanonical gospels (reading an excerpt from the Gospel of Mary or the Acts of Paul and Thekla can definitely open up discussion)

• the problem that even the canonical gospels were written forty to seventy years after the events described

• how conversion to Christianity worked (rarely with public preaching; usually via friends or relatives who had already converted)

• the atrocious conditions of life in the great cities of the Roman Empire (and the realization that it took Christianity centuries to penetrate deeply into the countryside)

• the problem of sporadic persecution • the two “great” persecutions under Decius and

Diocletian • the question of whether Constantine converted

out of pragmatism or faith • how much Roman sponsorship of Christianity

in the fourth century encouraged conversion

• the case of Julian the Apostate and the effort to stop Christianity

• Theodosius and the edicts against traditional polytheism

• the question of how voluntary the conversion process was for a majority of people in the fourth century

During your lecture, it may be useful to reference the Documents feature from this chapter.

THINGS TO DO IN THE CLASSROOM

Discussion Topics 1. Comparison (large or small group). “Thinkers and philosophers of the Classical Era.”

The Snapshot on p. 168 includes brief summaries of key thinkers’ ideas. These provide an excellent starting point for students to consider both common ground and differences between the cultural systems. You may wish to ask students the following questions:

• To what extent do these thinkers share outlooks?

• Where do they differ? • Which ideas seem most alien to modern

American culture?

2. Contextualization (large or small group). “Disaster and cultural creation.”

Encourage students to use material from Chapters 3 and 4 to consider in greater depth the suggestion that the great religious/cultural traditions were born from the crucible of disaster, social dislocation, and uncertainty. Possible approaches include making a timeline of the great thinkers whose work is outlined in Chapter 4 and superimposing on it major events, such as:

• the Peloponnesian War • the creation of the Persian Empire • the conquests of Alexander the Great • the Warring States period • the Roman Empire’s conquest of the eastern

Mediterranean • the creation of the Mauryan Empire


3. Analysis (large or small group). “The language of religion.”

One of the challenges of teaching second-wave belief systems is the unfamiliar terminology that students must master in order to understand the system. Nowhere is this more difficult than with the Indian religious tradition, where students must come to grip with terms like Brahman, atman, moksha, samsara, and karma in order to understand the Hindu and Buddhist faiths. A good approach to the mastery of these terms is to place the following sentence on the board and ask students to translate the key terms into their own words: “Through samsara, the atman seeks moksha to escape from the material world and become one with Brahman, but the pace of this process depends on karma.” A discussion structured around this sentence offers excellent possibilities for helping students compare ideas that they are familiar with to eastern ideas that bear some resemblance to them—for instance, whether “heaven” or “God” can constructively be used in a translation for Brahman. One might also find it useful to use a Buddhist Wheel of Life as a visual “sentence” to explore the basic teachings of the Buddha.

Classroom Activities 1. Image analysis (large or small group).

Ask students to examine two of the images provided in this chapter, one each from two different cultures, and to discuss:

• whether they believe the image expresses in some way the essence of the religion/cultural tradition it illustrates

• whether the artistic tradition followed affects how much meaning they can get from the image

• how the artist of one of the two images would have depicted the scene in the other.

2. Role-playing exercise (small group).

The class is a group of Ethiopian royal counselors in the third century C.E. Select three groups of students to play the roles of missionaries from Buddhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism (this isn’t as silly as it may sound, since India had regular trade contact

with eastern Africa by this time and the Persian Gulf isn’t that far away). Have each group make a short presentation on why the king of Ethiopia should convert to their religion, then allow the rest of the class to vote, based on the quality of the presentations.

3. Clicker question.

Do you believe that the textbook has done a good job outlining the second-wave religious/cultural traditions in a way that is fair to all of them?

Class Discussion for the Documents and Visual Sources Features Comparison (large or small group): Buddha and the Bhagavad-Gita

Use Document 4.2 to further explore the variety of religious traditions in India. Ask students to read the passages concerned with Hinduism and Buddhism in the textbook to answer the question, What about the tale in the Bhagavad Gita would a follower of the Buddha agree with or find spiritually enlightening? What would a follower of the Buddha find problematic or wrong? Over the course of the discussion, be sure to address the emphasis on the fulfillment of caste functions in the Bhagavad Gita, and the importance of detachment for spiritual fulfillment.

Comparison (large or small group): Buddhist and Christian Art

One way to bring the comparison of Buddha and Jesus in the textbook (pp. 187–188) into the classroom is through a comparison of the artistic traditions of both faiths. You will need a method, such as PowerPoint, of projecting images in the classroom. Choose a series of early Christian images, including symbols representing Jesus (the catacombs in Rome are a useful source), early depictions of Jesus in human form, images of Mary, and images of the saints from both the Eastern Orthodox and Roman traditions. Help your students to decode these images, including their iconography, by addressing in each instance the question, “How would a


Christian believer understand these images?” Ask students what these images share with the depictions of Buddha and Bodhisattvas found in this Visual Sources feature. Questions to raise in class include:

• What roles do symbols and iconography play in the art of these two traditions?

• In what ways are they objects of devotion? • In what ways do they reinforce the basic beliefs

of the faiths? To what extent would a potential convert require more than just images to understand the faiths?

• How do different traditions within these faiths use images differently?

Conclude by asking, “What can we learn about the universal religions that emerged during the second-wave era from a comparison of their artistic traditions?” At the end of this discussion, or when you reach Chapter 9, you might extend this comparison by incorporating the artistic traditions of Islam.

Classroom Activities for the Documents and Visual Sources Features Role-Playing: The Good Life Today

Expanding on Using the Evidence question 4, ask students individually or in small groups to draw up a list of the characteristics of a virtuous person on which most or all of the documents in this feature could agree. Then ask them to create their own document, presenting the common features of a virtuous person as defined by these authors for an audience of twenty-first-century Americans. Ask students if they find it easy to extol these virtues to a modern audience or if these virtues seem outdated or out of touch.

Comparison (large or small group): The Hinayana Tradition

While the Mahayana tradition is explicitly examined in this feature, the Hinayana tradition is not. Help students explore the differences between the two traditions by explaining the beliefs of the Hinayana tradition, then asking them to decide which of the figures in the Visual Sources feature would resonate with a follower of the Hinayana tradition and which

would not. After the students have made their choices, you may want to reinforce conclusions by introducing examples of the Hinayana artistic tradition to the class.

WHAT’S THE SIGNIFICANCE? Ban Zhao: A major female Confucian author of Han

dynasty China (45–116 C.E.) whose works give insight into the implication of Confucian thinking for women. (pron. bahn joe)

Bhagavad Gita: A great Hindu epic text, part of the much larger Mahabharata, which affirms the performance of caste duties as a path to religious liberation. (pron. BAH-gah-vahd GHEE-tah)

Church of the East: A theologically and organizationally distinct Christian church based in Syria and Persia but with followers in southern India and Central Asia.

Confucianism: The Chinese philosophy first enunciated by Confucius, advocating the moral example of superiors as the key element of social order.

Daoism: A Chinese philosophy/popular religion that advocates simplicity and understanding of the world of nature, founded by the legendary figure Laozi. (pron. dow-ism)

Greek rationalism: A secularizing system of scientific and philosophic thought that developed in classical Greece in the period 600 to 300 B.C.E.; it emphasized the power of education and human reason to understand the world in nonreligious terms.

Jesus of Nazareth: The prophet/god of Christianity (ca. 4 B.C.E.–ca. 30 C.E.).

Judaism: The monotheistic religion developed by the Hebrews, emphasizing a sole personal god (Yahweh) with concerns for social justice.

Legalism: A Chinese philosophy distinguished by an adherence to clear laws with vigorous punishments.

Mahayana: “Great Vehicle,” the popular development of Buddhism in the early centuries of the Common Era, which gives a much greater role to supernatural beings and proved to be more popular than original (Theravada) Buddhism. (pron. mah-hah-YAH-nah)

moksha: In Hindu belief, liberation from separate existence and union with Brahman. (pron. mokeshuh)


nirvana: The end goal of Buddhism, in which individual identity is “extinguished” into a state of serenity and great compassion. (pron. neer-VAH-nah)

Saint Paul: The first great popularizer of Christianity (10–65 C.E.).

Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha): The Indian prince turned ascetic (ca. 566–ca. 486 B.C.E.) who founded Buddhism. (pron. sidd-ARTH-uh gow-TAHM-uh)

Socrates: The first great Greek philosopher to turn rationalism toward questions of human existence (469–399 B.C.E.).

Theravada: “The Teaching of the Elders,” the early form of Buddhism according to which the Buddha was a wise teacher but not divine and which emphasizes practices rather than beliefs. (pron. THAIR-ah-VAH-dah)

Upanishads: Indian mystical and philosophical works, written between 800 and 400 B.C.E. (pron. ooh-PAHN-ish-ahds)

Vedas: The earliest religious texts of India, a collection of ancient poems, hymns, and rituals that were transmitted orally before being written down ca. 600 B.C.E. (pron.VAY-dahs)

Zoroastrianism: Persian monotheistic religion founded by the prophet Zarathustra. (pron. zor-oh-AST-ree-an-ism)

FURTHER READING • Berthrong, John H., and Evelyn N. Berthrong.

Confucianism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000. Part of an excellent series, this volume gives a straightforward overview of Confucian beliefs.

• Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library, http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html. This top-ranking Web site for Buddhist studies has been active for more than twelve years and includes links to Buddhist texts, doctrine, history, and art.

• Cohen, Norman. Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. A fascinating study of Zoroastrianism and its impact on the world religions.

• Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ, 2nd ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. An important study of how the authors of the New Testament interpreted Jesus as they established a durable church.

• Hindu Traditions, http://www.religiousworlds .com/hindu.html. Gateway to a number of interesting sites about both historical and contemporary Hinduism.

• Jacobs, Louis. Oxford Concise Companion to the Jewish Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. A handy guide to both historic Judaism and to modern practice.

• Klostermaier, Klau K. Hinduism: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld, 2000. A readable, practical study of a complex subject.

• Nystrom, Bradley P., and David P. Nystrom. The History of Christianity: An Introduction. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2004. An excellent and readable overview of Christianity.

• Reat, Noble Ross. Buddhism: A History. Fremont, CA: Jain Publishing Company, 1996. A useful guide to the major developments of Buddhism.

• Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996. A thought-provoking analysis of why Christianity became a major world religion, from the perspective of modern sociology.

LITERATURE • Confucius. The Analects. Trans. D. C. Lau.

London: Penguin, 1989. Confucius’s teachings, as written down by his disciples.

• Lao Tzu (Laozi). Tao Te Ching. Trans. D. C. Lau. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963. The principal classic of Daoism.

• Mascaró, Juan, trans. The Bhagavad Gita. London: Penguin, 1962. The most-read section of the Mahabharata, with a very powerful presentation of duty and the nature of the divine.

• Miller, Robert J., ed. The Complete Gospels. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992. A collection of all twenty-one early Christian gospels.

• O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, trans. The Rig Veda. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982. This is the oldest of the Vedas, a collection of 108 hymns.

• Roebuck, Valerie, trans. The Upanishads. Rev. ed. London: Penguin, 2003.

FILM • Ashes in the River: Four Religions of India.

Five-part series. Films for the Humanities and


Sciences, 1995. 50 to 52 minutes each. Includes episodes on Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.

• The Birth of a New Religion: Christianity in the First and Second Centuries. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1999. 48 minutes. Chronicles the life of Jesus in the context of first-century Judea and the evolution and spread of his message by Paul and other early missionaries.

• Buddhism. Insight Media, 1999. 50 minutes. Provides an overview of Buddha and the faith that he founded.

• Classical Greek Philosophy. Insight Media, 2004. 51 minutes. Explores core Greek philosophical topics in a brief format.

• Confucianism. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1996. 56 minutes. Explores Confucianism in the context of Daoism and Buddhism.

• Confucius. Insight Media. 1998. 50 minutes. Explores Confucius’s life and teaching in the context of China during the Warring States period.

• Hinduism. Insight Media, 1999. 55 minutes. Explores the diversity of traditions within Hinduism.

• The Roots of Belief: Animism to Abraham, Moses, and Buddha. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1998. 51 minutes. Explores the path toward the institutionalization of religious practice in the Jewish and Buddhist traditions.

• Trials and Triumphs in Rome: Christianity in the Third and Fourth Centuries. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1999. 47 minutes. Explores the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire.

• The Voice of Zarathustra. Insight Media, 1990. 40 minutes. Explains the philosophy of the prophet Zarathustra and examines the tenets of Zoroastrianism.

ADDITIONAL BEDFORD/ ST. MARTIN’S RESOURCES FOR CHAPTER 4 PowerPoint Maps, Images, Lecture Outlines, and i>clicker Content

These presentation materials are downloadable from the Media and Supplements tab at bedfordstmartins .com/strayer/catalog, and they are available on an

Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. They include ready-made and fully customizable PowerPoint multimedia presentations built around lecture outlines that are embedded with maps, figures, and selected images from the textbook and are supplemented by more detailed instructor notes on key points. Also available are maps and selected images in JPEG and PowerPoint format; content for i>clicker, a classroom response system, in Microsoft Word and PowerPoint formats; the Instructor’s Resource Manual in Microsoft Word format; and outline maps in PDF format for quizzing or handouts. All files are suitable for copying onto transparency acetates.

Documents and Essays from Worlds of History: A Comparative Reader, Fifth Edition

The following documents, essays, and illustrations to accompany Chapter 4 are available in the following chapters of this reader by Kevin Reilly:

Chapter 3:

• William H. McNeill, Greek and Indian Civilization

• The Rig Veda: Sacrifice as Creation • The Upanishads: Karma and Reincarnation • The Upanishads: Brahman and Atman • The Bhagavad Gita: Caste and Self

Chapter 4:

• Confucius, The Analects • Han Fei, Legalism • A Record of the Debates on Salt and Iron

Chapter 6:

• Hinduism: Svetasvatara Upanishad • Buddhism: Gotama’s Discovery • Buddhism and Caste • Mahayana Buddhism: The Lotus Sutra • Judaism and the Bible: History, Laws, and

Psalms • Judaism and the Bible: Prophecy and

Apocalypse • The Christian Bible: Jesus According to

Matthew • Paul, Letters

Chapter 7:

• Shlomo Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People

• Eusebius, Life of Constantine • Christianity in China: The Nestorian

Monument • Buddhism in China: The Disposition of Error


Online Study Guide at bedfordstmartins.com/ strayer

The Online Study Guide helps students synthesize the material from the textbook as well as practice the skills historians use to make sense of the past. Each chapter contains specific testing exercises, including a multiple-choice self-test that focuses on important conceptual ideas; a flashcard activity that tests students on their knowledge of key terms; and two interactive map activities intended to strengthen students’ geographic skills. Instructors can monitor students’ progress through an online Quiz Gradebook or receive email updates.

Computerized Test Bank

This test bank provides over fifty exercises per chapter, including multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, short-answer, and full-length essay questions. Instructors can customize quizzes, add or edit both questions and answers, and export questions and answers to a variety of formats, including WebCT and Blackboard. The disc includes correct answers and essay outlines.

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