Cultural studies

For the journal, see Cultural Studies (journal).

Cultural studies is a field of theoretically, politically,and empirically engaged cultural analysis that was ini-tially developed by British academics in the late 1950s,1960s and 1970s, and has been subsequently taken upand transformed by scholars from many different disci-plines around the world. Cultural studies is avowedlyand even radically interdisciplinary and can sometimesbe seen as antidisciplinary. As cultural studies scholarToby Miller has written, “cultural studies is a tendencyacross disciplines, rather than a discipline itself.”[1] Al-though most practitioners of cultural studies are profes-sional academics, Gilbert Rodman has argued in his 2015book,Why Cultural Studies?, that the field must be under-stood to include some non-academic cultural analysts andpractitioners as well as academic ones.[2] A key concernfor cultural studies practitioners is the examination of theforces within and through which socially organized peo-ple conduct and participate in the construction of theireveryday lives.The field of cultural studies encompasses a range of the-oretical and methodological perspectives and practices.Although distinct from the disciplines of cultural anthro-pology and ethnic studies, cultural studies draws uponand has contributed to each of these disciplines. Cul-tural studies concentrates upon the political dynamics ofcontemporary culture, its historical foundations, definingtraits, and conflicts. CS researchers generally investigatehow cultural practices relate to wider systems of powerassociated with or operating through social phenomena,such as ideology, class structures, national formations,ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender and generation. Cul-tural studies views cultures not as fixed, bounded, stableand discrete entities, but rather as constantly interactingand changing sets of practices and processes.[3]

Cultural studies combines a variety of politically en-gaged critical approaches drawn from and including semi-otics, Marxism, feminist theory, ethnography, criticalrace theory, poststructuralism, postcolonialism, socialtheory, political theory, history, philosophy, literary the-ory, media theory, film/video studies, communicationstudies, political economy, translation studies, museumstudies and art history/criticism to study cultural phenom-ena in various societies and historical periods. Thus, cul-tural studies seeks to understand how meaning is gener-ated, disseminated, contested, bound up with systems ofpower and control, and produced from the social, politicaland economic spheres within a particular social formation

or conjuncture. Important theories of cultural hegemonyand agency have both influenced and been developed bythe cultural studies movement, as have many recent ma-jor communication theories and agendas, such as thosewhich attempt to explain and analyze the cultural forcesrelated to processes of globalization.During the rise of neo-liberalism in Britain and the US,cultural studies both became a global force/movement,and attracted the ire of many conservative opponentsboth within and beyond universities for a variety of rea-sons. Some left-wing critics associated particularly withMarxist forms of political economy also attacked cul-tural studies for allegedly overstating the importance ofcultural phenomena. While cultural studies continues tohave its detractors, the field has become a kind of world-wide movement that is to this day associated with a raftof scholarly associations and programs, annual interna-tional conferences, publications, students and practition-ers, from Taiwan to Amsterdam and from Bangalore toSanta Cruz.[4][5] Somewhat distinct approaches to cul-tural studies have emerged in different national and re-gional contexts such as the United States, Canada, Aus-tralia, New Zealand, Latin America, Asia, Africa andItaly.

1 Characteristics

In his 1994 book, Introducing Cultural Studies, ZiauddinSardar lists the following five main characteristics of cul-tural studies:[6]

• The aim of cultural studies is to examine culturalpractices and their relation to power. For exam-ple, a study of a subculture (such as white workingclass youth in London) would consider their socialpractices against those of the dominant culture (inthis example, the middle and upper classes in Lon-don who control the political and financial sectorsthat create policies affecting the well-being of whiteworking class youth in London).

• The objective of cultural studies includes under-standing culture in all its complex forms and analyz-ing the social and political context in which culturemanifests itself.

• Cultural studies is a site of both study/analysis andpolitical criticism/action. (For example, not onlywould a cultural studies scholar study an object, but

1

2 3 DEVELOPMENTS OUTSIDE THE UK

s/he would connect this study to a larger, progressivepolitical project.)

• Cultural studies attempts to expose and reconcileconstructed divisions of knowledge that purport tobe grounded in nature.

• Cultural studies has a commitment to an ethical eval-uation of modern society and to a radical line of po-litical action.

2 History

As Dennis Dworkin writes,[7] “a critical moment” in thebeginning of cultural studies as a field was when RichardHoggart used the term in 1964 in founding the Birming-ham (UK) Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies orThe Birmingham School.[8] The Birmingham School atthe University of Birmingham thus became the world’sfirst institutional home of cultural studies.Hoggart appointed Stuart Hall as his assistant, and Hallwas effectively directing The Birmingham School by1968,[9] taking over formally as Director in 1969 whenHoggart retired. Thereafter, the discipline becameclosely associated with Hall’s work.[10][11] In 1979, Hallleft The Birmingham School to accept a prestigious chairin Sociology at the Open University in the UK, andRichard Johnson took over the directorship of the Centre.In the late 1990s, “restructuring” at the University ofBirmingham led to the elimination of The BirminghamSchool and the creation of a new Department of Cul-tural Studies and Sociology (CSS) in 1999. Then, in2002, the University of Birmingham’s senior adminis-tration abruptly announced the disestablishment of CSS,provoking a substantial international outcry. The imme-diate reason for disestablishment of the new departmentwas an unexpectedly low result in the UK’s Research As-sessment Exercise of 2001, though a dean from the uni-versity attributed the decision to “inexperienced ‘machomanagement.’"[12] The RAE, a holdover initiative of theMargaret Thatcher-led UK government of 1986, deter-mines research funding for university programs.[13]

There are numerous published accounts of the history ofcultural studies.[14][15][16]

2.1 StuartHall’s directorship at TheBirm-ingham School

Beginning in 1964, after the initial appearance of thefounding works of British Cultural Studies in the late1950s, Stuart Hall’s pioneering work at The Birming-ham School, along with that of his colleagues and post-graduate students including Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige,DavidMorley, Charlotte Brunsdon, John Clarke, Richard

Dyer, Judith Williamson, Richard Johnson, Iain Cham-bers, Dorothy Hobson, Chris Weedon, Tony Jefferson,Michael Green and Angela McRobbie, gave shape andsubstance to the field of cultural studies. Many cul-tural studies scholars employed Marxist methods of anal-ysis, exploring the relationships between cultural forms(the superstructure) and that of the political economy(the base). By the 1970s, the work of Louis Althusserradically rethought the Marxist account of “base” and“superstructure” in ways that had a significant influenceon the work of the “Birmingham School.” Much of thework done at The Birmingham School studied youth sub-cultural expressions of antagonism toward “respectable”middle-class British culture in the post-WWII period.Also during the 70s, the politically formidable Britishworking classes were in decline. Britain’s manufactur-ing industries were fading and union rolls were shrink-ing. Yet millions of working class Britons backed therise of Margaret Thatcher. For Stuart Hall and his col-leagues, this shift in loyalty from the Labour Party to theConservative Party had to be explained in terms of cul-tural politics, which they had been tracking even beforeThatcher’s victory. Some of this work was presented inthe cultural studies classic, Policing the Crisis,[17] and inother later texts such as Hall’s The Hard Road to Renewal:Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left[18] and New Times:The Changing Face of Politics in the 1990s.[19]

To trace the development of British Cultural Studies, see,for example, the work of Richard Hoggart, E.P. Thomp-son, Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, AngelaMcRobbie, Paul Gilroy, David Morley, Charlotte Bruns-don, Richard Dyer, and others.

2.2 Cultural studies in the late-1970s andbeyond

By the late 1970s, scholars at The Birmingham Schoolhad firmly placed questions of gender and race on thecultural studies agenda, where they have remained eversince. Also by the late 1970s, cultural studies had begunto attract a great deal of international attention. It spreadglobally throughout the 1980s and 90s. As it did so, itboth encountered new conditions of knowledge produc-tion, and engaged with other major international intellec-tual currents such as poststructuralism, postmodernismand postcolonialism.[20] The wide range of cultural stud-ies journals now located throughout the world, as shownbelow, is one indication of the globalization of the field.

3 Developments Outside the UK

In the US, prior to the emergence of British CulturalStudies, several versions of cultural analysis had emergedlargely from pragmatic and liberal-pluralist philosophi-cal traditions.[21] However, when British Cultural Stud-

3

ies began to spread internationally in the late 1970s,and to engage with feminism, poststructuralism, post-modernism and race in the late 70s and 1980s, criticalcultural studies (i.e., Marxist, feminist, poststructuralist,etc.) expanded tremendously in US universities in fieldssuch as communication studies, education, sociology andliterature.[22][23][24] Cultural Studies, the flagship journalof the field, has been based in the US since its found-ing editor, John Fiske, brought it there from Australia in1987.A thriving cultural studies scene has existed in Australiasince the late 1970s, when several key CS practition-ers emigrated there from the UK, taking British Cul-tural Studies with them, after Margaret Thatcher becameprime minister of the UK in 1978. A school of culturalstudies known as “cultural policy studies” is one of thedistinctive Australian contributions to the field, thoughit is not the only one. Australia also gave birth to theworld’s first professional cultural studies association (nowknown as the Cultural Studies Association of Australasia)in 1990.[25][26] Cultural studies journals based in Aus-tralia include International Journal of Cultural Studies,Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies and Cul-tural Studies Review.In Canada, cultural studies has sometimes focused on is-sues of technology and society, continuing the emphasisin the work of Marshall McLuhan, Harold Innis, and oth-ers. Cultural studies journals based in Canada includeTopia: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies.In Africa, human rights and Third World issues areamong the central topics treated. Cultural Studies jour-nals based in Africa include the Journal of African Cul-tural Studies.In Latin America, cultural studies has drawn on thinkerssuch as José Martí, Ángel Rama and other Latin Ameri-can figures, in addition to the Western theoretical sourcesassociated with cultural studies in other parts of theworld. Leading Latin American cultural studies scholarsinclude Néstor García Canclini, Jésus Martín-Barbero,and Beatriz Sarlo.[27][28] Among the key issues ad-dressed by Latin American cultural studies scholars aredecoloniality, urban cultures, and postdevelopment the-ory. Latin American cultural studies journals include theJournal of Latin American Cultural Studies.Even though cultural studies developed much morerapidly in the UK than in continental Europe, there is asignificant cultural studies presence in countries such asFrance, Spain and Portugal. The field is relatively unde-veloped in Germany, probably due to the continued influ-ence of the Frankfurt School, which is now often said tobe in its third generation, which includes notable figuressuch as Axel Honneth. Cultural studies journals basedin continental Europe include the European Journal ofCultural Studies, the Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies,French Cultural Studies, and Portuguese Cultural Studies.Throughout Asia, cultural studies has boomed and thrived

since at least the beginning of the 1990s.[29] Culturalstudies journals based in Asia include Inter-Asia CulturalStudies.

4 Issues, concepts and approaches

4.1 Marxism, feminism, race and culture

As noted above, Marxism has played an important orig-inating role as being one of the first critiques of Cul-ture - and has hence been reflected in the history of cul-tural studies. The early Frankfurt School of Sociologywere particularly influenced by Antonio Gramsci, and themembers of the later Birmingham School were in theearly 1970s influenced by the structuralism of Louis Al-thusser. Cultural studies has since branched out fromMarxist readings of Sociology to more broad readingswhich have involved Race, Gender, Ideological and iden-tity based readings of the composition of Society, withPost-Modernism and Post-Structuralism furthering thesereadings into the artistic, psychological and philosophicalrealms.

4.2 Gramsci and hegemony

In order to understand the changing political circum-stances of class, politics and culture in the United King-dom, scholars at The Birmingham School turned to thework of Antonio Gramsci, an Italian thinker, writer andcommunist party leader of the 1910s, 20s and '30s.Gramsci had been concerned with similar issues: whywould Italian laborers and peasants vote for fascists?What strategic approach is necessary to mobilize popularsupport in more progressive directions? Gramsci modi-fied classical Marxism, and argued that culture must beunderstood as a key site of political and social struggle.In his view, capitalists used not only brute force (police,prisons, repression, military) to maintain control, but alsopenetrated the everyday culture of working people in avariety of ways in their efforts to win popular “consent.”It is important to recognize that for Gramsci, historicalleadership, or “hegemony,” involves the formation of al-liances between class factions, and struggles within thecultural realm of everyday common sense. Hegemonywas always, for Gramsci, an interminable, unstable andcontested process.[30]

Scott Lash writes:

In the work of Hall, Hebdige and McRob-bie, popular culture came to the fore... WhatGramsci gave to this was the importance ofconsent and culture. If the fundamental Marx-ists saw power in terms of class-versus-class,then Gramsci gave to us a question of class al-liance. The rise of cultural studies itself was

4 4 ISSUES, CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES

based on the decline of the prominence of fun-damental class-versus-class politics.[31]

Edgar and Sedgwick write:

The theory of hegemony was of central im-portance to the development of British culturalstudies [particularly The Birmingham School.It facilitated analysis of the ways in which sub-ordinate groups actively resist and respond topolitical and economic domination. The sub-ordinate groups needed not to be seen merelyas the passive dupes of the dominant class andits ideology.[32]

4.3 Structure and agency

The development of hegemony theory in cultural studieswas in some ways consonant with work in other fields ex-ploring agency, a theoretical concept that insists on theactive, critical capacities of subordinated peoples (e.g.the working classes, colonized peoples, women).[33] AsStuart Hall famously argued in his 1981 essay, “Noteson Deconstructing 'the Popular',” “ordinary people arenot cultural dopes.”[34] Insistence on accounting for theagency of subordinated peoples runs counter to the workof traditional structuralists. Some analysts have howeverbeen critical of some work in cultural studies that theyfeel overstates the significance of or even romanticizessome forms of popular cultural agency.Cultural studies often concerns itself with agency atthe level of the practices of everyday life, and ap-proaches such research from a standpoint of radicalcontextualism.[35] In other words, cultural studies rejectsuniversal accounts of cultural practices, meanings, andidentities.Judith Butler, an American feminist theorist whose workis often associated with cultural studies, wrote that

the move from a structuralist account inwhich capital is understood to structure socialrelations in relatively homologous ways to aview of hegemony in which power relations aresubject to repetition, convergence and reartic-ulation brought the question of temporality intothe thinking of structure. It has marked a shiftfrom a form of Althusserian theory that takesstructural totalities as theoretical objects to onein which the insights into the contingent pos-sibility of structure inaugurate a renewed con-ception of hegemony as bound up with the con-tingent sites and strategies of the rearticulationof power.[36]

4.4 “Post-hegemonic” cultural studies?

In 2007, sociologist Scott Lash argued that power hasbeen radically transformed “from the hegemonic mode of'power over' to an intensive notion of power from within(including domination from within) and power as gener-ative force.”[37]

4.5 Globalization

In recent decades, as capitalist culture has spread through-out the world via contemporary forms of globalization,cultural studies has generated important analyses of localsites and practices of negotiation with and resistance toWestern hegemony.[38]

4.6 Cultural consumption

Cultural Studies criticizes the traditional view of the pas-sive consumer, particularly by underlining the differentways people read, receive and interpret cultural texts, orappropriate other kinds of cultural products, or otherwiseparticipate in the production and circulation of meanings.On this view, a consumer can appropriate, actively re-work or challenge the meanings circulated through cul-tural texts. In some of its variants, then, cultural stud-ies has thus shifted the analytical focus from (traditionalunderstandings of) production to consumption, whichis nevertheless understood as a form of production (ofmeanings, of identities, etc.) in its own right. Stuart Hall,John Fiske, and others have been influential in these de-velopments.A special 2008 issue of the field’s flagship journal, Cul-tural Studies, examined “Anti-Consumerism” from a vari-ety of cultural studies angles. As Jeremy Gilbert noted inhis contribution to this issue, cultural studiesmust grapplewith the fact that “we now live in an era when, through-out the capitalist world, the overriding aim of governmenteconomic policy is to maintain consumer spending levels.This is an era when ‘consumer confidence’ is treated as thekey indicator and cause of economic effectiveness.”[39]

4.7 The concept of “text”

Cultural studies, drawing upon and developing semiotics,uses the concept of text to designate not only written lan-guage, but also television programs, films, photographs,fashion, hairstyles, and so forth; the texts of cultural stud-ies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture. Simi-larly, the field widens the concept of “culture.” “Culture,”for a cultural studies researcher, includes not only tradi-tional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups),[40]but also everyday meanings and practices, which have,as noted above, become a central focus of cultural stud-ies. Cultural studies even approaches sites and spaces of

5.1 Literary scholars 5

everyday life, such as pubs, living rooms, gardens andbeaches, as “texts.”[41]

Jeff Lewis brought together much of the discussion ontext and textual analysis in his studies on media, cul-ture and cultural politics.[42] Accoridng to Lewis, 'tex-tual studies’ is the most complex and difficult heuristicmethod, requiring both powerful interceptive skills anda subtle conception of politics and context. Lewis’ ownmode of textual analysis views all phenomena as ' poten-tial 'text' when set within a given knowledge system. Textscan only bear meaning that can be 'interpreted', therefore,as they present within a given knowledge system. It is thisknowledge system which imbues the text with meaning.The task of the cultural analyst, therefore, is to engagewith both the knowledge system and the text, and ob-serve and analyse the ways in which the two interact withone another—and with other knowledge systems, includ-ing the one being deployed by the analysts him-herself.This engagement represents the critical dimensions of theanalysis, its capacity to illuminate the hierarchies withinand surrounding the given text and its discourses.

5 Academic reception

Cultural studies has evolved through the confluence ofvarious disciplines—anthropology, media and commu-nication studies, literary studies, education, geography,philosophy, sociology, politics and others. While someareas of cultural studies have meandered into politicalrelativism and “postmodern” conceptions of the subjectand emancipation, at its core cultural studies provides asignificant conceptual and methodological framework forcultural, social and economic critique. This critique isdesigned to “deconstruct” the meanings and assumptionsthat are inscribed in the institutions, texts and practicesthat work with and through, and produce and re-present,culture.[43] Thus, while some scholars and disciplines liketo dismiss cultural studies for its methodological open-ness and rejection of disciplinarity, its core strategiesof critique and analysis have had a profound influencethroughout the more progressive and critical areas of thesocial sciences and humanities. Cultural studies workon forms of social differentiation, control and inequal-ity, identity, community-building, media, and knowledgeproduction, for example, have had a substantial impact.Moreover, the influence of cultural studies has becomeincreasingly evident in areas as diverse as translation stud-ies, health studies, international relations, developmentstudies, computer studies, economics, archaeology, andneurobiology, as well as across the range of disciplinesthat initially shaped the emergence of cultural studies, in-cluding literature, sociology, communication studies, andanthropology.Cultural studies has also diversified its own interests andmethodologies, incorporating a range of studies on mediapolicy, democracy, design, leisure, tourism, warfare and

development. While certain key concepts such as ideol-ogy or discourse, class, hegemony, identity and genderremain significant, cultural studies has long engaged withand integrated new concepts and approaches such as de-construction and postmodernism. The field thus contin-ues to pursue political critique through its engagementswith the forces of culture and politics.[44]

The Blackwell Companion to Cultural Studies, edited byleading cultural studies scholar Toby Miller, contains es-says that analyze the development of cultural studies ap-proaches within each of a wide range of disciplines acrossthe contemporary social sciences and humanities.[45]

5.1 Literary scholars

Many cultural studies practitioners work in departmentsof English or Comparative Literature. Nevertheless,some traditional literary scholars such as Yale profes-sor Harold Bloom have been outspoken critics of culturalstudies. These critics dislike cultural studies for a widerange of reasons, including cultural studies’ rejection ofessentialism and its critiques of traditional Western theo-ries of aesthetics.Bloom stated his position during the September 2000episode of C-SPAN's Booknotes:

[T]here are two enemies of reading nowin the world, not just in the English-speakingworld. One [is] the lunatic destruction of lit-erary studies...and its replacement by what iscalled cultural studies in all of the universi-ties and colleges in the English-speaking world,and everyone knows what that phenomenon is.I mean, the...now-weary phrase 'political cor-rectness’ remains a perfectly good descriptivephrase for what has gone on and is, alas, stillgoing on almost everywhere and which dom-inates, I would say, rather more than three-fifths of the tenured faculties in the English-speaking world, who really do represent a trea-son of the intellectuals, I think, a 'betrayal ofthe clerks’.”[46]

Marxist literary critic Terry Eagleton is not wholly op-posed to cultural studies, but has criticised aspects of itand highlighted what he sees as its strengths and weak-nesses in books such as After Theory (2003). For Ea-gleton, literary and cultural theory have the potential tosay important things about the “fundamental questions”in life, but theorists have rarely realized this potential.

5.2 Sociologists

Cultural studies has also had a substantial impact on so-ciology. For example, when Stuart Hall left The Birm-ingham School at Birmingham, it was to accept a pres-

6 7 SEE ALSO

tigious professorship in Sociology at the Open Univer-sity in Britain. The subfield of cultural sociology, inparticular, is disciplinary home to many cultural studiespractitioners. Nevertheless, there are some differencesbetween sociology as a discipline and the field of cul-tural studies as a whole. While sociology was foundedupon various historic works purposefully distinguishingthe subject from philosophy or psychology, cultural stud-ies has explicitly interrogated and criticized traditionalunderstandings and practices of disciplinarity. Most CSpractitioners think it is best that cultural studies neitheremulate disciplines nor aspire to disciplinarity for culturalstudies. Rather, they promote a kind of radical interdis-ciplinarity as the basis for cultural studies.One sociologist whose work has had a major influenceupon cultural studies is Pierre Bourdieu. Bourdieu’swork makes innovative use of statistics and in-depthinterviews.[47][48] However, although Bourdieu’s work hasbeen highly influential within cultural studies, and al-though Bourdieu regarded his work as a form of sci-ence, cultural studies has never embraced the idea that itshould aspire toward “scientificity,” and has marshalled awide range of theoretical and methodological argumentsagainst the fetishization of “scientificity” as a basis for cul-tural studies.Two sociologists who have been critical of cultural stud-ies, Chris Rojek and Bryan S. Turner, argue in their ar-ticle, “Decorative sociology: towards a critique of thecultural turn”, that cultural studies, particularly the fla-vor championed by Stuart Hall, lacks a stable researchagenda, and privileges the contemporary reading of texts,thus producing an ahistorical theoretical focus. Further-more, they assert the claim that “there is both a rejectionof cross-cultural and historical relevance and a sense ofmoral superiority about the correctness of the politicalviews articulated” in cultural studies[49]

5.3 Physicist Alan Sokal

Main article: Sokal affair

In 1996, physicist Alan Sokal expressed his oppositionto cultural studies by submitting a hoax article to a cul-tural studies journal, Social Text. The article, which wascrafted as a parody of what Sokal referred to as the “fash-ionable nonsense” of postmodernism, was accepted bythe editors of the journal, which did not at the time prac-tice peer review. When the paper appeared in print, Sokalpublished a second article in a self-described “academicgossip” magazine Lingua Franca, revealing his hoax onSocial Text. Sokal stated that his motivation stemmedfrom his rejection of contemporary critiques of scientificrationalism:

“Politically, I'm angered because most(though not all) of this silliness is emanating

from the self-proclaimed Left. We're witness-ing here a profound historical volte-face. Formost of the past two centuries, the Left hasbeen identified with science and against obscu-rantism; we have believed that rational thoughtand the fearless analysis of objective reality(both natural and social) are incisive tools forcombating the mystifications promoted by thepowerful -- not to mention being desirable hu-man ends in their own right. The recent turnof many “progressive” or “leftist” academic hu-manists and social scientists toward one or an-other form of epistemic relativism betrays thisworthy heritage and undermines the alreadyfragile prospects for progressive social critique.Theorizing about “the social construction of re-ality” won't help us find an effective treatmentfor AIDS or devise strategies for preventingglobal warming. Nor can we combat false ideasin history, sociology, economics and politics ifwe reject the notions of truth and falsity.”[50]

6 Founding works

Hall and others have identified some core originatingtexts, or the original “curriculum”, of the field of culturalstudies:

• Hoggart’s The Uses of Literacy

• Raymond Williams’ Culture and Society and TheLong Revolution[51]

• E.P. Thompson’s The Making of the English Work-ing Class.

7 See also

7.1 Fields and theories

• Comparative cultural studies

• Critical theory

• Cross-cultural studies

• Cultural analytics

• Cultural anthropology

• Cultural assimilation

• Cultural consensus theory

• Cultural critic

• Cultural geography

• Cultural hegemony

7.3 Associations 7

• Cultural heritage

• Cultural history

• Cultural identity theory

• Cultural imperialism

• Cultural materialism

• Cultural practice

• Cultural psychology

• Cultural rights

• Cultureme

• Culturology

• Gender studies

• Heritage studies

• Literary criticism

• Literary theory

• Media culture

• Media studies

• Organizational culture

• Physical cultural studies

• Popular culture studies

• Postcolonialism

• Queer theory

• Semiotics of culture

• Social criticism

• Social semiotics

• Sociology of culture

• Translation studies

• Visual culture

7.2 Academic programs

• List of universities with programs in cultural studiesand related programs

7.3 Associations

• Association for Cultural Typhoon, Japan

• The Canadian Association for Cultural Studies

• Cultural Studies Association of Australasia[52]

• Cultural Studies Association, Taiwan

• Cultural Studies Association, Turkey

• Cultural Studies Association, US

• ECREA – European Communication Research andEducation Association, Norway

• IBACS, Iberian Association of Cultural Studies,Spain

• Inter-Asia Cultural Studies Society, Taiwan

• International Association for Translation and Inter-cultural Studies (IATIS), South Korea

• International Society for Cultural History, UK

• Media, Communication and Cultural Studies Asso-ciation, UK

7.4 Authors

• Ackbar Abbas

• Theodor W. Adorno

• Giorgio Agamben

• Sara Ahmed

• Ien Ang

• Arjun Appadurai

• Mikhail Bakhtin

• Mieke Bal

• Roland Barthes

• Jean Baudrillard

• Zygmunt Bauman

• Tony Bennett

• Lauren Berlant

• Michael Bérubé

• Homi K. Bhabha

• Pierre Bourdieu

• danah boyd

• Peter Burke

8 7 SEE ALSO

• Judith Butler

• Angie Chabram-Dernersesian

• Rey Chow

• James Clifford

• William E. Connolly

• Tim Cresswell

• Douglas Crimp

• Jonathan Culler

• Antonia Darder

• Guy Debord

• Michel de Certeau

• Gilles Deleuze

• Jacques Derrida

• Richard Dyer

• Michael Eric Dyson

• Terry Eagleton

• John Ellis

• Arturo Escobar

• Frantz Fanon

• John Fiske

• Hal Foster

• Michel Foucault

• Sarah Franklin

• Paulo Freire

• John Frow

• Néstor García Canclini

• J.K. Gibson-Graham

• Paul Gilroy

• Henry Giroux

• Antonio Gramsci

• Lawrence Grossberg

• Elizabeth Grosz

• Felix Guattari

• Jürgen Habermas

• Catherine Hall

• Gary Hall

• Stuart Hall

• Donna Haraway

• Michael Hardt

• John Hartley

• Dick Hebdige

• Bob Hodge

• Richard Hoggart

• bell hooks

• Max Horkheimer

• Eva Illouz

• Mizuko Ito

• Luce Irigaray

• Annamarie Jagose

• Henry Jenkins

• Douglas Kellner

• Laura Kipnis

• Henry Krips

• Julia Kristeva

• Ernesto Laclau

• Scott Lash

• Gilles Lipovetsky

• Jean-François Lyotard

• Herbert Marcuse

• Hayden White

• Jésus Martín-Barbero

• Doreen Massey

• Alan McKee

• Angela McRobbie

• Robert McRuer

• Kobena Mercer

• Toby Miller

• Nicholas Mirzoeff

• Chandra Talpade Mohanty

• Chantal Mouffe

• Meaghan Morris

• Hamid Naficy

9

• Antonio Negri

• Griselda Pollock

• Elspeth Probyn

• Janice Radway

• Jacques Ranciere

• Andrew Ross

• Marc Augé

• Edward Said

• Beatriz Sarlo

• Saskia Sassen

• Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick

• Richard Sennett

• Beverley Skeggs

• Edward Soja

• David Harvey

• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

• Sara Suleri

• Tiziana Terranova

• E.P. Thompson

• Tzvetan Todorov

• Graeme Turner

• Valentin Voloshinov

• Michael Warner

• Cornel West

• Raymond Williams

• Paul Willis

• Slavoj Žižek

7.5 Journals

• Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities

• Camera Obscura: Feminism, Culture, and MediaStudies

• Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies

• Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies

• Critical Studies in Media Communication

• Cultura

• Cultural Critique

• Cultural Studies

• Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies

• Cultural Studies of Science Education

• Cultural Studies Review

• Culture Machine

• differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies

• European Journal of Cultural Studies

• French Cultural Studies

• Inter-Asia Cultural Studies

• International Journal of Cultural Studies

• Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies

• Journal of African Cultural Studies

• Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies

• Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies

• New Formations

• Parallax

• Portuguese Cultural Studies

• Portuguese Literary & Cultural Studies (PLCS)

• Public Culture

• Review of Education, Pedagogy and Cultural Studies

• Social Text

• Space and Culture

• Theory, Culture & Society

• Topia: Canadian Journal of Cultural Studies

8 Notes[1] Miller 2006, p. 1

[2] Rodman, Gilbert B. (2015). Why Cultural Studies?.Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell.

[3] “Cultural studies” is not synonymous with either "areastudies" or "ethnic studies,” although there are many cul-tural studies practitioners working in both area studies andethnic studies programs and professional associations (e.g.American studies, Asian studies, African-American stud-ies, Latina/o Studies, European studies, Latin Americanstudies, etc.).

[4] Bérubé, Michael (2009), “What’s theMatter with CulturalStudies?", The Chronicle of Higher Education.

10 8 NOTES

[5] “Cultural Studies Associations, Networks and Programs”,extensive, but incomplete, list of associations, networksand programs as found on the website for the Associationof Cultural Studies, Tampere, Finland.

[6] Sardar, Ziauddin and Van Loon, Borin (1994). Introduc-ing Cultural Studies. New York: Totem Books

[7] Dworkin, Dennis. Cultural Marxism in Post-War Britain:History, the New Left, and the Origins of Cultural Studies(Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1997), p.116.

[8] see also Corner, John (1991), “Postscript: StudyingCulture—Reflections and Assessment: An Interview withRichard Hoggart.” Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 13,No. 2, April.

[9] Ioan Davies, “British Cultural Marxism,” InternationalJournal of Politics, Culture and Society 4(3) (1991): 323-344, p. 328.

[10] Morley & Chen (eds.) (1996). Stuart Hall: Critical Dia-logues in Cultural Studies. London: Routledge.

[11] Gilroy, Grossberg and McRobbie (eds.) (2000). WithoutGuarantees: In Honour of Stuart Hall. London: Verso.

[12] Webster, Frank (2004). “Cultural Studies and Sociologyat, and After, the Closure of the Birmingham School”.Cultural Studies 18 (6): 848.

[13] Curtis, Polly (2002), “Birmingham’s cultural studies de-partment given the chop”, The Guardian.

[14] Turner, Graeme (2003). British Cultural Studies: An In-troduction (Third ed.). London: Routledge.

[15] Hartley, John (2003). A Short History of Cultural Studies.London: Sage.

[16] Hall 1980

[17] Hall, Critcher, Jefferson, Clarke & Roberts (1978). Polic-ing the Crisis: Mugging, the State, and Law and Order.New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc.

[18] Hall, Stuart (1988). The Hard Road to Renewal:Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left. London: Verso.

[19] Hall & Jacques (eds.) (1991). New Times: The ChangingFace of Politics in the 1990s. London: Verso.

[20] Abbas & Erni (eds.) (2005). Internationalizing CulturalStudies: An Anthology. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publish-ing.

[21] Lindlof & Taylor, 2002, p. 60.

[22] Grossberg, Nelson & Treichler 1992

[23] Warren & Vavrus (eds.) (2002). American Cultural Stud-ies. Urbana Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.

[24] Hartley& Pearson (eds.) (2000). American Cultural Stud-ies: A Reader. Oxford University Press.

[25] Frow&Morris (eds.) (1993). Australian Cultural Studies:A Reader. Urbana Champaign, IL: University of IllinoisPress.

[26] Turner (ed.), Graeme (1993). Nation, Culture, Text: Aus-tralian Cultural and Media Studies. London: Routledge.

[27] Sarto, Ríos & Trigo (eds.) (2004). The Latin AmericanCultural Studies Reader. Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress.

[28] Irwin & Szurmuck (eds.) (2012). Dictionary of LatinAmerican Cultural Studies. Gainesville: University Pressof Florida.

[29] Chen & Huat (eds.) (2007). The Inter-Asia Cultural Stud-ies Reader. London: Routledge.

[30] Hall, Stuart (June 1986). “Gramsci’s Relevancefor the Study of Race and Ethnicity”. Jour-nal of Communication Inquiry 10 (2): 5–27.doi:10.1177/019685998601000202.

[31] Lash 2007, pp. 68–69

[32] Edgar & Sedgewick, 165.

[33] Giddens, Anthony (1984). The Constitution of Society:Outline of the Theory of Structuration. Malden, MA:Polity Press.

[34] Guins & Cruz (eds.) (2005). Popular Culture: A Reader.London: Sage. p. 67.

[35] Grossberg, Lawrence (2010). Cultural Studies in the Fu-ture Tense. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

[36] Butler, Judith (1997). “Further Reflections on Conversa-tions of Our Time”. Diacritics 27 (1).

[37] Lash 2007, abstract

[38] Appadurai, Arjun (1996). Modernity at Large: CulturalDimensions of Globalization. Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press.

[39] Gilbert, Jeremy (2008). “Against the Commodification ofEverything”. Cultural Studies 22 (5).

[40] Bakhtin, Mikhail 1981. The Dialogic Imagination.Austin, TX: UT Press, p. 4.

[41] Fiske, Hodge and Turner (1987). Myths of Oz: ReadingAustralian Popular Culture. Allen & Unwin: Boston.

[42] Jeff Lewis (2008) Cultural Studies, Sage, London; JeffLewis, (2005) Language Wars: The Role of Media andCulture in Global Terror and Political Violence, Pluto,London.

[43] Lewis 2008

[44] During 2007

[45] Miller 2006, p. index

[46] Booknotes.org

[47] Richard Harker, Cheleen Mahar, Chris Wilkes (eds), AnIntroduction to the Work of Pierre Bourdieu: The Theoryof Practice. Houndmills: Macmillan, 1990, pp. 68-71.

[48] Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique ofthe Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-versity Press.

11

[49] Rojek, Chris, and Bryan Turner, “Decorative sociology:towards a critique of the cultural turn.” The SociologicalReview 48.4 (2000): 629-648.

[50] “A Physicist Experiments With Cultural Studies”, AlanSokal, English translation of article from Lingua Franca,1996. Physics.nyu.edu.

[51] Hall 1980

[52] “About”. Cultural Studies Association of Australasia. Re-trieved 29 September 2015.

9 References• Du Gay, Paul, et al. Doing Cultural Studies: The

Story of the Sony Walkman. Culture, Media andIdentities. London ; Thousand Oaks Calif.: Sage inassociation with The Open University, 1997.

• During, Simon (2007). The Cultural Studies Reader(3rd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37412-5.

• Edgar, Andrew and Peter Sedgwick. 2005. CulturalTheory: The Key Concepts. 2nd edition. NY: Rout-ledge.

• Engel, Manfred: “Cultural and Literary Studies”.Canadian Review of Comparative Literature 31(2008): 460-467.

• Grossberg, Lawrence; Nelson, Cary; Treichler,Paula A., eds. (1992). Cultural Studies. New York:Routledge. ISBN 0-415-90351-3.

• Hall, Stuart, ed. (1980). Culture, Media, Lan-guage: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-1979. London: Routledge in association with theCentre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, Univer-sity of Birmingham. ISBN 0-09-142070-9.

• Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Studies: Two Paradigms.”Media, Culture, and Society 2 (1980).

• Hall, Stuart. “Race, Culture, and Communications:Looking Backward and Forward at Cultural Stud-ies.” Rethinking Marxism 5.1 (1992): 10-18.

• Hoggart, Richard. The Uses of Literacy: Aspectsof Working Class Life (Chatto and Windus, 1957).ISBN 0-7011-0763-4

• Johnson, Richard. “What Is Cultural Studies Any-way?" Social Text 16 (1986–87): 38-80.

• Johnson, Richard. “Multiplying Methods: FromPluralism to Combination.” Practice of CulturalStudies. London; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,2004. 26-43.

• Johnson, Richard. “Post-Hegemony? I Don't ThinkSo” Theory, Culture and Society. 24(3): 95-110.

• Lash, Scott (May 2007). “Power AfterHegemony: Cultural Studies in Mutation?".Theory, Culture & Society 24 (3): 55–78.doi:10.1177/0263276407075956.

• Lewis, Jeff (2008). Cultural Studies: The Basics(2nd ed.). London: Sage. ISBN 1-4129-2229-1.

• Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. C. (2002). Qualita-tive Communication Research Methods, 2nd edition.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

• Longhurst,Brian, Smith,Greg, Bagnall, Gaynor,Crawford, Garry and Michael Ogborn, IntroducingCultural Studies, Second Edition, Pearson, London,2008, ISBN 978-1-4058-5843-4

• Miller, Toby, ed. (2006). A Companion to CulturalStudies. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN978-0-631-21788-6.

• Pollock, Griselda (ed.), Generations and Geogra-phies: Critical Theories and Critical Practices in Fem-inism and the Visual Arts. Routledge, 1996.

• Pollock, Griselda. Psychoanalysis and the Image.Boston and Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.

• Smith, Paul. Questioning Cultural Studies: An Inter-view with Paul Smith. 1994. MLG Institute for Cul-ture and Society at Trinity College. OSF1.gmu.edu,31 August 2005.

• Smith, Paul. “A Course In “Cultural Studies”." TheJournal of the Midwest Modern Language Associ-ation 24.1, Cultural Studies and New Historicism(1991): 39-49.

• Smith, Paul (2006). “Chapter 19. Looking Back-wards and Forwards at Cultural Studies”. In Miller,Toby. A Companion to Cultural Studies. Malden,Mass: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 331–40. ISBN978-0-631-21788-6.

• Theory, Culture and Society, 21(1), 2004.

• Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary ofCulture and Society. Revised edition. New York:Oxford University Press, 1985.

• Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780-1950. New York,: Harper & Row, 1966.

10 External links

• CCCS publications (Annual Reports and StencilledOccasional [sic] Papers) of the University of Birm-ingham

• “The Need for Cultural Studies: Resisting Intellec-tuals and Oppositional Public Spheres”

12 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

• CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture atPurdue University

13

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