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National Latin ExamLatin I Packet

The following packet will take you through everything which you need to know in order to be prepared for the National Latin Exam Latin 1 test. While the test will not ask you everything in this packet, everything in this packet is fair game for the test and can potentially be asked, and much has been asked for the past 33 years. The sections are separated into the following topics: Latin forms, vocabulary, geography, history, oral Latin, culture and mythology.

Hot Questions

Below are listed questions which have appeared on the Latin 1 exam for the past 33 years. Please review these questions as it is a way to quickly get some easy points. These questions always, always, always, always appear.

1. There will always be a question word underlined.2. There will always be a predicate nominative.3. There will always be a roman numeral question.4. There will always be a subtraction or addition question.5. There will always be an identification of an infinitive.6. There will always be an identification of an imperfect.7. There will always be an identification of a perfect.8. There will always be an identification of a future.9. There will always be an identification of a present.10. There will always be an identification of an imperative.11. There will always be an ablative of means, manner or accompaniment.12. There will always be a personal pronoun question.13. There will always be a dative or genitive translation question.14. There will always be a vocative question.15. There will always be an identification of a conjunction.

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Latin Forms

Esse - to be Personal Pronouns

Present Imperfect Future Perfect Singular Plural

sum eram erō fuī I You We Ya'll

es erās eris fuistī N ego tū nōs vōs

est erat erit fuit G meī tuī nostrīnostrum

vestrīvestrum

sumus erāmus erimus fuimus D mihi tibi nōbīs vōbīs

estis erātis eritis fuistis A mē tē nōs vōs

sunt erant erunt fuērunt Ab mē tē nōbīs vōbīs

Common Adverbs Common Words Numerals Prepositions with the ablative:

autem - however, moreover, butbene - welletiam - alsofacile - easilyfortiter - stronglyinterim - meanwhileiam - nowita - thus, solongē - far, by farmagis - moremale - badlymelis - betterminus - lessmultum - much, greatlynihil - not at all, notnōn - notsubito - suddenly

Temporal:cras - tomorrowdiū - a long time, for a whilediūtius - all day, longerheri - yesterdayhodie - today

deinde - then, nextdum - whileenim - for, indeed, in factergo - thereforeibi - thereitaque - and so; thereforeiterum - againnam - fornemo - no onenihil - nothingnum - surely notnunc - nowquamquam - althoughquoque - alsoquod - becausesaepe - oftensemper - alwayssīc - thussicut - just as, likestatim - immediatelytamen - neverthelesstam - sotum - thenubi - where, whenut - as

ūnus 1duo 2trēs 3quattuor 4quīnque 5sex 6septem 7octō 8novem 9decem 10ūndecim 11duodecim 12tredecim 13quattuordecim 14quīndecim 15sēdecim 16septendecim 17duodēvīgintī 18ūndēvigintī 19vīgintī 20trīgintā 30quadrāgintā 40quīnquagintā 50sexāgintā 60septuāgintā 70octōgintā 80nōnāgintā 90centum 100mīlle 1000

ab, ā - by, away fromcum - withdē - from, concerning, about, down fromex, ē - out of, fromin - in, onprō - in front of, on behalf ofsine - withoutsub - under, at the foot of

Prepositions with the accusative

ad - to, up to, at, nearante - before, in front ofapud - with, among, in the presence ofcircum - around, about, amongcontrā - against, oppositein - into, against, uponinter - between, amongper - throughpost - after, behindpraeter - except, contrary topropter - on account ofprope - near, almost, close bysub - under, beneathtrāns - across

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Declensions

1st Fem 2nd Masc 2nd Neut 2nd Masc 2nd Mascpuella servus baculum ager puer puellae servī baculī agrī puerīpuellae servō baculō agrō puerōpuellam servum baculum agrum puerumpuellā servō baculō agrō puerōpuellae servī bacula agrī puerīpuellārum servōrum baculōrum agrōrum puerōrumpuellīs servīs baculīs agrīs puerīspuellās servōs bacula agrōs puerōspuellīs servīs baculīs agrīs puerīs

3rd Fem 3rd Neut 3rd Mascvōx nōmen patervōcis nōminis patrisvōcī nōminī patrīvōcem nōmen patremvōce nōmine patrevōcēs nōmina patrēsvōcum nōminum patrumvōcibus nōminibus patribusvōcēs nōmina patrēsvōcibus nōminibus patribus

Adjective

Adj 1st & 2nd Declensionmagnus magna magnum magnī magnae magnīmagnō magnae magnōmagnum magnam magnummagnō magnā magnōmagnī magnae magnamagnōrum magnārum magnōrummagnīs magnīs magnīsmagnōs magnās magnamagnīs magnīs magnīs

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Verb Tenses

Present Imperfect Future Perfect

parō (parāre) parābam parābō parāvī

parās parābās parābis parāvistī

parat parābat parābit parāvit

parāmus parābāmus parābimus parāvimus

parātis parābātis parābitis parāvistis

parant parābant parābunt parāvērunt

habēo (habēre) habēbam habēbō habuī

habēs habēbās habēbis habuistī

habet habēbat habēbit habuit

habēmus habēbāmus habēbimus habuimus

habētis habēbātis habēbitis habuistis

habent habēbant habēbunt habuērunt

mittō (mittere) mittēbam mīsī

mittis mittēbās mīsistī

mittit mittēbat mīsit

mittimus mittēbāmus mīsimus

mittitis mittēbātis mīsistis

mittunt mittēbant mīsērunt

iaciō (iacere) iaciēbam iēcī

iacis iaciēbās iēcistī

iacit iaciēbāt iēcit

iacimus iaciēbāmus iēcimus

iacitis iaciēbātis iēcistis

iaciunt iaciēbant iēcērunt

audiō (audīre) audiēbam audīvī

audīs audiēbās audīvistī

audit audiēbat audīvit

audīmus audiēbāmus audīvimus

audītis audiēbātis audīvistis

audiunt audiēbant audīvērunt

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Question words

quot - how manycur - whyquid - whatquis - whoquomodo - how, in what wayquando - whenubi - wherequem/quam/quod - accusative, whatquō - to wherequotiēns - how oftenquantus - how great

Conjunctions

aut - oret - and-ne - indicates a question-que - andaut...aut - either...oret...et - both...andneque...neque - neithersed - butsive - or if, orsive...sive - whether....or

Translating the Tenses

The Present tense is translated in two ways:1. I am preparing; you are preparing2. I prepare; you prepare

The Imperfect tense is translated in two ways:1. I was preparing; you were preparing2. I used to prepare; you used to prepare

The Perfect tense is translated in two ways:1. I have prepared; you have prepared2. I prepared; you prepared

The Future tense is translated:1. I shall prepare; you will prepare

Addition and Subtraction Examples1. Sunt tres equi et septem porci in agro. Quot animalia in agro sunt?1. There are 3 horses and 7 pigs in the field. How many animals are in the field? Decem

2. Agricola decem servos habuit, sed duo effugerunt. Nunc habet ___ servos.2. A farmer had 10 slaves, but 2 fled away. Now he has octo/8 slaves.

3. Sunt quattuor milites et quinque nautae in Foro. Quot homines in Foro sunt? 3. There are 4 soldiers and 5 sailors in the Forum. How many men are in the Forum? novem

4. Novem minus sex sunt 4. 9 minus 6 is tres/3

5. Decem minus tres sunt ____.5. 10 minus 3 is septem/7

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Geography

Roman EmpireAsia Minor - Eastern province of Roman Empire which is modern day TurkeyHispania - SpainGallia - Gaul/FranceGermania - GermanyBrittania - UK (Caledonia - Scotland; Hibernia - Ireland)Achaia - GreeceAegyptus - Egypt

Note: Carthago - Carthage, in Africa, it is one of the southern most cities we will studyVolcanoes: Vesuvius and Etna

ItaliaApennine Mountains which go along the boot down the eastern side of Italia.

Rome

Circus Maximus - situated between the Palatine and Aventine hills, it was the spot of ancient chariot races. It is long, 2,037 in length and 387 in width to accommodate chariots. It is the Nascar of the Romans. Colosseum - The Colosseum sits just east of the Forum. It was capable of sitting 50,000 spectators. It was an amazing complex to show gladiator fights, hunts, naval battles, executions and dramas. Via Appia - This most important Roman road originally extended from Rome south to Capua and later east to Brundisium.Aqueducts - these amazing Roman feat of engineering enabled the Romans to have indoor plumbing 2000 years ago. It enabled water from 16km away to feed the fountains and public baths of Rome among other destinations. It supplied 75,500 cubic meters (19,944,990 gallons) of water per day.Peristyle - a columned porch surrounding a court which may be a garden. This feature was common in Roman houses. No new peristyle houses were built after 550AD (Simon P. Ellis). The Forum - technically was the Forum Magnum, the great forum. It was located between the Capitoline hill and the Palatine hill it was the center of Roman life. It was the site of triumphal processions, trials and speeches. Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia and the Curia Julia which became the sites for trials and the senate respectively. The Forum was also the center for commercial affairs. If Rome were New York, the Forum could be likened to the New York Stock Exchange.Roman Baths - very elaborate public saunas, baths, pools, gardens, game rooms and massage complexes. It had running hot water and rivaled most spas of today. Curia - located in the Forum, it is where the Roman Senators met.Basilica - the law/judicial court building in the Forum.

7 Hills of Rome: Capitoline, Aventine, Viminal, Quirinal, Esquiline, Caelian and Palatine.In Latin they are: Collis Quirinalis, Collis Viminalis, Collis Capitolinus, Collis Esquilinus, Collis Palatinus, Collis Caelius, Collis Aentinus

Flumen Tiberis - The river that flows through the city of Rome.

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Alpes - the Alps which are north from the top of the boot of Italia.

Notice the Appian way (Via Appia) goes from Rome through Capua to Tarentum and finally to Brundisium on the oppose coast at the Adriatic sea.

Gallia Italia Carthage Illyrium Brittania Roma Corsica

Hispania Aegyptus Achaia Asia Germania Sicilia Sardinia

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This may help you memorize the 7 hills of Rome. Each word sounds like the hills when pronounced in Latin: Kind women quietly escaped the palace event in the Capitol; Caelian Viminal Quirinal Esquiline Palatine Aventine Capitoline

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Note that there are 5 cities which were affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius:

1. Oplontis2. Stabiae3. Pompeii4. Boscoreal5. Herculaneum

Pliny the Elder was staying at Misenum the first day of the eruption as he was in charge of a naval fleet. He saw the eruption across the bay of Naples. He received word that a friend needed assistance in Stabiae. He sailed over to Stabiae and the following day started his rescue. Because of prevailing winds their boat could not be launched from Stabiae's coast. It is said that breathing in noxious fumes Pliny the Elder died. Some believe he died from natural causes since his traveling companions did not die. We can only speculate.

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CultureClasses in RomePatricians (patricii) - monopolized power from 501BC to 338BCEquestrians (equites) - One of the upper ranks of Rome had men called equestrians. This is from the Latin word equus which had over 25,000 sesterces.Plebians - this refers to a non-aristocrat class of artisans, farmers and other craftsmen who could become quite wealthy in Ancient Rome. While they could serve in the military they were rarely military leaders. It is with this class that the Roman elite struggled with conflicts because the Plebians desired social reforms and nobility.Capite censi - literally means 'one who is counted by the head.' It refers to the lowest class in Rome. They were not nobility or had little or no wealth or land. These are the people whom Marius below allowed into his army and promised land and spoils of war.Slaves - those taken in battle or born in slavery. They could belong to any race.

Rooms in a houseTriclinium - dining roomCulina - kitchenCubiculum - bedroomTablinum - officeImpluvium - pool used to catch rainwater in the Roman house Compluvium - slated roof to catch rainwater into the impluviumAtrium - where guests and clients were greeted

Food and Meals: While the poor sat upright like we do when we eat, the rich reclined on couches.ientaculum - breakfast (dawn)prandium - lunch (11am)vesperna used to be a later meal in the evening, but it disappeared and cena took its place.cena - dinner, principle Roman mean (evening)For the poor, porridge was eaten supplemented with veggies or meat if they had it.For the rich, there were generally three parts to cena:1. gustatio or promulsis - an appetizer, veggies, small birds (thrushes), some seafood perhaps. It could be served with mulsum (wine sweetened with honey, a dessert wine of sorts), hence the name promulsis before or for the mulsum.2. prima mensa - The main dish. It could be pork, beef, geese, peacocks, etc.3. secunda mensa - The Roman dessert. It could be all manner of fruits, nuts, cakes soaked in honey.

Clothes*All wore: tunica - Worn by both men and women and slaves, soleae - sandals*Men wore:Toga virilis/pura - (toga of manhood, wool) worn by most adult males, it is white.Toga praetexta - toga with a purple border which was worn by boys not of age; high officials; priests. bulla - a locket containing an amulet to ward off evil, it was placed around his neck by his father at his naming ceremony and wouldn't take it off until he is of age.*Women wore:Stola - floor-length strapped dress with no sleevesPalla - a single piece of material which a woman wore over her shoulders or head much like a shawl.

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Literary Phrases or English uses of Latin Words:

sic - Indicates quoting a source as found in that source, even reproduced possibly with errors.i.e. - id est which means it is, or loosely that is. It is used when explaining a phrase or term.e.g. - Exempli gratia which means for the sake of an example. Examples would follow this term.etc. - et cetera which means and the rest. It is used at the end of a list to indicate more examples.ibid - ibi idem which means there in the same place. It is used when indicating that a quote is taken from the same literary source.et al. - et alii which means and others. It should only be used with people. It is like etc. for people.Deus ex machina which means God from the machine. It is used to signify something in a literary work when a miracle or something out of the normal order of things occurs in a story. For example, the prototypical example is in Euripides' Medea. At the end of the story Medea uses Apollo's chariot to escape the clutches of Jason after she has just poisoned their children. The means by which she uses to escape is a Deus ex machina.a priori - from the earlier; a posteriori - from the later. Both are philosophical terms. Galen Strawson easily defined both of these in the following way. An argument which is described as a priori can be proven with you sitting your butt on your couch: all bachelors are unmarried. You do not have to have any experiential knowledge to prove this. But if you say, "some bachelors are very happy," you would need to get off the couch and see if this is true by asking some bachelors if they are happy or not. This would be an a posteriori argument.ergo - it means therefore, but it can be used directly in English. Some products are cheap; ergo, they break easily.nota bene - Note well. It is a command to remember something well.A.D. Annos Domini which means the year of our Lord referring to Jesus Christ. B.C. Before Christ which describes history before birth of Christ.per se - by itself. vice versa - with the order reversed. It means the same with two things reversed. I like to eat fries and then my burger, or vice versa, but not at the same time.alma mater - Nourishing mother. It is used of the school or university you attended.magnum opus - great work. It is used of your greatest accomplishment. Beethoven's ninth is his magnus opus.bone fide - in good faith. It is used in place of the word sincere or genuine.quasi - like. It is used when something resembles a thing. He never went to college but he is a quasi scientist.alter ego - another I. Cicero coined this phrase to mean another self, or a trusted friend. We use it today often when we are referring to super heroes. Bruce Wayne's alter ego is Batman.verbatim - word to word. This means an exact representation word for word. If you memorize scripture verbatim, you memorize it exactly as your translation reads.status quo - the state in which. This is used as the normal state of affairs. We have been extremely busy during Christmas, afterwards our household has returned to status quo.de facto - concerning what is done. It is used to describe something which is not official, but practically true. Jim borrows my car so often he is the de facto owner of it.ad infinitum - to in toto - in all. It means totally. His advice was implemented in toto.ipso facto - by the fact itself. It is used in English just as the phrase "in and of itself."tabula rasa - a blank tablet. It can be used to describe humans who are sometimes thought of as a

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'blank slate' when young.terra firma - solid earth. When used in English it refers to dry land. mea culpa - my fault. It is used in English when someone is taking the blame for something. persona non grata - not a pleasing person. Legally it is used when a country bars a foreigner from entering. It can also be used generally. Because of the scene I made at that pizza parlor, I am persona non grata. in situ - in position. There are a variety of uses but generally it is used for something which needs to be in a certain position or geographical location.in vitro - in glass. It is used by scientists when experienting with living organisms isolated in a test tube or other equipment.in vivo - among the living. It is used by scientists when experimenting with living organisms.ante bellum - before the war.ad nauseam - to the point of seasickness.in medias res - into the middle of things. ad hoc - to this. It is used today when talking about something for temporary purposes. Please give me a quick ad hoc report of our clients to date.per diem - per day. It is used today as an amount of money given to someone for incidental expenses such as food or other costs. Flight attendants get per diem when they go on trips.curriculum vitae - course of my life (aka CV). It is sometimes synonymous with résumé, but it differs in some respects. It is usually more comprehensive than a résumé giving more detail on education and/or publications. Thus it is more frequently used in academic and medical circles.pro rata - according to what is calculated. It is used often in law or economics. Sometimes if you rent a house in the middle of the month they will charge you a prorated rate. That is, if it costs $300 to rent a house for 30 days and it is the 21st, they will charge you for 10 days for the current month: 10 days * $10/day = $100. This is a prorated amount.quid pro quo - this for that. We have the exact idiom in English, "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."

Legal jargoncompos mentis - in possession of your mind. It means that you are not insane or your faculties aren't compromised. (mens, mentis - mind)subpoena - it literally means under penalty or punishment (sub poena). It is used in our legal system to compel someone to testify or to bring certain evidence needed in court. Dare poena means to pay the penalty, that is, to be punished. ad hominem - it literally means to the man. Normally in argumentation you attack the merits of the opposite argument. When you instead attack your opponent instead of his views, this is called ad hominem. For example, it is quite common these days to watch a presidential debate in which it descends into ad hominem attacks. That is, both candidates attack each other's character.habeas corpus - habeas is in the subjunctive mood and used as a command meaning, have the body. It is used in murder trials pro bono - on behalf of or for the good. It is used in our legal system when a legal professional undertakes a case or some work without taking payment. It can also be used in other professional circles generally. To do anything pro bono can simply mean you did it for free.mens rea - it literally means a guilty mind. In law it is usually used to indicate whether a person did a given act with the intent to do the crime. For example, if you are driving along and hit a pedestrian killing him. You had no intent to kill, but the man is dead nonetheless. You did not have a guilty mind when doing this.

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Quotes & Idioms

carpe diem - seize the day. A quote from Horace in his Odes 1.11. cogito ergo sum - I think therefore I am. A quote from Descartes in which he meant to suggest that a rational thinking being proves that one exists.veni, vidi, vici - I came, I saw, I conquered (all perfect tenses). A quote from Julius Caesar after he conquered Pharnaces (Suetonius and Plutarch). in vino veritas - in wine there is truth. It meant that one who has drunk freely does not hold his secrets long. It is preserved in Pliny the Elder's writings.in aqua sanitas - Often used with in vino veritas, in water there is health. Apparently the Romans desired to drink 8 glasses of water each day. :)e pluribus unum - out of the many, one. It is written on all of our money and is an unofficial motto of the United States.et tu, Brute - Shakespeare actually penned these words. They are supposed to be the last words of Julius Caesar when he was assassinated on March 15, 44BC by more than 60 men and stabbed 23 times (according to Eutropius). festina lente - hurry slowly. Do something with haste, but not carelessly. cave canem - beware of dog.caveat emptor - let the buyer beware.caveat venditor - let the seller bewarecum grano salis - with a grain of salt. We still use this expression today. We take people's opinion with a grain of salt. It comes from Pliny the Elder who, in his Naturalis Historia, wrote about an antidote for a certain poison which was a grain of salt. So if this poison was suspected it was advisable to take it with a grain of salt.errare humanum est - to err is human, it means all humans make mistakes. This is the Roman candy-coated equivalent to Romans 3:23. :)Gratias tibi ago - I give to you thanksCrossing the Rubicon - it means the point of no return. It refers to when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river in 49BC when he crossed with his army from Gaul into Italia. He came to seize power. If he would have been conquered he would have been declared an insurrectionist and executed by the state. Thus by his crossing the Rubicon he violated Roman law and crossed the point of no return.SPQR Senatus Populusque Romanus which means the Senate and the Roman People. It referred to the ancient government of Rome.ad aeternum - an idiom meaning forever, used in the New Testament sine die - without day, it is to adjourn a meeting without setting a day to gather againamor omnia vincit - love conquers all things.ab ovo usque ad mala - from egg to apples. A good motto for a supermarket. :)terra incognita - unknown land. Written on old maps when referring to an unknown land.tempus fugit/tempus volat - time flees/time flies. ad nauseam - to seasickness. To do something ad nauseam means to do it until you are completely sick of it. My brother practiced his violin ad nauseam.iacta alea est - it means the die is cast. Supposedly what Julius Caesar said upon crossing the Rubicon. Suetonius tells us this.

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Myths

The Twelve Olympians - the major deities of the Greek pantheon. There were sometimes other gods which are included: Hestia, Heracles, Hades, Asclepius and Persephone.

1. Zeus/Jupiter or Jove - deus tempestatis, rex deorum2. Hera/Juno - sister and wife of Zeus. She is the goddess of marriage and women.3. Bacchus/Dionysus - god of wine, revelry and theatre4. Poseidon/Neptune - he is known for having a trident and having horses. He is the brother of Zeus. He fathered Polyphemus the Cyclops which imprisoned Odysseus and his men until they stuck him in the eye.5. Demeter/Ceres - The change of seasons was explained by her sorrow or joy. Her daughter, Proserpina was snatched away to the Underworld. She is an agricultural deity. She was honored at harvest time. She was mentioned during weddings and funerals.6. Athena/Minerva, goddess of wisdom, known to the Greeks as the goddess of arts and crafts. She has an owl. Her mother was Metis (cunning), who after conceiving her changed herself into a fly and Zeus ate her. Hephaestus then hit Zeus on the head and Athena sprang fully battle armed from his head.7. Aphrodite/Venus - born from the foam of the sea after Kronos used his sickle to cut his father Uranus (Ouranos). A piece of Uranus fell into the ocean from which Aphrodite was born. She swam to the shore of Cyprus. She was the wife of Hephaestus/Vulcan. She had a son named Eros/Cupidus the god of desire.8. Hephaestus/Vulcan - He was the lame god who was married to Aphrodite. He was thrown out of Olympus in Homer's hymn to Apollo because he was shrivelled of foot, but in the Iliad he is thrown by Zeus when protecting Hera his mother. In the Iliad he is said to have fallen for an entire day and came to rest on Lemnos, an island where he was taught to be a master craftsman by the Sintians. He is the god of smiths, artisans, fire and vulcanoes.9. Artemis/Diana - goddess of hunting, childbirth and protector of young girls, she is Apollo's twin sister, children of Zeus and Leto. Her temple in Ephesus was one of the 7 wonders of the Ancient world. She wielded a bow like her twin brother.10. Ares/Mars - the god of war. Because he was the father of Romulus and Remus, next to Jupiter he was the chief Italian god. 11. Hermes/Mercury - the fleet of foot. He is the messenger of Zeus and the god of traders. He often moved between the mortal and immortal worlds. He is a son of Zeus.12. Apollo - god of Sun and light, patron divinity of hunting, poetry, medicine and prophecy, rejected by Daphne because of Eros' arrow of lead/hatred. He carried a silver bow with which he afflicted the Achaeans in the Iliad. His twin sister from Zeus and Leto is Artemis.

Hades/Pluto - god of the underworld and brother to Zeus and Poseidon. He is often called Dis (rich) because his kingdom in the Underworld included the rich minerals under the earth.

Story of the Iliad - The Iliad was composed by Homer circa 8th century BC in Greek. It tells of the siege on Troy by the Achaeans, led by Agamemnon. His brother, Menelaos who was married to Helen was kidnapped by Paris, thus the reason for the war. Paris' brother, Hector, was the great Trojan hero. Their father was King Priam. The first word of the Iliad is menis (μηνις), this is a central theme in the Iliad. It pictures Achilles' anger against Agamemnon for stealing Briseis, the beautiful war prize from

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him. As long as the demigod Achilles is unwilling to fight, his divine mother, Thetis lobbies for Zeus to make the Greeks lose. Patrocles uses Achilles' armor in battle and turns the tide until he is killed by Hector. This enrages Achilles and stirs him to go into battle. He kills many then turns to Hector who had killed Patrocles. He kills Hector and then drags his dead body attached to his chariot. Priam with Hermes assistance begs Achilles to release his son's body to give him a proper burial. A truce is issued to Troy while they bury Hector. It is Aeneas who is mentioned in the Iliad, whom Virgil uses to tie the Romans to the Trojans.

Prometheus - a titan who created man from clay. He gave humans fire which enabled them to advance in technology. For this Zeus bound him in Hades to have his liver eaten every day by an eagle (an emblem of Zeus); it would grow back every subsequent day. In one myth, he is freed by Heracles.

Heracles/Hercules wore a Nemean lion skin and carried a club. A demigod, he is the son of Zeus and Alcmene. He is the greatest champion of the Greeks and Romans as they adopted Heracles and called him Hercules. One myth said that after going mad Hercules slew his 6 sons and in order to atone for this he must perform labors for King Eurystheus. He ended up performing 12. They are slaying the Nemean Lion, slay the nine-headed Hydra, capture the Golden Hin of Artemis, capture the Erymanthian Boar, clean the Augean stables in one day, slay the Stymphalian Birds, capture the Cretan Bull, steal the Mares of Diomedes, get the girdle of Hyppolyta (Queen of the Amazons), get the cattle of Geryon (a monster), steal the apples of Hesperides, capture Cerberus. In some myths he eventually died and in others he is deified and joined the Pantheon.

Pegasus - one of many winged horses. In one myth Pegasus sprung from the blood of Medusa (in addition a giant with a golden sword Chrysaor was also born) after she was slain by Perseus. In another myth Pegasus was born from horses drinking the Gorgon's blood after she was killed.

Cyclops - a one-eyed giant. Polyphemus is one such cyclops, the son of Neptune/Poseidon. Odysseus/Ulysses poked him in the eye, blinding him, in order to escape his cave on his journey home.

Cerberus - the three-headed dog which guarded Hades. He is to prevent anyone who has crossed the river Styx from escaping.

Lares and Penates - The gods most closely associated with the daily life of a Roman household.

Helena and Clytemnestra - were daughters of Tyndareus and Leda (and Zeus), the king and queen of Sparta. Brothers are also born along with Helen and Clytemnestra, Castor and Polydeuces/Pollux. Since Zeus was involved in the union, all children are thought of as being demigods. Helen was the wife of Menelaos who was kidnapped by Paris which started the Trojan war. Clytemnestra married Agamemnon and while he was away at Troy consorted with Aegisthus, Agamemnon's cousin. When Agamemnon comes home he is killed, depending upon the myth, by either Aegisthus or Clytemnestra herself.

Orestes - the son of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon who in Greek plays kills his mother for her murder of his father.

Electra - the sister of Orestes and daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. She plays a role in certain plays to kill her mother while Orestes, her brother kills Aegisthus.

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Eos/Aurora & Tithonus - the mortal consort of the goddess Eos/Aurora. She asked Zeus to make Tithonus immortal, but forgot to ask for eternal youth. He continued to age until he couldn't move any limbs and babbled endlessly. In other myths he turned into a cicada begging for death to overcome him.

Persephone/Proserpina - queen of the underworld, Pluto stole Proserpina and carried her to the Underworld.

Midas - A king who is said to have wished for the golden touch. Whatever he touched became golden. Aristotle says he died of hunger since he couldn't touch anything without it turning to gold.

King Minos - a demigod born of Zeus and Europa (a royal Phoenician) who was king of Crete. Every year he made King Aegeus pick 14 boys and girls to be sent to Daedalus' (a skillful artisan and craftsman) labrynth which housed the Minotaur (a half bull, half man creation from King Minos' wife and the Cretan bull) which was eventually killed by Theseus with the help of Minos' daughter Ariadne. When Minos died he is said to be a judge in the underworld.

Icarus - the son of Daedalus who wished to escape from Crete with his father (King Minos' kingdom). He used his father's wings made out of wax and flew too close to the Sun. The wings melted and he fell into the sea and drown. Woh-wah.

Theseus - the mythical founder of Athens, much like Romulus is to Rome. He was the son of Poseidon and therefore a demigod. He had many exploits much like Heracles.

Jason - a legendary hero who sailed with his argonauts (other legendary heroes some of whom you will recognize from other myths: Heracles; Peleus, Achilles' father; Orpheus, the famous musician; and Castor and Pollux, who were the demigod brothers of Helen and Clytemnestra) after the golden fleece. He arrived in Colcis to retrieve the fleece. King Aeetes owned the fleece and gave Jason three tasks to perform. Charmed by Eros, Aeetes' daughter Medea helped Jason in each task. To plow a field with the firebreathing oxen Jason used an ointment to be impervious to their fire. To sow the dragon teeth and defeat the army as a result, Medea told him to throw a rock to make the army kill each other. Last, Medea provided Jason with a potion to make the dragon sleep so he could retrieve the fleece. At this point Medea and Jason escape with their argonauts with Medea killing her brother in the process. On the way back they evade the Sirens with Orpheus' music playing louder. Medea defeats Talos the bronze giant. Jason married Medea and settled in Corinth where Jason betrayed her. He was betrothed to the daughter of the king of Corinth, Creon, Creusa. Medea, through magic, killed Creon, Creusa and the two sons she bore from Jason and fled. Jason died alone out of favor with Hera on his boat the Argo when it rotted and the mast fell on his head.

Psyche - An extremely beautiful princess. She is so beautiful that mortals start worshiping her. This offends Venus and she sends her son Eros/Cupid to shoot her in order to make her fall in love with a wicked ugly mortal. In doing so, Eros accidently scratches himself and he falls in love with her. She eventually marries Eros and becomes immortal.

Daphne - a naiad or river goddess who was shot by a lead/hatred arrow of Eros/Cupid and despised Apollo. Apollo was alternately shot with a golden/love arrow and fell in love with Daphne. Eros did

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this because Apollo had treated him with contempt for using arrows. Apollo who wielded a bow as well said intimated that Eros wasn't worthy to use them. Apollo pursued Daphne until she prayed to either Gaia or Peneus who transformed her into a laurel tree for her to escape. This is why at the Pythian Games (one of the four Greek games in ancient Greece) which were in honor of Apollo, you were awarded a laurel wreath.

Eros/Cupid - Eros is the son of Aphrodite who wields a bow with arrows of lead/hatred and arrows of love/gold when shot at a target would fall in love or hate the next person they see.

Medusa - a gorgon, the daughter of Phorcys and Ceto (both ancient water gods) she had snakes for hair and anyone who gazed upon her turned into stone. Ovid later says she was a beautiful woman and because she defiled Athena's temple with Poseidon, Athena turned her into this hideous creature. Perseus cut off her head and used it as a weapon until later giving it to Athena who put it on her shield.

Muses - nine according to Hesiod, but some traditions insisted there were only three. They are the goddesses of inspiration, literature, science and arts. It was very common at the beginning of many Greek and Roman poems to invoke them, in order to help the poet remember and do well his task. Pandora - the very first mortal woman. Zeus ordered Hephaestus to create her out of mud. All the gods gave her gifts, hence her name, pandora "all-gifted." She came with a jar, not a box, which when opened scattered evil, diseases and other other pains, yet in the jar remained hope. Hesiod shares this myth in his Theogony and Works and Days.

Ariadne - the daughter of King Minos who fell in love with Theseus and helped him defeat the Minotaur by teaching him to use a ball of thread to get in and out of Daedalus' labrynth. Ariadne was told about the thread by Daedalus who was going to be punished by King Minos when he found out if he hadn't escaped Crete.

Arachne - an incredibly talented weaver who boasted her ability to be better than Athena, the goddess of wisdom (metis). Athena organized a contest for both of them. Arachne created a beautiful tapestry making fun of the transgressions of the gods. Athena was furious because of its beauty and its content that she slashed the loom and Arachne herself. Eventually she transformed Arachne into a spider showing us why spiders can weave so well.

Orpheus - one of Jason's argonauts, he is famed for his music. He was said to be able to charm even stones with his music. When his wife Eurydice died, he played such mournful music that the gods wept. He traveled to the underworld and charmed Hades and Persephone to allow her to come back with him on the condition that he would walk in front of her and not look at her until both had reached the upper world. When he reached the upper world he was so overcome that he had forgotten about the condition. He looked at her who had not reached the upper world yet and she vanished now to the underworld forever.

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Important WritersThere are a gabazillion writers which I could list here, but these are some highlights

Homer - (circa 850BC) He composed in Greek. He composed the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod - (circa 750BC) composed in Greek. His ancient Theogony gives us some detail about the Greek Pantheon.Plato - (424BC - 348BC) he wrote Greek philosophy in the form of dialogues. Most of what we know about the great philosopher Socrates comes from Plato (and Xenophon and Aristophanes). Plato taught Aristotle (he wrote Greek philosophy as well) who in turn was the tutor of Alexander the Great.

Writers who wrote in the Republic only:

Catullus - (84BC - 54BC) a poet of the Republican period. He has a variety of poems in Latin which range from love poetry to invectives (rude and obscene, they are NOT PG-13) and solemn poems (e.g. his funeral poem on the death of his brother).

Writers who wrote from the Republic to the transition of the Roman Empire:

Cicero - (106BC - 43BC) a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, orator and consul. He is thought of as one of, if not the greatest, orator and prose writers of Rome. There are too many works to mention. He was listed among the proscriptions of Mark Antony and murdered in 43BC at the tail end of the Republic. One of the most interesting works of his is De Re Publica which is written as a Socratic dialogue with Scipio Africanus (the general who defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama) Vergil/Virgil - (70BC - 19BC) a Roman poet who wrote in Latin. He wrote the Aeneid (poetic travels of Aeneas). He wrote the Georgics (poems on the subject of agriculture) and the Eclogues/Bucolics (poetry from herdsman with political underpinnings).Horace - (65BC - 8BC) a Roman poet who wrote in Latin. He is one of the most important Latin writers. His Satires which are at times playful seem to condemn excess and exalt moderation. His Odes are praised by Quintilian (a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania).Livy - (59BC - 17AD) an incredibly important Roman historian who wrote in Latin who wrote Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books from the foundation of the city). It starts with Aeneas founding Lavinia and ends at book 45 (We do not have Livy's entire history) at around 144BC.Seneca - (54BC - 39AD) a Roman rhetorician and writer. He lived through Augustus' reign, Tiberius and Caligula. No doubt Seneca saw his beloved Republic ripped to shreds. He was a favorite of John Calvin.Ovid - (43BC - 17AD) a Roman poet who wrote in Latin. His Metamorphoses features 12 books of ancient myths. He also wrote the comical Art of Love (Ars Amatoria) and his racy love poetry in his Amores. He also wrote Heroides where he praises heroines of Greek and Roman mythology. Interestingly enough he mentions the Jews twice (not in a flattering light though).

Writers who wrote in the Roman Empire only:

Suetonius - (69AD - 122AD) he is also a Roman historian who wrote in Latin. His most important work is a set of biographies on Julius Caesar and the first 11 Roman Emperors, De Vita Caesarum (About the life of the Caesars).Lucan - (39AD - 65AD) a Roman poet, whose poems are largely lost. What remains is an important

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historical work in Latin prose which details the wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey Magnus, Bellum Civile (Civil War).

History

Nutshell history: Rome has three main periods, the Regal Period (ruled by 7 kings), the Republic (it had a senate which appointed two consuls to rule for 1 year as kings of sorts, but with short leashes). Julius Caesar's dictatorship led to the Roman Empire.

Nutshell history dates:Regal Period: 753BC to 509BCRepublic: 509BC to circa 49BC (Date when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon)Empire: 31BC to 476AD (Augustus/Octavian was the first Emperor)Fall of the Eastern Empire in 1453AD, the Visigoth Odoacer conquers Romulus Augustulus in Constantinople.

Detailed Chronological History of Rome:

Aeneas:By tradition, the Romans believed, or chose to believe, that Aeneas escaping from Troy wandered (married and left Dido in Carthage, she committed suicide after he left) until he came to Italia. Aeneas is mentioned briefly in Homer's Iliad. Virgil fictionalized this story in his Aeneid. Livy records Aeneas settling in Italia as the traditional history of Rome. In the Aeneid Dido's curse on Aeneas was the fictionalized reason for the Punic wars (wars between Carthage and Rome). Aeneas in coming to Latium marries King Latinus' daughter Lavinia who had been promised to a neighboring king, Turnus. A war ensues, Turnus is killed, and according to Livy so is Latinus. Aeneas founds Lavinium named after his wife. After Aeneas' death he is deified as Jupiter Indiges.

Ascanius:The son of Aeneas, also known as Iulus (Julius Caesar claimed as his ancestor) left Latium and founded Alba Longa. Ascanius' son was Silvius (born in the woods, silva=forest) who ruled after he died. Thus started the 300 year Silvian dynasty.

Amulius:In the 8th century BC a prince of Alba Longa took the throne from Numitor his brother. He murdered everyone in direct descent so he could rule alone. He took his niece, Rhea Silvia and said she could never get married (as a priestess to Vesta, the goddess of the hearth).

1. Regal Period (7 kings)

1. Romulus and Remus:The god Mars/Ares actually fathered twins with Rhea Silvia while she was imprisoned. Amulius heard about the twins and ordered that the twins should be throne into the Tiber river (the river which flows through Rome). The Tiber was flooded and the servants who were carrying out the drowning of the children simply left them in their baskets. A she-wolf came by and nursed the babies. Faustulus, a shepherd of the king noticed the wolf and took the babies and raised them as his own. When they grew

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up they learned about their history and helped their uncle Numitor to defeat Amulius. After the war they decided to found a city on the spot they were left in the Tiber. In a dispute about who should rule and what the city should be called, Romulus killed his brother Remus and founded Rome on April 21, 753BC.

The Sabine Women:According to tradition and Livy, Romulus created Rome and invited anyone who wished to become a part of his new state. They were in desperate need of women for Rome to continue. He invited neighboring people under a pretense of games (chariot races, etc.). Romulus gave a signal at such point each man grabbed a wife from the daughters of their guests. The neighboring cities came against Rome in war, but the girls who had been snatched interceded (according to Livy). Thus Rome united with the Sabine peoples.

2. Numa Pompilius (715BC-673BC):Supposedly founded Rome's most important religious and political institutions. He constructed the temple of Janus.

3. Tullus Hostilius (673BC-642BC):Declared war on Alba Longa and defeated them through a single challenge. Three Roman triplet warriors (the Horatii) went to war against three Alban triplet warriors (the Curiatii). The first two of the Roman warriors were defeated at such point the remaining Roman fled luring the Albans away and one by one killed them. This single battle decided the outcome of the war. Later in life Tullus' family was afflicted by a plague and turned to religion, but because he performed a sacrifice incorrectly he was struck dead by Jupiter/Zeus with lightning.

4. Ancus Marcius (640BC-616BC):He turned his attention to building projects.

5. Tarquinius Priscus/Tarquin the Elder/Tarquin I (616BC-579BC):Emigrated from Etruria to Rome because he wasn't allowed to be king in Etruria because of his father's patronage. When he arrived in Rome an eagle took his cap off and flew away. It then returned with his cap again. His wife, Tanaquil, interpreted this as an omen of future greatness. He was appointed guardian of Ancus' children who were too young to rule yet. When Ancus died, Tarquinius persuaded the Comitia Curiata to make him king. He added 100 men to the senate during his rule, among them were the Octavii, the family of the future emperor Augustus. He is also credited with building the circus maximus. Ancus' sons eventually assassinated Tarquinius.

6. Servius Tullius (578BC-535BC):Instead of Ancus' sons who had killed Tarquinius, by popular support Servius became king by accession. As his name suggests he traditionally was a slave. He added the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills to Rome. He assigned all Rome to classes based upon wealth. He built the Servian wall in Rome. He built temples to Fortuna and Diana, invented Rome's first coinage. He eventually was murdered by his daughter Tullia and son-in-law Tarquinius Superbus.

7. Tarquinius Superbus/Tarquin the ProudRecorded by Livy, horrifically Tullia had her own father killed and then after her husband was declared king they ran over the dead body of her father in the streat. This immortalized this street known as

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Vicus Sceleratus (Wicked neighborhood/street). Tarquinius built the great temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. He is credited with the erection of benches at the circus maximus. He ordered work to create the cloaca maxima (the greatest sewer). After Tarquinius' son treated Lucretia (a married noblewoman) with violence, the nobles of Rome rose up against Tarquinius and exiled him. They established the Roman Republic in 509BC. Lucretia was so overcome with grief for having been treated with such violence she killed herself. Brutus took the dagger she used and shouted to overthrow the Tarquins.

2. The Roman Republic

The first two consuls of the Roman Republic were Brutus (Lucius Junius Brutus) and Collatinus (Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus). The Tarquins tried unsuccessfully to get their throne back for the next few years.

Horatius Cocles:A legendary hero who when fighting Clusium (King Lars Porsenna) blocked their only entrance into Rome over the bridge Pons Sublicius over the Tiber river. His comrades demolished the bridge behind him and he held off the army with two comrades. When the rest of the bridge collapsed he fell into the Tiber and swam back to the shore.

Mucius Scaevola:Clusium (King Lars Porsenna) was still trying to conquer Rome. Mucius infiltrated the camp in order to assassinate their king. He saw two men dressed alike, but didn't know which one was the king. He killed one, but it turned out to be the king's scribe. When he was apprehended he meant to show them the dedication with Romans he plunged his right hand into the fiery altar. As his right hand was burning he said they would stop at nothing to kill Porsenna. He was let go by Porsenna and was honored in Rome when he got back and called Scaevola (left-handed).

Cloelia:Porsenna was unnerved by the attempt on his life and made a treaty with Rome in agreement that hostages were taken by Porsenna. Cloelia was one of the hostages. She escaped the Clusium camp with a group of Roman virgins on horseback and then swam across the Tiber. Porsenna was so impressed with her escape he allowed her to return and select some other hostages to be freed. She was honored with an equestrian statue in the Via Sacra.

Cincinnatus:An aristocrat of the patrician class. While Rome was engaged in a bitter war with rival tribes, he was called upon to be dictator for 6 months in order to lead an army. They found him on his farm digging ditches. He took up command ordered every citizen of military age to come with him to defeat the neighboring tribes. Within days he defeated the tribes, relinquished his dictatorship and went back to his farm.

Camillus because of his military exploits against the Gauls he is called the second founder of Rome.

King Pyrrhus defeats Rome at Asculum with severe losses which makes him give up conquering Rome completely.

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Rome starts to progressively conquer surrounding areas and then create treaties to annex their territories but give them local government. Rome becomes the head of a confederacy of cities in Italy.

Punic Wars - A series of wars between Rome and Carthage between 264BC-146BC because of Rome's expanding Republic. Punicus is the word for Carthaginian or Punic because of Carthage's ties with the Phoenicians.

First Punic War (264BC-241BC):Basically a struggle over control of Sicilia. This was a naval battle. The Romans created the corvus (the Raven) which would swing onto an enemy ship and a Roman army could pour out and defeat a naval ship quickly. Within 20 years Rome defeated Carthage and took control of Sicily, Corsica and Sardina. In 241BC Rome and Carthage made peace.

Second Punic War (218BC-201BC):

Hannibal:At age 9 standing by his father Hamilcar, he swore to his hatred of Rome. At age 26 he led an army down through the Alps into Italia. He won many battles against the Roman legions most famously at the Battle of Cannae. Hannibal counted on many of the surrounding cities to join in battle with him, but they remained loyal to Rome. For 16 years he continued to battle in Italia with Rome cutting off his supply lines from Africa. Some suggest his army needed reinforcements in order to march on Rome. Fabius Maximus, Cunctator (the great delayer) would not engage Hannibal in open combat, but was trying to wear him down. Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal's brother in Hispania and then turned to Carthage. He defeated Hannibal, who was called back to defend Carthage, in Zama, a city just south west from Carthage.

Third Punic War (149BC-146BC):Carthage suffered a decisive defeat, but mustered an army which alarmed many Romans. Cato the Elder was alarmed so much that at this time ended each speech with "Carthago delenda est (Carthage must be destroyed)." After a three year siege, under Scipio Aemilianus, Carthage was burned to the ground in 146BC.

It is important to understand during the Republic, there was a power struggle between the aristocracy in Rome and non-aristocrats (the patricians and the plebians). The populārēs wanted to help the poor while the optimātēs, who were established leaders, controlled the senate and opposed social help to the poor. These were not official parties, but words which simply described their political sensibilities.

Gracchi - (late 2nd century BC) they were brothers, Tiberius (fought in the 3rd punic war) and Gaius, who were populārēs and tried to help the poor through grain subidies and land disbursements. They were both eventually killed by optimātēs. Their grandfather on their mother's side was Scipio Africanus.

Gaius Marius - (157BC - 86BC) he was a consul of the equestrian rank and of the populārēs. He recruited legions promising his soldiers land and spoils. He had the first volunteer professional army. In 87BC Marius seized Rome and tried to murder all his opponents. He was murdered in 86BC in his 7th consul term.

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Sulla - (Lucius Cornelius Sulla 138BC - 78BC) - of the optimātēs, he came back to Rome after a battle campaign in Asia Minor in the year of Marius' murder he turned his legions against Rome to grab power. He became dictator in 81 and used proscriptions to get rid of his enemies. This meant he would publish a list of enemies in the forum and anyone who killed them would get a reward and their property would be auctioned off and given to Sulla and his supporters. It is said he published some 1,500 names and 9,000 people were killed.

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus - (106BC - 48BC) he supported Sulla in his insurrection to grab power. He joined Crassus and Julius Caesar in the first Triumvirate. After Crassus died, Julius Caesar and Pompey quarreled for power and Pompey was finally defeated after many engagements at the Battle of Pharsalus. He escaped to Egypt and was finally assassinated. He saw the end of the Republic. Pompey with Crassus opposed and defeated Spartacus in the third Servile war.

Spartacus - (109BC-71BC) a slave and trained gladiator along with some others escaped from a gladiator school and led a revolt of 70,000 slaves against Rome. Crassu and Pompey quelled the revolt and eventually killed Spartacus in 71BC.

Julius Caesar - (100BC - 44BC) he was instrumental in bringing about the demise of the Roman Republic. He claimed descent from Aeneas' son Iulus (Ascanius). Early in his life Sulla was proscripting many nobles. Julius was targeted with these proscriptions and had to give up his position as priest of Jupiter, much of his wealth and go into hiding. After Sulla's death he started his political career. Through his governing of Spain and aliances with Pompey and Crassus he set his sights on Consulship in 59BC. When elected consul an unofficial alliance was made between Julius Caesar, Crassus and Pompey known as the First Triumvirate. After his consulship ended he was appointed governor of Gaul through his connections in the Triumvirate. It is in 55BC when Julius Caesar turns his legions in conquest of Gaul, parts of Germania and Brittania. He took it upon himself to perform these conquests. In 50BC Pompey convinced the Senate to order Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as governor was done. It is in January of 49BC Julius Caesar decided to march a single legion into Rome (this was an act of insurrection for which he could be given the death penalty). When he crossed the Rubicon there was no turning back (see alea iacta est above). Pompey escaped Rome. Julius Caesar would eventually defeat him in Pharsalus (At this time Mark Antony was left in charge of Rome). Caesar was appointed dictator with Mark Antony as his second in command. He then pursued Pompey in Egypt. Pompey was murdered by assassins. Caesar continued military exploits in Egypt and the Middle East, and then to Africa. He was at this time appointed Dictator for 10 years. He made many reforms in Rome much of them to satisfy the lower classes or eliminate corruption in the Republic. He also changed the calendar to the Julian calendar (1 January 45BC). In response to his dictatorship and his reforms 60 conspirators gathered and assassinated him on March 15, 44BC. They stabbed him 23 times; Suetonius says it was the second stab wound which was the fatal one. Shakespeare puts the words "et tu, Brute" into his mouth, but Suetonius reports that others said Caesar spoke instead in Greek, "κα σύ, τέκνον; (kai su teknon)" which means "you too my child?"ὶ After his death civil wars erupted because Julius Caesar had been popular with the lower classes.

Cleopatra - (69BC - 30BC) unlike Hollywood portrayals and Renaissance art, Cleopatra was in reality 12 kinds of ugly as reckoned from ancient busts and coins which bear her image. In spite of this, Julius Caesar was her consort for about 4 years. Caesar fathered a child with her named Caesarion (little Caesar). After Julius Caesar's death, Mark Antony established a relationship with Cleopatra and

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eventually married her fathering 3 children even though he was married to Octavian's (Caesar Augustus) sister. When Octavian's relationship to Mark Antony finally went sour in 33BC a decisive naval battle, the Battle of Actium between Rome and Egypt sealed Mark Antony's fate as an enemy of Rome as Egypt was defeated. As Octavian approached Alexandria, Antony's remaining armies deserted him. There are conflicting reports about how they died, but in the end it seems Mark Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves as Octavian approached.

Mark Antony - (83BC - 30BC) He was a part of the Second Triumvirate along with Octavian and Lepidus. He was a military leader and consul in Rome. Due to competing interests in Gaul, Mark Antony fell out of favor of the Senate, Octavian and Cicero. Cicero denounced Mark Antony famously in his Philippics. He tried to get Antony declared an enemy of the state, but failed. Mark Antony and Octavian reconciled and as a result Cicero was proscribed, hunted down and killed. In 41BC Mark Antony started his "alliance" with Cleopatra. His wife Fulvia died and he married Octavian's sister (Octavia Minor). He continued his relationship with Cleopatra much to the chagrin of Octavian. In 32BC the Senate declared war against Cleopatra. The Battle of Actium saw Egypt's defeat at which point the rest of Anthony's legions defected to Octavian. Pursued from Greece to Egypt Cleopatra and Mark Antony both commit suicide.

First Triumvirate - An unofficial political alliance between Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus which sought to monopolize power in Rome; Crassus died in battle and then Julius Caesar and Pompey fell out which led to Pompey being pursued in battle until he was assassinated.Second Triumvirate - An unofficial political alliance between Octavian, Lepidus and Mark Antony. Like the first triumvirate, this one went sour with Lepidus driven into exile, Mark Antony committed suicide and Octavian was the first Emperor of the Roman Empire.

Marcus Tullius Cicero - (106BC - 43BC) or today referred to as Tully. He is a philosopher, orator, consul, political leader and lawyer. His prose style is the most elevated and important in Latin literature. The list of his works is quite profound. During his consulship (63BC), a conspiracy (the Catiline conspiracy) to overthrow the Republic was thwarted by him. During the civil wars with Julius Caesar Cicero called for a return to the great Republic. After Julius Caesar's death he attacked Mark Antony famously in his Philippics, and later was proscripted by the 2nd Triumvirate of which Mark Antony was a part. It is said that Octavian sympathized with Cicero and argued for 2 days to spare Cicero. In the end he was proscripted, hunted down and killed. He was found in Formiae being carried in a litter. His last words to the men who were going to kill him are said to be, "There is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly." He then leaned out of the litter and his head was cut off. On Antony's orders his hands were cut off because he penned the Philippics against Mark Antony. Fulvia, Mark Antony's wife at that time, is said by Cassius Dio (a historian) to have pulled out Cicero's tongue and repeatedly stabbed it with her hairpin.

3. The Roman Empire

Reigned 27BC - 14ADCaesar Augustus (Octavian) - (63BC - 14AD) formed the 2nd Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. They defeated the assassins of Julius Caesar and ruled Rome as military leaders. After vying for more power, Octavian drove Lepidus into exile. After Mark Antony established a relationship with Cloepatra and "went native" with her, Octavian pursued and defeated Mark Antony's forces at the

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Battle of Actium in 31BC. He went after both of them in Eqypt and they committed suicide. Octavian called himself the Princeps Civitatis (the First Citizen) where he soley ruled. It is during Octavian's rule that Rome knew the Pax Romana, the Roman Peace for two centuries. He enlarged the Empire through diplomacy, established roads, created the Praetorian Guard (the secret service of Rome). In 18BC he enacted moral reforms such as lex Julia de adultenis which made adultery illegal and the lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus which required bachelors to get married. He sought to reverse the liberalism and the corruption in society. He died at the age of 75 probably from natural causes. He was succeeded by his former son-in-law, Tiberius.

Reigned 14AD - 37ADTiberius (42BC - 37AD) - succeeded Octavian as Emperor. He was a great general conquering many lands including Germania. He laid the foundations for the northern part of the empire. He exiled himself from Rome being as Pliny the Elder calls him, tristissimis hominum (the saddest of men). He was reclusive and seemed as though he never really wanted to be Emperor.

Reigned 37AD - 41ADCaligula (12AD - 41AD) - because he was close to Tiberius and joined him in exile, he succeeded his great-uncle Tiberius to the throne. He was cruel, perverse and insane--not a good combination. He reigned only 4 years until he was assassinated by members of the Senate and the Praetorian guard.

Reigned 41AD - 54ADClaudius (10BC - 54BC) - he is mentioned in Acts 18:2: "And he (Paul) found a Jew named Aquila, a native of Pontus, having recently come from Italy with his wife Priscilla, because Claudius had commanded all the Jews to leave Rome." Claudius conquered Brittania. Many writers say he was poisoned by his own wife.

Reigned 54AD - 68ADNero (37AD - 68AD) - a nasty murderous bloody Emperor. He murdered his mother and poisoned his stepbrother using Agrippina (a serial killer in the 1st century). Galba eventually would drive him from the throne. Nero commits suicide through his personal secretary.

Reigned 79AD - 81ADTitus - as Emperor he destroyed Herod's temple in Jerusalem

Reigned 81AD - 96ADDomitian (51AD - 96AD) - Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted during his reign.

Reigned 98AD - 117ADTrajan (53AD - 117AD) - Height of the Roman Empire during his reign

Reigned 117AD - 138ADHadrian (76AD - 138AD) - built Hadrian's wall in Brittania to keep out the barbarians in the north.

Reigned 306AD - 337ADConstantine - declared Christianity the official religion of Rome

Reigned 475AD - 476AD

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Romulus Augustus - Last Emperor of Rome, Visigoth Odoacer conquered Rome in 476AD.

Other Important EventsVesuvius - erupted in 79AD destroying: Pompeii, Stabiae, Boscoreal, Oplontis and HerculaneumPliny the Elder died at Stabiae the following day.Attila the Hun was defeated in Gaul by the Romans and their allies (451AD) CDLI

Major Chronological Events:Aeneas flight from TroyRomulus and Remus are rescued by a wolfRome's traditional founding 753BC DCCLIII BCTarquinius Superbus was king (final king of the Regal period)Expulsion of King Tarquinius SuperbusRome became a Republic - L. Junius Brutus begans the Republic in 509BC as consulJulius Caesar is assassinated on March 15, 44BCReign of Emperor Augustus 27BC XXVII BCFall of Roman Empire (476AD) CDLXXVIConstantinople (the Eastern Empire of Rome) was captured by the Turks in (1453) MCDLIII

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Roman NumeralsM 1000D 500C 100L 50X 10V 5I 1

Roman numerals are used for their representative numbers. When you are representing a number the values are added up unless a smaller value precedes a greater value in which case you subtract that value from the greater. Some examples will make this clear. You may want to keep 2013/MMXIII in your head. They frequently ask a question with a Roman numeral in the form of the current year.

I 1 XI 11 XCV 95 M 1000

II 2 XII 12 XCIX 99 MM 2000

III 3 XIII 13 CXXVII 127 MCM 1900

IV 4 XIV 14 CXL 140 MCMLIV 1954

V 5 XV 15 CXLV 145 MMXIII 2013

VI 6 XVI 16 CL 150

VII 7 XVII 17 CXCV 195

VIII 8 XVIII 18 CDXCV 495

IX 9 XIX 19 DI 501

X 10 XX 20 DLV 555

Oral LatinQuid est nomen tibi? What is your name?Quota hora est? What hour is it?/What time is it?Quot annos habes? How many years do you have?/How old are you?Laetam tibi natalem diem - Happy BirthdayNomen mihi est Samuhel. My name is Samuel.Nomen mihi est Cubus. My name is Cube.

Magister Cube Teacher Cube/Mr. CubeDiscipuli - students (discipulus, discipuli)

Quis abest hodie? Who is absent today?Quaenam tempestas est? What is the weather like [today]?Quot canes/feles habes? How many dogs/cats do you have?Aperite libros Open your books.Scribite responsum. Everyone write the response.Legite libros. Read your books.

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Vocabulary

Colorsalbus, alba, album - whitecandidus, candida, candidum - whiteniger, nigra, nigrum - blackcaeruleus, caerulea, caeruleum - bluepurpureus, purpurea, purpureum - purpleviridis, viridis, viride - greenfulvus, fulva, fulvum - reddish yellowflavus, flava, flavum - golden yellowruber, rubra, rubrum - redcroceus, crocea, croceum - yellow/golden/scarlet (saffron)roseus, rosea, roseum - rose-red

Family memberspater - fathermater - motherfrater - brothersoror - sisterfilius - sonfilia - daughter

1000 Common words(arranged in order of frequency greatest to lowest)

qui - who, which quis - who is - he, she, it, the one

et - and, et...et = both tu - thou, you omnis - all, every

suus - his own, her own sum - to be, exist, live tuus - your, yours, thy

in - into, to ego - I, me, we, us meus - my, mine

ille - that dico - to say, speak, utter hic - this, hic, haec, hoc

dominus - a master, Lord edo - to eat, consume facio - to make, to do

sui - Himself, herself filius - a son de - concerning, from

deus - a god, deity cum - with, together with ipse - self

illic - he, she, it yonder terra - the earth populus - people

ad - to, toward non - not, by no means, nos - we

festino - hurry malus - bad, not good vester - your, yours, of you

dies - a day, civil day super - over, above, upon ne - and not, nor

noster - our, our own, ours multus - many, a great number autem - but, on the other hand

ut - as, when, where suo - to sew, stitch, sew servus - a slave, servant

pecco - to miss, mistake, do magnus - great, large eo - there, in that place

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venio - to come bonus - good homo - a human being, man

unus - one, a single video - to see, discern malum - an apple

domus - a house, dwelling universus - all together, whole secundus - following, next

manus - a hand do - to give, to hand over medius - in the middle

verbum - a word sancio - to make sacred, rend vir - a male person, man

pro - before, in front of sacerdos - a priest, priestess habeo - to have

rex - king verum - truly, certainly, do audio - to hear, listen

virus - poison factum - a deed, act, exploit verus - true, real, actual

iste - this, that, he, she nomen - name cunctus - alltogether

loquor - to speak, talk, say quia - because sus - a swine, hog, pig

dius - godlike, divine mortuus - dead filia - a daughter

enim - for, for instance frater - a brother pater - a father, sire

fortis - strong, powerful scribo - to write mundus - universe, heavens

respondeo - to answer, reply dominium - rule; a feast, banquet te - and

multa - a money penalty anima - soul, spirit cor - the heart

morior - to die, expire opus - work, labor, toil si - if

praecipio - to take beforehand facies - appearance, form metior - to measure, estimate

per - through, across inimicus - unfriendly, hostile adverto - to turn/face to

mitto - to cause to go, let alius - another, other gens - a race, clan, house

rego - to keep straight spiritus - a breathing, breath ex - out of, from within

mando - to order, command princeps - first, emperor scio - to know, understand

sapio - to taste of occido - to kill contra - in opposition, against

solus - alone, only, single peccatum - a fault, error, sin similis - like, resembling

via - a way, highway, road amicus - a loved one, loving civitas - city, community

novus - new, not old, young mensus sum - I measured ei - alas, woe

sed - but, on the contrary annus - a year possum - to be able to, can

desertus - deserted pono - to put, put down alter - the other of two

aeternus - of an age, eternal meo - to go, to pass, travel aqua - water

caelum - the sky, heaven voco - to call, summon locus - a place, spot

sicut - so as, just as propter - on account of, because primus - the first

mare - the sea sto - to stand aurum - gold

egredior - to go out os, oris - mouth invenio - to come upon, find

tempus - time os, ossis - bone regnum - kingdom

totus - all castra - camp vita - life

medium - the middle, midst post - after, behind, back finis - boundary, end, limit

quo - also, too ergo - therefore duo - two

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caput - the head accipio - to take, grasp, accept quoniam - since, because, that

vivo - to live, be alive foris - a door, gate proximus - next

oculus - an eye ante - before, in front gloria - glory, fame, renown

fidelis - trusty, trustworthy ingredior - to advance, go forward tribus - a third part of the people

habito - to dwell, abide, live adversum - opposite, against at - but

aio - say, affirm sermo - continued speech, word sanctus - consecrated, holy

divus - divine ignis - fire lapis - a stone

tertius - third tabernaculum - a tent, tabernacle exercitus - army

adversus - (prep) against volo - to will, wish, want nitor - brightness

excello - to be eminent paro - to prepare levis - smooth, smoothed

quam - how, than magus - magic, magical tantus - of such size, so great

templum - temple ecce - lo! see! behold! natus - birth, age, years

plaga - a strike, a blow fides - faith, loyalty circumeo - to go around, wander

neo - to spin, weave reliquus - rest, left over lego - to read, to collect

huc - to this place, here alienus - foreign mons - a mountain, mount

singulus - each one, every ascendo - to mount, climb, ascend dexter - to the right

timeo - to fear, be afraid sedeo - to sit inter - between, betwixt

bellus - pretty, handsome percutio - to beat, strike, pierce congrego - to collect, assemble

ovis - a sheep gladius - a sword trado - to give up, hand over

aureus - of gold, golden exerceo - to drive, train sempiternus - everlasting

quasi - as if, just as if, like adversus - an enemy lignum - firewood

porta - a city-gate, gate servio - to be a servant, be auris - the ear

impius - impious, wicked alo - to feed, nourish opera - work, care, aid

novissimus - newest uxor - a wife, spouse sapientia - wisdom

aedifico - to build meio - to pee, urinate saeculum - age, generation

ito - to go dux - a leader surgo - to rise, arise

plenus - full, filled mulier - a woman, female testimonium - witness, evidence

sequor - to follow, come after duco - to lead fruor - to derive enjoyment

exercio - to make up for, earn pactus - agreed, settled diligo - to single out, select, pick

quaero - to seek, look for pars - a part, piece ita - in this manner

quicum - whoever, whatever descendo - to climb down bibo - to drink

ago - to drive, urge, thank misericordia - pity, mercy custodio - to watch, guard

scriptum - something written sino - to allow, to suffer interficio - to kill

egressus - a going out pes - a foot altus - high, tall

credo - to trust, entrust panis - bread, a loaf ambulo - to walk, walk about

mandatum - order, command testis - a witness fugio - to flee, fly

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potens - able, mighty, strong converto - to turn round porto - to bear, carry

consilium - a council, sense stultus - foolish, simple idem - the same

signum - a mark, token, sign prior - former, previous mensis - a month

ubi - where, when argentum - silver coram - in the presence, before

intellego - to come to know, see queo - to be able, can nolo - to not desire, to not want

transeo - to go over, go across gratia - favor, esteem, grace lex - a law

iniquus - uneven, slanting vinum - wine caro - flesh

nosco - to recognize, inspect eligo - to pluck out ira - anger, wrath, rage

uter - which of two dimitto - to send away, scatter senex - old, aged, advanced

mala - the cheek-bone, jaws praeceptum - a maxim, rule sacrificium - a sacrifice

puer - a male child, boy tollo - to lift, take up aperio - to open, to uncover

paciscor - to agree together castrum - a fortified place, fort allium - garlic

paulus - little, small vox - a voice, sound, tone constituo - to decide, to settle

quantus - how great, how much patrius - of a native country superus - above, high, highest

cubo - to lie down, recline pauper - poor, not wealthy urbs - a walled town, city

iniquitas - inequality bos - an ox, bull, cow vestimentum - clothing

quidam - a certain, a certain one mille - a thousand nullus - not any, none

fero - to bear, carry, consider dedo - to give away semen - seed

potis - able, capable recingo - to ungird, loosen capio - to take in hand, seize

nunc - now, at present ingressus - entry, going in regius - of a king, kingly

rectus - in a straight line fors - chance, hap, luck cado - to fall, fall down

regno - to reign, rule, be king ceterus - the other, remainder seni - six each

maneo - to stay, remain sic - thus, in this way vivus - alive, living

animo - to make alive, quicken liber - free delinquo - to fail, be wanting

occurro - to run up to, meet abscondo - to put out of sight conspicio - to look at attentively

parvus - little, small, petty incendo - to set fire to, kindle summus - uppermost, highest

septimus - the seventh patior - to bear, support advena - a stranger, foreigner

bellum - war ostendo - to stretch out, show orior - to arise, rise, stir

exeo - to go out, go forth ostium - a door accedo - to go to, come to

clamo - to call, cry out ager - field, land memor - mindful, remembering

oro - to speak creo - to bring forth, create domo - to domesticate, tame

discipulus - a learner, disciple hostis - an enemy, a stranger solum - only, just

carus - dear, precious secundum - after, according to natis - the rump, buttocks

nuntio - to announce, declare relinquo - to leave behind parens - a procreator, father

cognosco - to recognize praesens - at hand, in sight aut - or; aut...aut = either...or

lingua - the tongue latus - the side, flank caedo - to cut, hew, cut down

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derelinquo - to forsake wholly longus - long, extended cur - why? wherefore?

placeo - to please nuntius - announcement missus - messenger

levo - to make smooth, polish doceo - to teach immundus - unclean, impure

familia - household, family turba - a turmoil, hubbub habitator - a tenant, occupant

aufero - to take away, bear off mors - death tres - three

porrum - a leek amplus - of large extent, great ibi - in that place, there

mensa - a table proelium - a battle, combat reddo - to give back, return

corpus - a body virtus - manliness, virtue, power omnipotens - almighty

erus - master, owner fructus - fruit, enjoyment talis - such, of such a kind

sine - without grandis - full-grown, large extendo - to stretch out

abeo - to go from, go away adsumo - to take to, adopt, use minister - subordinate, minister

dextera - the right hand consurgo - to rise, stand up voveo - to vow

argenteus - of silver proficiscor - to depart, proceed sanguis - blood

torreo - to dry up, parch oleum - oil, olive-oil fio - be made, be done, become

intro - to go into, enter nox - night perficio - to achieve, execute

vado - to go, walk, go hast incensus - inflamed, hot impleo - to fill up, fill ful

sero - to sow, plant nihil - nothing foedus - foul, filthy; treaty

modicus - moderate, temperate illa - in that way praedico - to predict, foretell

suburbanus - near the city persequor - to follow futurus - going to be

mater - a mother proficio - to make, accomplish adoro - to call upon, adore, honor

maledico - to speak ill of conspectus - a seeing, look dormio - to sleep

notus - known prudens - aware, prudent dignus - worthy, deserving

tunc - then, at that time invoco - to call upon, invoke gaudium - inward joy, joy

sapiens - wise, knowing arca - a place for safe-keeping tribuo - to divide, bestow, grant

teneo - to hold, keep patro - to bring to pass multitudo - multitude

cogito - to consider, think coepio - to begin, commence nemo - no man, no one

infernus - lower, under polluo - to soil, defile adduco - to lead to, bring to

septem - seven populo - to lay waste, ravage nescio - to not know, be unaware

fundo - to pour, pour out numquid - is it possible, can it be? igitur - then, therefore

furor - a raving, rage pacificus - peace-making innocens - harmless, inoffensive

simus - flat-nosed laudo - to praise, laud elevo - to lift up, raise

statuo - to cause to stand, set up contero - to grind, bruise; spend educo - to lead out, draw up

regio - a direction, line tego - to cover, cover over subeo - to come under, go under

aliquis - anyone; someone libero - to set free, free saluto - to greet, wish healt

labium - a lip nubes - a cloud, mist, vapor dilectus - loved, beloved, dear

qualis - what kind murus - a wall, city wall confundo - to pour together, mix

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morus - a mulberry tree hora - an hour lugeo - to mourn, lament

adnuntio - to announce qua - on which side, where bestia - a beast, animal

res - a thing, object, matter pugno - to fight, combat scriba - a public writer, scribe

loco - to place, put, lay meto - to reap, mow, crop pareo - to appear, be visible

multo - to punish, fine glorior - to boast, vaunt, glory pactum - an agreement, pact

quartus - the fourth divido - to divide, break up, share immolo - to sacrifice

extremus - outermost, utmost perpetuus - continuous, unbroken necessarius - unavoidable

ignoro - not know, ignore flumen - a flowing, flood, river multiplico - to multiply, increase

manes - a departed spirit viso - to visit, to look at introeo - to go in, enter

pereo - to pass away, perish intereo - to go among, be lost pax - a compact, agreement, peace

viduus - widowed, bereft of fleo - to weep, cry, shed tears mirabilis - wonderful, marvellous

quisquam - any, any one numerus - a number respicio - to look back

supra - above, beyond, over verto - to turn, turn up magis - more, in a higher degree

volvo - to roll, turn over suscipio - undertake, accept initium - a going in, beginning

decimus - the tenth sescenti - six hundred gravis - heavy, weighty

ancilla - a female slave interrogo - to ask, question turbo - to make an uproar

servo - to make safe, save quin - so that not, without, that not aries - a ram

paucus - few, little sinum - a bowl for serving wine nascor - to be born

vicesimus - the twentieth munus - a service, office, gift gigno - to produce, give birth

beo - to make happy, bless dimidius - half, one half consumo - to use up, eat, devour

etiam - now too, yet, as yet opprobrium - a reproach, scandal cognatio - blood-relationship

operio - to cover, bury cogitatio - a thought effundo - to pour out, spread

recedo - to go back, fall back tributus - formed into tribes vis - strength, force, might

apertus - open, uncovered vanus - empty, vain, false sub - under, below, beneath

pulcher - beautiful grex - a flock, herd insipiens - unwise, foolish

spero - to hope, look for donec - as long as, while quando - at what time, when

validus - strong, stout, able, abundo - to overflow, stream lux - light

sol - the sun atrium - Roman entrance hall pergo - to go on, proceed

sentio - to perceive, feel pretiosus - of great value, cost socius - sharing, joining in

superbus - haughty, proud suavis - sweet, agreeable sumo - to take, take up

fidus - trusty, trustworthy beatus - happy, prosperous laetor - to rejoice, feel joy

cieo - to cause to go, move apud - with, at, by, near, among humilis - low, lowly, humble

mendacium - a lie, untruth maximus - greatest, longest,utmost causa - a cause, reason

custos - a guard, watch viginti - twenty salutaris - of wellbeing, health

averto - to turn away, avert moveo - to move, stir colo - to till, tend, care

dives - rich, wealthy, opulent vinea - vines in a vineyard excelsus - elevated, lofty, high

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currus - a chariot, cart, vehicle quintus - the fifth durus - hard

timor - fear, dread, apprehe perdo - to make away with, d caelestis - of heaven, from heaven

confiteor - to confess, admit honorus - conferring honor trecenti - three hundred

deficio - to withdraw, revolt,die rectum - good, uprightness tuba - a trumpet, war-trumpet

modus - manner, mode, way eicio - to cast out, expel veritas - truth, truthfulness

scientia - a knowing, knowledge lectus - a couch, bed, lounge quidem - assuredly, certainly

testamentum - will, covenant devoro - to swallow, gulp down curro - to run, move quickly

ullus - any, any one adversarius - opposite, hostile rogo - to ask, question

bracchium - the forearm, arm profundus - deep, profound, vast induo - to put on, assume, wear

considero - to look at closely lutum - mud, mire adhuc - of time, until now, still

terribilis - frightful, dreadful aspicio - to look at, look upon agnus - a lamb

sustineo - to hold up, support somnium - a dream possessio - a taking possession

fallo - to trip, deceive gaudeo - to rejoice, be glad genus - a race, stock, family

tango - to touch mensura - a measuring, measure canticum - a musical monologue

tenebrae - darkness, gloom ora - an extremity, border auxilium - help, aid, assistance

anno - sail toward, swim toward sepulcrum - tomb adnato - to swim up

succendo - to set on fire circuitus - a going round compes - a fetter, shackles for feet

appareo - to appear divisor - one who distributes nobilis - noble, well-born

vadum - a shallow place advenio - to come to, arrive quiesco - to rest, repose

alienum - another's property equus - a horse, steed nisi - if not, unless

malitia - ill-will, spite obliviscor - to forget praeparo - to make ready before

converro - to sweep together ministerium - an office, attendance gratus - beloved, dear, pleasing

iter - a going, walk, journey laetitia - joy, exultation separo - to disjoin, sever

orbus - bereft, childless dirigo - to distribute, scatter doctrina - teaching, instruction

terminus - a boundary-line dictum - something said porro - forward, onward

brevis - short virga - twig, sprout imperium - a command, order

revelo - to unveil, uncover certus - determined, resolved delictum - a fault, offence

utor - to use, make use of meridies - mid-day, noon possideo - to have and hold

vidua - widow sterilis - unfruitful, barren spes - hope

superbia - hubris, haughtiness cubitum - the elbow, cubit serva - a female slave

mus - a mouse peto - to strive for, seek, aim for decem - ten

fames - hunger era - the mistress of a house salus - soundness, health

diligens - industrious, careful probo - to make good, esteem, try pecus - cattle

animalis - animal ultra - beyond, further, more than quattuor - four

messus - cut off, reaped suscito - to lift up, raise,encourage solvo - to loosen, unbind

ventus - wind nudus - naked, bare, unclothed mano - to flow, run, trickle

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tristis - sad, sorrowful sextus - sixth tentorium - a tent

confido - to trust, confide labor - labor, toil, exertion exaudio - to hear clearly

falsus - deceptive, feigned pretium - a price, money value misereo - to have mercy, feel pity

excipio - to take out, remove pullus - dark-colored, blackish misereor - to feel pity

solium - a seat, throne pecunia - property, riches, money debeo - to owe, should, ought

militia - military service vincio - to bind, bind about minimus - least, smallest

indico - to point out, indicate lateo - to lurk, lie hid pluvius - rainy, bringing rain

vitulus - a male-calf, bull-calf sublimis - uplifted, high, loft aereus - of copper, of bronze

semino - to sow, bring forth, gero - to bear about, bear, wear valles - a valley, vale

festino - to hasten, make hast vestis - a garment, a covering nam - for

hodie - today captivus - taken prisoner, captive oratio - a speaking, speech

recordor - think over, remember caecus - not seeing, blind caelo - to carve, engrave, emboss

antiquus - ancient, former centum - 100 numero - to count, enumerate

sinister - left, on the left legitimus - fixed by law, lawful vasto - to make empty, ravage

plango - to strike, beat, mourn procedo - to go before, proceed claudo - to shut, close, enclose

irascor - to be angry verro - to sweep, brush arma - implements, outfit

lapido - to stone fundamentum - a foundation columna - a column, pillar

animus - the rational soul deleo - to erase, efface, destroy festus - of holidays, festive

talentum - a talent, aliqua - by any way, in any profectus - advance, effect,success

pasco - to cause to eat, feed amarus - bitter, pungent oriens - the rising sun, dawn

petra - a rock, crag simul - at the same time quisquis - whoever, everyone

sepelio - to bury, submerge destruo - to tear down, demolish cibus - food, rations

residuus - left behind miles - a soldier vel - or; even, actually

substantia - resources, wealth amo - to love consummo - to accomplish

filum - a thread, string gentilis - of a clan, of a nation lumen - light

summum - at the utmost addo - to put to, add aequus - even, plain, level

pondus - a weight vicinus - of the neighborhood ceterum - moreover, but yet

paululus - very little testa - a piece of burned clay natio - a birth, origin

peregrinus - foreign, strange recipio - to take back, keep back hostia - an animal sacrificed

pastor - a herdsman, shepherd serpo - to creep, crawl pedum - a shepherd's crook

dolor - pain, smart, ache secundo - to favor arbor - a tree

ardeo - to be on fire, burn cornu - a horn, antler vendo - to sell

paulum - a little melius - better cano - to sing, recite, play music

nonne - not? expects yes answer pinguis - fat saltus - leap, spring, step, jump

octavus - the eighth robustus - of oak-wood, firm incipio - to begin, start, undertake

conturbo - to confuse, disturb eruo - to pluck, overthrow, destroy laboro - to labor, take pains

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potestas - ability, power commoveo - to provoke, stir continuus - incessant, constantly

tento -handle, feel; attempt orno - to equip, dress, furnish sitio - to thirst, be thirsty

praepono - to place in front infirmus - not strong, weak convivium - a banquet, feast

conspergo - to sprinkle, moisten eques - a horseman, rider ferrum - iron

aeneus - of copper, of bronze deprecor - to avert by prayer votum - a promise to a god, vow

emo - to buy, purchase navis - a ship resisto - to pause, resist, oppose

praetereo - to go by, neglect duodecim - twelve soror - a sister

aliqui - in some way or extent appendo - to weigh out; to hang mane - in the morning

sono - to make a noise principium - a beginning invocatus - called upon, invoked

duplex - twofold, double confirmo - to declare, prove accido - to cut, cut at, cut down

transfero - to bear, convey over proprius - one's own, particular ministro - to attend, wait upon

pascor - to be fed dulcis - sweet sive - or if; sive...sive whether...or

thesaurus - treasure chest decorus - becoming, fitting concido - to cut up, perish

vacuus - empty, void pedes - a foot-traveller/soldier sabbata - Sabbath

convoco - to call together varius - different, various signo - to mark, stamp, sign, seal

pedo - to break wind canis - a dog contrarius - opponent, adversary

fortitudo - strength, courage egenus - needy, in need of sensus - a perceiving, observation

sterno - to spread out, lay out lucus - a grove, sacred grove inventum - an invention

scelus - an evil deed, sin, crime donum - a gift, present nomino - to call by name, call

taceo - to be silent appropinquo - to approach lineus - made of flax or linen

eloquium - expression reputo - to count over, think over circumdo - to surround, enclose

victima - to offer for sacrifice confringo - to break in pieces contritus - worn out, contrite

munio - to wall disciplina - instruction consolor - to console, comfort

onus - a load, burden puto - to clean; to think, reckon triginta - thirty

erro - to wander, to err purus - free from dirt, pure oboedio - to give ear, hearken

fatuus - foolish, silly, idiotic iterum - again, a second time hereditas - heirship, inheritance

infero - to bring in, introduce intellectus - a perception, intellect spolium - the skin, hide, spoils

voluntas - will nubo - to marry, be married to sitis - thirst

impero - to command, order masculus - male, masculine torrens - burning hot

velox - swift, quick, fleet decima - tithe sacerdotium - the priesthood

narro - to make known, tell paululum - a little, a very little bit umbra - a shade, shadow

contemno - to scorn, disdain permaneo - to stay, hold out, last vetus - old, aged, advanced

quartum - fourth disperdo - to spoil, ruin subverto - to turn upside down

sculptilis - formed by carving inutilis - useless, unserviceable monumentum - memorial

indo - to put in or on vinco - to conquer, overcome inde - there, from that place

platea - a broad way, street comprehendo - to catch, embrace venum - that which is sold

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promitto - to promise magnifico - to prize, extol flamma - a blazing fire, flame

asinus - an ass navus - busy, diligent, active castro - to emasculate

semper - ever, always collis - a hill convenio - to meet

exsurgo - to rise up, rise, ge cognatus - relative, kindred deduco - to lead, draw, remove

desiderium - a longing, desire puella - a girl occulo - to cover, cover over

fido - to trust, confide inferus - below, beneath tamquam - as much as, so as

utilis - useful, serviceable opprimo - to press against angustia - narrowness

semita - a narrow way, path armo - to furnish with weapons postquam - after that, after

tectum - roofed; concealed extremum - at last, finally propterea - therefore, because

magister - a master, teacher collum - the neck redeo - to give back, return

vectis - crowbar, lever vehemens - violent, vehement sedes - a seat, bench, chair, home

depono - put down parco - to forbear, spare, be thrifty memoria - memory, remembrance

volatilis - winged, flying sano - to make sound, heal serpens - a creeping thing

novi - Perfect Deponent: know possido - to take possession of forum - the Forum, market

erigo - to raise up, lift, build fons - a spring, fountain fornicatus - vaulted, arched

solitudo - solitude, loneliness quadraginta - forty cito - quickly

rado - to scrape, scratch, shave vestio - to cover with a garment ploro - to cry out, cry over, weep

albus - white lac - milk faenum - hay

genu - a knee vinculum - chain, bond, fetter forus - a gangway; benches

tergum - the back secerno - to put apart, separate lavo - to wash, bathe, lave

orbis - a ring, circle remaneo - to stay behind, remain desolo - to leave alone

speciosus - spectacular statim - at once, immediately declino - to bend aside; deflect

cerno - to separate, sift, discern interitus - ruin, destruction finio - to limit, bound

contineo - to hold together sanus - sound, whole, health mutuus - borrowed, lent

firmus - strong, steadfast restituo - to restore, revive species - a sight, look, view

consecro - to dedicate, devote inclino - to cause to lean interior - inner, interior

dominor - to be master over vito - to shun, to avoid armentum - cattle for ploughing

operarius - of labor pusillus - very little,on a tiny scale infidelis - not to be trusted, u

scriptura - a writing maritus - husband; married; united

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