CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

REPORT : PROJECT 2

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FNBE INTAKE JANUARY 2015

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INDEX

MUGHAL EMPIRE TIMELINE

This timeline shows the ruler of Mughal Empire who has made a major changes or a great turning point of events. It also shows important events that is occurring throughout this 331 years in which the Dynasty last.

1526-1530 - Babur: The Birth of an Empire

By the early 16th century the Muslim sultans of Delhi Sultanate (an Afghan dynasty known as Lodi) are much weakened by threats from rebel Muslim principalities and from a Hindu coalition of Rajput rulers. When Babur leads an army through the mountain passes, from hisstronghold at Kabul, he at first meets little opposition in the plains of north India.

How Babur created the empire :

1. Babur (25,000 troops) vs Ibrahim Lodi (100,000 troops/ 1000 elephants). This is known as the battle of Panipat.

2. Babur uses tactics over number of troops:

-Prepared: dig holes to position his gunners.

-Uses: only has a few guns but uses with great advantage.

-Uses: 700 carts as a barricade.

-Uses: a mixture of arrows and guns.

3. Claim victory at Panipat, Delhi andAgra.

4. Threaten by Rajputs (Hindu Kingdom) who are allies with Delhi Sultanate.

5. Fought with Rajputs on March 1527 in Khanwa and win using same tactics. This battle of Khanwa saw the Mughal having 25,000 troops fighting a bigger army consisting of 80,000 troops and 500 elephants.

6. Roam for three years and expanding his territory (covering mostly north of india).

1556-1605 - Akbar the Great: The Greatest Ruler of Mughal Dynasty

The regent Bairam Khan pursued a vigorous policy of expansion on Akbar's behalf. As soon as Akbar came of age, he began to free himself from the influences of overbearing ministers, court factions, and harem intrigues, and demonstrated his own capacity for judgment and leadership. A workaholic who seldom slept more than three hours a night, he personally oversaw the implementation of his administrative policies, which were to form the backbone of the Mughal Empire for more than two hundred years. He continued to conquer, annex, and consolidate a far-flung territory bounded by Kabul in the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east, and beyond the Narmada River in central India—an area comparable in size to the Mauryan territory some 1,800 years earlier.

Akbar built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means town of victory) near Agra, starting in 1571.The city, however, proved short-lived, with the capital being moved to Lahore (modern day Pakistan) in 1585. In 1599 Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra, from where he reigned until his death.

An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Maryam al-Zamani, the Hindu Rajput mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. Religious tolerance was high at this time as Hindus we’re allowed to celebrate religious festival freely and are allowed to keep their religion without force. Jizya tax were also abolished under Akbar’s rule.

By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout most of India north of the Godavari River. The exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan.

1627-1658 - Shah Jahan: Peak of Mughal Architecture

Under him, Mughal art and architecture reached their zenith; constructed the Taj Mahal, who built it as a tomb for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died when giving birth. Amongst other building with architectural and cultural significance are Jama Masjid, Red Fort, Jahangir mausoleum, and Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Deposed by his son Aurangzeb.

1658-1707 – Aurangzeb: The Decline of the Empire:

The bureaucracy had grown corrupt, and the huge army demonstrated outdated weaponry and tactics.

Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and expanded power southward, at least for a while.

A zealous Muslim, Aurangzeb reversed the earlier policies that had helped to maintain good relations with Hindus, reinterpret and impose his version of Islamic law to the non-Muslim. He was particularly deal harshly with the Hindus. He destroyed many Temples. Aurangzeb had the khutbah (Friday sermon) proclaimed in his own name, not in that of the Ottoman caliph, A symbolic gesture as it regards the Ottoman caliph as not being the ruler of all Muslims.

This is also the start of the rift between Mughals and European powers, who were originally there for trading. Aurangzeb defeated the British between 1688 and 1691, but their victory over the French at the Battle of Plassey in 1757 soon led to their controlling Bengal. From their original base in Serat, the British built forts and trading stations in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

In 1717, Furrukhsiyar would grant them a firman (royal dictate) exempting them from customs duties. The treaty of 1765 gave them the right to collect taxes on behalf of the emperor (the Diwani of Bengal). Before the dissolution of the Mughal Empire in 1857, the British system of District Collectors was

firmly established. The District Collector remained the senior regional official throughout British rule.

1857 - End of the Mughals Dynasty: 

By the mid-nineteenth century, the British were controlling vast tracts of the Mughal Empire and other principalities through a series of treaties and alliances. Technically, they still ruled as agents of the Mughal Empire, but were in practice exercising complete power (Puppet state). Between 1848 and 1856 they took over six states, causing considerable unrest.

In March 1854, the British awarded the Rani an annual pension and ordered her to leave the Jhansi fort. Refusing to leave, she organized a volunteer army to oppose the regular Sepoy Army (Army composing of Indians who fought for the British) of the British East India Company.

In 1857 a series of revolts broke out in the Sepoy army, fueled by rumors that the British intended to flood India with Christian missionaries and that pork and beef fat (Against Hindus and Muslim belief) was being used to grease the new Enfield rifle cartridge.

On May 10 the Sepoys revolted at Meerut. They shortly captured Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah II the emperor of all India. Agra was also taken, and the British residents retreated into the Red Fort.

Rani of Jhansi emerged from the Indian side as one of the heroes, fighting the British dressed as a man. She was killed on June 18, 1858.

However, Bahadur Shah II was found guilty of treason because of his support with the rebellion and banished to Burma. Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, and Britain assumed direct control of its Indian possessions, winding-up the East India Company.

By 1886 Muslims held only nine out of a total of 284 jobs, and it seemed that a long and glorious dynasty came to an inglorious end.

Changes bought by Mughal Empire

The Mughals brought many changes to India: Centralised government that brought

together many smaller kingdoms Delegated government with respect for

human rights Persian art and culture Persian language mixed with Arabic and

Hindi to create Urdu Periods of great religious tolerance A style of architecture (e.g. the Taj

Mahal) A system of education that took account

of pupils' needs and culture

Army of the Mughal EmpireThe Army of the Mughal Empire was the force established in the 15th century and expanded it to its greatest extent at the beginning of the 18th century. Although its origins, like the Mughals themselves, were in the cavalry-based armies of central Asia, its essential form and structure was established by the empire's third emperor, Akbar the Great.

The army had no regimental structure and the soldiers were not directly recruited by the emperor. Instead, individuals, such as nobles or local leaders, would recruit their own troops, referred to as a mansab, and contribute them to the army.

Weaponry:

BLADES

Shamser, Sirohi - Scimitar (curved blade)

Dhup, Khanda, Gupti - Straight Sword

Pata - Rapier-like sword

OTHER MELEE

Gurj - Mace

Tahar - Battle Axe

Sinan - Spears, Pike

Khanjar, Peshkaj, Bichuwa - Dagger

Bows & Arrows Sherbachah Pistols Artillery cannon

Branches of The ArmyThe Mughal military was controlled by the emperor of the Mughal Empire. There were five main branches of military force - infantry, cavalry, fire-arms, elephants, and war boats.

Infantry was the largest. They had a head to foot covering of plate mail armor. This type ofarmor was called a Bukhtar.  Some infantry carried shields as well.  A shield made up of iron and steel was known as a Sipar.  Other lighter shields were made up of various materials, such as cane and bamboo, wood and leather, and sometimes even tortoise and rhinoceros skin.

The fire-arms consisted of gunners, musketeers, and cannon shooters. Cannons were a very important weapon. They caused a large explosive impact on whatever came into contact with the cannon ball. The result of the explosion often scared horses and elephants. This was useful in disrupting an enemy attack. Their only problem was that they were very large and very heavy. During Akbar’s period of ruling, there were many improvements in guns and cannons.

The Mughal Navy was very weak with few naval defense soldiers. Their navy was made up of boats equipped with artillery.

The Empire depended heavily on the cavalry for victory.  Because of their speed and power, cavalry were arguably the most important of the Mughal forces.

Babur 1526-1530

Akbar the Great 1556-1605

Shah Jahan 1627-1658

Aurangzeb 1658-1707

Bahadur Shah II 1837-1857

Mughal Administration System in IndiaThe Mughals ruled in India for around 300 years. The Mughal Emperors built an empire and laid the foundations of administration system upon which the British built further.

The Mughal period is reckoned with reference to the invasion and conquest of India by Babur in 1526, peaked during the rule of Akbar the Great till the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 in which it started to decline. The last ruler of the Mughal Empire was Bahadur Shah who was emperor during the early British years in India. He ended up as an exile in Burma.

Policy-making was retained with the Mughal emperor. Provincial governments were allowed initiative and decision-making in matters of local interest. Mughal Emperors maintained contact with all parts of his kingdom, through systematic touring.

However, the emperor who can lay claim to having attempted and established systems in the executive, judicial and religious spheres, in a conscious and deliberate manner, is Akbar.The long duration of his reign, from 1556 to 1605, contributed to achieving this.

Mansabdari SystemThe Mansabdari System was yet another achievement of Mughal Administration Systemintroduce by Akbar the Great. During the rule of the Mughals, every activity of the state administration was centred round the emperor. The Mughals developed ‘nobility’ (mansabdars) to look after administration, but took steps to ensure that there was always an element of insecurity in their position, so that the monarch could control them. The emperor alone could confer, decrease, increase and resume the mansabs. Mansab was the grant to every official, of the rights to enjoy a jagir. The term jagir meant revenue assignments (not land itself) for services rendered (instead of a cash salary).

Religion Demographics in Mughal EmpireIt is known that the ruling class which includes the high-level officials, advisors, generals and the emperors themselves were Muslims. However, most of the subjects consists of Hindus and Sikh with few numbers of other religion such as Christianity and Zoroastrianism.

The Muslims are mostly from the Hanafi school of thoughts. Many of them are also Sufis.

Religion influence on Tradition:

Since most of the subjects are adherents of Indians religion (Hindus and Sikh), the traditions of Mughal Dynasty have many influences from these religions, although it depends on who rules the empire at the time. Many of this tradition survives even after the Mughal Empire ended all the way to modern time

Prostrating before parents and elders Indians prostrate before their parents, elders, teachers and noble souls by touching their feet. The elder in turn blesses by placing his or her hand on their heads. Touching the feet in prostration is a sign of respect for the age, maturity, nobility and divinity that our elders personify.

It symbolizes our recognition of their selfless love for us and the sacrifices that they have done for our welfare. It is a way of humbly acknowledging the

greatness of another and creates an environment of mutual love and respect among people ensuring harmony in the family and society.

Arati Towards the end of every ritualistic worship of the lord or to welcome an honoured guest or new wedded couple, they perform Arati. It is performed as an act of veneration and love. To perform arati, five small lamps called niranjanas are filled with ghee or oil and arranged in a small tray made of metal. A wick is made out of cotton wool and placed in the lamps. A conchshell filled with water, auspicious leaves or flowers, incense or lighted camphor are also placed in the tray.

The lamps are lit and the tray is rotated in a circular motion in front of the deity or the person to be welcomed. At the end of arati, we place our hands over flame and then gently touch our eyes and the top of the head. The purpose of performing arati is to ward off evil effects and the malefic influence of the ‘evil eye’.

TilakaTilaka or Tilak is a ritual mark on the forehead. This Custom is unique to Indians and helps to easily identify them anywhere. The tilak is usually made out of a red vermilion paste (kumkum) which is a mixture of turmeric, alum, iodine, camphor, etc. It can also be of a sandalwood paste (chandan) blended with musk. 

It is applied on the spot between the brows which is considered the seat of latent wisdom and mental concentration, daily after a bath and on special occasions, before or after ritualistic worship or a visit to the temple. Married women used to put a kumkum mark on their foreheads all the time.

Lighting LampIn almost every Indian home a lamp is lit daily before the altar of the Lord. In some houses it is lit at dawn. All auspicious functions and moments like daily worship, rituals and festivals and even manysocial occasions like inaugurations commence with the lightning of lamp. Light symbolizes knowledge and darkness, ignorance. The light is worshipped as lord himself.

Knowledge removes ignorance, just as light removes darkness. Also knowledge is a lasting inner wealth by which all outer achievements can be accomplished. Hence we light the lamp to

NamaskarNamaskar or Namaste is the most popular form of greeting in India. It is a general salutation that is used to greet or welcome somebody and also for bidding farewell. While doing Namaskar, both the palms are placed together and raised below the face to greet a person. It is believed that both the hands symbolize one mind, or the self meeting the self. While the right hand represents higher nature, the left hand denotes worldly or lower nature. It has also a spiritual significance of negating or reducing one's ego in the presence of another.

Kolam

Kolam is an auspicious art of decorating courtyards and pooja rooms/prayer halls in India drawn mainly by women and girls. It is being created to welcome the day. Some women use rice flour to draw a kolam, while others use sandstone or limestone powder. 

Generally, a kolam is drawn with bare fingers using predetermined dots. The dots are either connected together to make a pattern or loops are drawn encircling the dots to complete a design.

GarlandingFlower garlands are generally offered as a mark of respect and honour. They are offered to welcome the visitors or in honour to the Gods and Goddesses. The garlands are generally made with white jasmine and orange marigold flowers. They are weaved in thread tied in the end with a help of a knot. During the wedding the bride and groom exchange garlands to express the desire of the couple to marry each other.

Language of the Mughal Empire

Persian

During this period Akbar brought Persian at the level of state language, which helped in the growth of its literature. Besides, all Mughal emperors, except Akbar, were well-educated and patronized learning. Babur was a scholar.

Akbar himself was not educated but he created those circumstances which helped in the growth of literature during the period of his rule. He gave encouragement to Persian language and famous works of different languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, Turki, Greek, etc., were translated into it. He established a separate department for this purpose. Many scholars rose to eminence under his patronage.

There was large numbers of good books written in Persian were either autobiographies or books on history during the dynasty.

Sanskrit

Original good works in Sanskrit could not be produced during the rule of the Mughals. However compared with earlier Delhi Sultanate, Sanskrit literature made fairly good progressduring the

period. Akbar gave recognition to scholars of Sanskrit. Abul Fazal has named many scholars of Sanskrit who received the patronage of the emperor. .Jahangir and Shah Jahan maintained the tradition of Akbar and gave protection to scholars of Sanskrit. Kavindra Acharya Saraswati received patronage of Shah Jahan and Jagannath Pandit who wrote Rasa Gangadhar and Ganga Lahri was also at his court. Aurangzeb stopped court protection to scholars of Sanskrit.

Regional Language

During this period, regional languages were developed due to the patronage extended to them by local and regional rulers. They acquired stability and maturity and some of the finest lyrical poetry was produced during this period.

Medieval Hindi in the Brij form, that is the dialect spoken in the neighbourhood of Agra, was also patronised by the Mughal emperors and Hindu rulers. From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets began to be attached to the Mughal court. In south India, Malayalam started its literary career as a separate language in its own right.

Education in the Mughal EmpireEducation plays an important part in the dynasty as it was well patronised by all the Mughal emperors. Unlike the Europeans, The educational institution did not award certificates or degree and it was enough for a student to have been taught at a reputed school or by a well known learned teacher. 

Hindu Education:

The Hindus had their primary schools attached to the temples. These schools were maintained by grants or endowments and no fee was charged from the pupils. There were no printed books and the children wrote the alphabets on wooden boards or on dust of the ground with fingers. (The faculty and materials were very limited and poor).

Classes were usually held under the shade of a tree. The students were taught the religious scriptures after they finished their alphabets. The centers of higher learning or universities were scattered all over the country, largely near the places of pilgrimage. 

These were Banaras, Nadia, Mithila, Mathura, Tirhut, Paithan, Karhad, Thatte, Sirhind and Multan.

Prominent school/place of learning:

1. School of Nyaya2. University of Mithila3. Mathura

The subjects that they prominently teaches are: grammar, logic, philosophy, history, poetry, astronomy, astrology, medicine including veterinary science and mathematics also including study of physics and chemistry.

Muslim Education: Madrasah and Maktab

The Muslims sent their children to Maktabs located in the mosque and these schools existed in every town and village. The basic course of study at the primary standard was the Quran which every child had to learn by rote. Prominent Madrasah:

1. Humayun’s madarsah2. Khair-ul- Manzil 3. Darul Bana4. Madarsah Faiz Safa

The subjects that they prominently teaches are: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, metaphysics, jurisprudence (Fiqh) and literature. Mathematics, medicine and astronomy were also studied under the impact of Hindu scholars. Medium of instruction is Persian or Arabic.

MOGHUL EMPIRE- SOCIAL STRATA

At the top of the social and economic triangle was the king followed by his nobles. This class lived in extraordinary luxury with abundant resources at their disposal. They lived a life of reckless festivity, grand banquets, and fancy homes. Their food and dress was very expensive, and their homes were huge palatial structures. Both indoor and outdoor games were popular with this class. They had the time and resources to be able to go to them. An unfortunate aspect was that as a result of their great wealth, many of them

wasted their money and lived in temptation. Towards the close of the Mughal Empire, many of the emperors were no longer interested in running the empire; instead they were focused on enjoying the wealth they had as kings. The Mughal Empire was very successful and hence very rich, and it took a strong king to not get tempted with all the positives and stay focused on ruling the empire. 

The middle class was a pretty new to the Mughal Empire, something that would grow and become an important part during British India. They were usually merchants, industrialists and various other professionals. While they couldn’t afford the expensive of the rich class, they had comfortable and more control over their money. Many middle class families were also very well off and were able to have some luxuries. Below the middle class was the poor class, the most stressed and neglected part of the society. There was a major difference between their standard of living and that of the two other classes. They were usually without a lot clothing and in cases of famines even without food. They held very low paying jobs, where they were expected to put in long hours. Their condition can perhaps be described as voluntary slaves. They were often harassed by the officers of the king, who took money from them by making false charges against them. The economic conditions of the peasants continuously dropped, especially near the end of the Mughal Empire.

Mughal Society

Society in Mughal times was organized on a feudal basis and the head of the social system was Emperor. He enjoyed an unparallel status. He was the ultimate authority in everything. Next in rank were the nobility along the zamindars.The Mughal nobles monopolized most of the jobs in the country. Socially and economically the Mughal nobility formed a privileged class. There were men of every type and nationality among the Mughal nobles. Clan or family links were the most important considerations for recruitment and admission to the aristocratic class of the society.Zamindars or the chieftains also constituted the nobility. They had their own armed forces and generally lived in forts or garhis which was both a place of refuge and a status symbol. There was a large class of merchants and traders. They had their own rights based on tradition and protection of life and property. They also maintained a high standard of living.

During Mughal period the Indian society was in the process of developing into a common society for the religious groups of Hindus and Muslims.Inter-mixing and adaptation of each others culture was fairly common. Among the prevalent social practices the purdah system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of upper classes. The child marriage was

prevalent. Though polygamy was prevalent in upper sections of society the common people followed monogamy.

Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The sati was prevalent though Akbar tried to discourage sati by issuing orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The Muslim society was also divided based on the place of origination. The widow remarriage was prevalent in the society. Economically Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.

The Hindu society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and their constant condemnation of the caste system made the system more rigid. The Hindu society in order to strengthen itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism.

It was a common practice to maintain a large contingent of slaves both males and females. The prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this system. They were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But they were not subject to torture.

The lower class comprised of the cultivators,artisans,small traders, shop-keepers ,household servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard life. Their lives were simple and their belongings were meagre.