Cross-Cultural Communication Online: How Diverse Cultural Values and Communicative Preferences Shape...

Cross-Cultural Communication Online:

Cross-Cultural Communication Online:

How Diverse Cultural Values and Communicative

Preferences Shape Users and Uses of Computer-mediated Communication Technologies

How Diverse Cultural Values and Communicative

Preferences Shape Users and Uses of Computer-mediated Communication Technologies

Dr. Charles EssDrury UniversitySpringfield, Missouri 65802<[email protected]>

Caveats and acknowledgementsCaveats and acknowledgements

All slides copyright © 2004 by their author(s) and are reproduced here by permission.

This material is made available for academic purposes only, and under „fair use“ provisions, including: no citation, copying, or distribution without permission from the author(s).

I wish to thank the authors for their generous willingness to share their materials in this way. My thanks also to my colleagues in the Fakultäten of Medienwissenschaft (esp. Prof. Dr. Hans-Jürgen Bucher) and Sinologie (esp. Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz Pohl) as well as to Dr. Henrike Schmidt (Ruhr-Universität, Bochum) for their critical insight and support.

For further information, please contact the authors and/or Charles Ess <[email protected]>

OverviewI. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?B. What to do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

1. Failures of Culture / HCI2. Efforts to come to grips with culture

a. Hofstede, Hall, and web-based marketingInterlude: caveats and “culture”

b. Hofstede and South African Indigenous Peoples

II. Best Practices - So Far…A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make moneyB. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites (collectivism / individualism)C. Würtz - McDonalds and “glocalization” practices on the WebD. Matters of tone, context, metaphorE. Bucher - Designing for ChinaF. Postlude: Designing Arabic-language sites

OverviewI. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?B. What to do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

1. Failures of Culture / HCI2. Efforts to come to grips with culture

a. Hofstede, Hall, and web-based marketingInterlude: caveats and “culture”

b. Hofstede and South African Indigenous Peoples

II. Best Practices - So Far…A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make moneyB. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites (collectivism / individualism)C. Würtz - McDonalds and “glocalization” practices on the WebD. Matters of tone, context, metaphorE. Bucher - Designing for ChinaF. Postlude: Designing Arabic-language sites

I. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?

1. Certainly not in 1998 – demographics of the Internet were basically monocultural

I. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?

1. Certainly not in 1998 – demographics of the Internet were basically monocultural

I. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?2. By 2004? Still not much …

I. Does Culture Matter?A. Has HCI Paid Attention to Culture?2. By 2004? Still not much …

Culture is taken for granted. There is no exhaustive definition for culture, so we have to choose our definition.Culture is not defined explicitly. We should always state clearly our suppositions of culture (or the suppositions of the theories and models we are using) and recognise their effects on our study.Culture is limited to national cultures. It is good to remember that culture does not exist at national level only. At least we should avoid assuming that there is one national culture for every country.Cultures are seen as coherent wholes. We should give up the idea that cultures are isolated wholes or that we could draw strict borders between them.Culture is seen in the role of maintenance. Culture is capable of both resistance and transformation.

-- Kamppuri and Tukiainen (2004)

B. What to Do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

B. What to Do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

Cultural / National traditions researched / represented:

Aboriginal (Canada, North America, South Africa, Australia)

Asia - China, Thailand, Japan, Korea / India Anglo-American world (Australia, U.S., U.K. CanadaFrance / Francophone countriesMiddle East (Israel, Kuwait…)Islamic / Arabic countries (Malaysia, Indonesia…

Iran, United Arab Emirates)

Cultural / National traditions researched / represented:

Aboriginal (Canada, North America, South Africa, Australia)

Asia - China, Thailand, Japan, Korea / India Anglo-American world (Australia, U.S., U.K. CanadaFrance / Francophone countriesMiddle East (Israel, Kuwait…)Islamic / Arabic countries (Malaysia, Indonesia…

Iran, United Arab Emirates)

B. What to Do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

B. What to Do? - CATaC’98 / ‘00 / ‘02 / ‘04

Sample publicationsC. Ess and F. Sudweeks (eds.), Technology of Despair and Hope:

CMC in the Middle East - a special issue of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (November 2003) <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/>

Jonathan Zhu, Fay Sudweeks, and C Ess (eds.), Internet Adoption in the Asia-Pacific Region, special issue of Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 7: 2 (January, 2002). <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol7/issue2/>

C. Ess (ed.). 2001. Culture, Technology, Communication: Towards an Intercultural Global Village. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Sample publicationsC. Ess and F. Sudweeks (eds.), Technology of Despair and Hope:

CMC in the Middle East - a special issue of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (November 2003) <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/>

Jonathan Zhu, Fay Sudweeks, and C Ess (eds.), Internet Adoption in the Asia-Pacific Region, special issue of Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 7: 2 (January, 2002). <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol7/issue2/>

C. Ess (ed.). 2001. Culture, Technology, Communication: Towards an Intercultural Global Village. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

CATaC ‘04 - 29 countries … CATaC ‘04 - 29 countries …

17

9

1 1 1

10

3

1

2

1

2

1

6

2

1 1

2

1

5

1

3 3

2

1 1

5

2

9

1

0

3

6

9

12

15

18

USA UKUAE

Thai

land

Taiw

an

Sweden

South

Afri

ca

Singa

pore

Russia

Philip

pine

s

Norway

Niger

ia

New Z

eala

nd

Nethe

rland

s

Japa

nIta

lyIsr

ael

Indi

a

Germ

any

Gambi

a

Fran

ce

Finl

and

Estoni

a

Denm

ark

China

Canad

a

Austri

a

Austra

lia

Argen

tina

See <www.it.murdoch.edu.au/catac/>

CATaC ‘04 - themes: CATaC ‘04 - themes:

See <www.it.murdoch.edu.au/catac/>

Culture: Theory and Praxis

ICTS and intercultural communication

ICTS and cultural hybridity

Culture, ICTs, and online learning

Governments, activists, and Culture / Technology / Communication

The Multilingual Internet

ICTs and development

Culture and ICT diffusion

Youth and indigenous cultures

Initial Findings: Cultural ConflictsInitial Findings: Cultural Conflicts What happens in praxis as CMC technologies are

implemented across a continuum of cultures?US Europe Middle East Asia indigenous

peoples

white middle class malesvis-à-vis …females / African-Americans / Hispanics / Asian-Americans /Native Americans(Stewart et al, 2001)

Rey’s study of German-, French-, Italian-speaking Swiss

(2001)

Israel (Dahan, 1999);Kuwait (Wheeler, 2001)

Singapore;Japan (Heaton, 2001);Malaysia (Abdat & Pervan, 2000)Indonesia (Rahmati, 2000);Thailand (Hongladarom, 2001)

Malaysia - Kelabit (Harris et al, 2001);Philippines (Sy, 2001);South Africa (Postma, 2001)

“NO THANKS!” eKiribati (Solomon Islands – Sofield, 2000)

Contrast/C

onflict

Failures of Culture & HCI - Examples

Failures of Culture & HCI - Examples

1. Japanese CSCW (Heaton)--> high content/low context vs. low content/high context (Hall)

2. Japanese Internet and Democracy (Nakada et al)

3. Maori in the Library (Duncker)

1. Japanese CSCW (Heaton)--> high content/low context vs. low content/high context (Hall)

2. Japanese Internet and Democracy (Nakada et al)

3. Maori in the Library (Duncker)

1. Japanese CSCW (Heaton 2001)1. Japanese CSCW (Heaton 2001)

ClearBoard- 2: Japanese redesign of CSCW - capturing non-verbal communication elements (© ACM, 1993, TOIS, 11 (4) Ishii, Kobayashi and Grudin)

Consistent with …Consistent with …

Communication theory (Hall, 1976):

High content / low context -

dominant cultures in US

Example: standard ASCII e-mail

High context /low content -

traditional/oral cultures;

contemporary Arabic, Asian societies

2. Internet and Democracy - in Japan?


Contra 1990s hopes for an “electronic public sphere” following Habermasian lines …

Japan: High Internet use + high interest in politics

-BUT:

little use of Internet - as connected to cultural values / orientations of Seken

with

political interests / activities - as connected to Shakei



SekenMorality, Reciprocity, Locality, Social Order

Shakai

Democracy, individualism, society, law, system, free speech, human rights

Internet use …

Nakada, Tamura, Tkach-Kawasaki and Iitaka 2004

3. Maori in the Library…3. Maori in the Library…Maori students … unfamiliar with

• Western information classification systems / taxonomies

• Western library organization systems

• “Desktop” icons, etc.

Preferred to work with trusted friend / mentor than with library staff and/or by oneself

Hofstede’s individualism / collectivism axis

Duncker 2002; cf. Jørgensen 2003; Wilson, forthcoming

Getting a Grip … Hall, HofstedeGetting a Grip … Hall, Hofstede

1. Hall, Hofstede, and Web-based marketing successes / failures - Hermeking (2004)

Interlude: caveats regarding “culture”

2. Hofstede and S.A. Indigenous Peoples - Addison & Sirkissoon (2004)


Interlude: caveats regarding “culture”

2. Hofstede and S.A. Indigenous Peoples - Addison & Sirkissoon (2004)


Institute for Intercultural Communications,Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany


Institute for Intercultural Communications,Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany

Power Distance: Hofstede (1980) defines ‘Power Distance’ as ‘… the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations accept that power is distributed unequally’. Power distance refers to the extent to which unequal distribution of power in institutions and organisations is accepted by members of a society.

Individualism/Collectivism: ‘...the relationship between the individual and the collectivity which prevails in a given society.’

Power Distance: Hofstede (1980) defines ‘Power Distance’ as ‘… the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations accept that power is distributed unequally’. Power distance refers to the extent to which unequal distribution of power in institutions and organisations is accepted by members of a society.

Individualism/Collectivism: ‘...the relationship between the individual and the collectivity which prevails in a given society.’

Hofstede’s cultural factors

Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which members of a society feel threatened by uncertainty is called ‘Uncertainty Avoidance’

Masculinity versus Femininity: Hofstede (1980) states that the predominant socialisation pattern is for men to be more assertive and for women to be more nurturing. His review of the work goals indicated a near consistency on men scoring advancement and earnings as more important, and women scoring supervision, social aspects of the job, working conditions, working hours and ease of work as more important. Hofstede’s calculated scores of Masculinity/Femininity for only a small group of nations are available...

South Asia

A. Abdat and Pervan (2000) analyze Group Support Systems - especially their capacity to allow users to provide anonymous feedback - in light of Indonesian cultural values. They characterize Indonesia (in terms familiar from Hofstede) as low individualism/high collectivism and high power distance - such that people arrive at major meetings, for example, with the details already negotiated and planned: the point is to avoid surprises - especially those that lead to "loss of face," where saving face is a central value from Confucian ethics (2000, 211).

South Asia

A. Abdat and Pervan (2000):

In this context, anonymity - touted in the West as one of the advantages of CMC technologies, as it encourages more open expression and may contribute to a "flattening" of organizational hierarchies - is janus-faced. On the one hand, in certain pre-meeting contexts (i.e., where details to be approved in the major meeting are negotiated), anonymity may contribute to group efficiency as it reduces status differential. On the other hand, in major meetings in which face is much more at stake, anonymity might encourage comments and questions that threaten face. For these and other reasons, Abdat and Pervan argue that GSS systems need to be re-designed in order to make anonymity a switchable feature (213f.).

South Asia

B. Nasrin Rahmati (2000) characterizes Malaysia as a culture marked by a

distinctive religious commitment factor, as well as

high fatalism, high uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, traditionalism, and the value of keeping face.

Such a society is thus denoted as a "tight" society, in contrast with a "loose" society, such as Australia, which is marked rather by low religious commitment, low fatalism, low uncertainty avoidance, individualism, etc.



61,2

47,5 47,25

28,9

6,2

0102030405060708090

100

USA Australia Canada Japan Brazil

[% o

f pop

ulat

ion]

International Internet consumption (all users, 2001):

cf.: spectrum.troyst.edu/~vorism/hofstede.htm



International Internet consumption (Europe, 2001):



“In general, indirect and transformational advertising messages creating emotions through pictures and entertainment are more favoured in High-context cultures like France or Japan, for example,

whereas direct and rational advertising messages providing first of all product information play a more important role in Low-context cultures like Germany or many parts of the USA, for example. (445)



Layout:

Content appeal:

written text

visual picture

information/rational entertainment/emotional

Low-context communication

High-contextcommunication

Interlude - Caveats re. “Culture”Interlude - Caveats re. “Culture” Obvious (?) dangers of essentializing both

“culture” and those ostensibly shaped by it --> dangers of stereotyping, generalizing, etc. “No langue-parole or system-process distinction

can catch this play, culture at work. Culture alive is always on the run, always changeful. There is no reason to throw up one’s hands over this. -- Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1999. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present.

Obvious (?) dangers of essentializing both “culture” and those ostensibly shaped by it

--> dangers of stereotyping, generalizing, etc. “No langue-parole or system-process distinction

can catch this play, culture at work. Culture alive is always on the run, always changeful. There is no reason to throw up one’s hands over this. -- Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1999. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present.

Consciousness

Folklore Grammar

Literature Theatre Art

Music Dance Food Clothing/costume

Postures/attitudes Politeness concepts of propriety

Representations of Beauty Grammatical functions

Raising / educating children “Going about” (Umgang) with other human beings

“Going about” with animals attitudes/postures towards nature hierarchical relationships

Cleanliness representations disease representations historical understanding

Values

Concepts of Virtues, Mistakes, Sins Linguistic interaction and discourse roles

Leadership qualities goal orientation industriousness attitudes towards work

Concepts of order Truth Sense of Justice concepts of time / space

Concepts of self Proxemics Body language self

self-perception philosophy of life naturalness plausibility

Logic feelings unconsciousness Role of concepts

A Sample “Cultural Pyramid”(from: Reeder et al 2004)

From: Reeder, Macfadyen, Chase and Roche, CATaC’04

2. Hall and South African Indigenous Peoples - Addison & Sikissoon (2004)2. Hall and South African Indigenous

Peoples - Addison & Sikissoon (2004)

Uncertainty Avoidance: “average” / lower than whites.

Individualism: lowLong term orientation: lowEvidence is inconclusive regarding the dimensions of Power Distance and Masculinity.

Uncertainty Avoidance: “average” / lower than whites.

Individualism: lowLong term orientation: lowEvidence is inconclusive regarding the dimensions of Power Distance and Masculinity.


Peoples - Addison & Sikissoon (2004) Individualist/Collectivist (Collectivist)Black South African cultures are more collectivist oriented according to Booysen’s

(2001) study. The implications for interface design according to Marcus (2003) are that:

Personal achievement should be underplayed and more group achievement should be displayed

Success should be demonstrated by achievement of social-political agenda Official slogans could be used, while keeping controversy as low as possible The emphasis should be on the aged, experienced and wise leaders Group goals should be emphasised as opposed to individualistic goals The emphasis of morality should be on relationships Emphasis should be on tradition and history

[Consistent with Postma’s 2001 study on the failure of (white-oriented) Learning Centres]

Individualist/Collectivist (Collectivist)Black South African cultures are more collectivist oriented according to Booysen’s

(2001) study. The implications for interface design according to Marcus (2003) are that:

Personal achievement should be underplayed and more group achievement should be displayed

Success should be demonstrated by achievement of social-political agenda Official slogans could be used, while keeping controversy as low as possible The emphasis should be on the aged, experienced and wise leaders Group goals should be emphasised as opposed to individualistic goals The emphasis of morality should be on relationships Emphasis should be on tradition and history

[Consistent with Postma’s 2001 study on the failure of (white-oriented) Learning Centres]



Uncertainty Avoidance culture (Low)Black South Africans display a low uncertainty avoidance

orientation, according to Booysen (2001). Black South African’s display a lower uncertainty avoidance orientation than their white counterparts. According to Marcus (2003), these cultures can be served with interfaces that:

Avoid overprotecting users by offering depth in navigation Offer users choice and offer maximum content Allow less control of navigation, allow for links leading to

different destinations Offer users variety in terms of colour, sound and features

Uncertainty Avoidance culture (Low)Black South Africans display a low uncertainty avoidance

orientation, according to Booysen (2001). Black South African’s display a lower uncertainty avoidance orientation than their white counterparts. According to Marcus (2003), these cultures can be served with interfaces that:

Avoid overprotecting users by offering depth in navigation Offer users choice and offer maximum content Allow less control of navigation, allow for links leading to

different destinations Offer users variety in terms of colour, sound and features



Short term/long term (Short-term oriented)Black South Africans display a short-term

orientation towards work ethic. The implications for short-term orientation towards work ethic as emphasised by Marcus (2003) for interface design are:

Content should emphasise truth and beliefs. Rules offer credibility A need for immediate achievement of goals

– (Addison & Sirkissoon 2004, 472f.)

Short term/long term (Short-term oriented)Black South Africans display a short-term

orientation towards work ethic. The implications for short-term orientation towards work ethic as emphasised by Marcus (2003) for interface design are:

Content should emphasise truth and beliefs. Rules offer credibility A need for immediate achievement of goals

– (Addison & Sirkissoon 2004, 472f.)

II. Best Practices - So Far…

A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make money B. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites (collectivism / individualism)C. Würtz - McDonalds and “glocalization” practices on the Web D. Matters of tone, context, metaphorE. Bucher - Designing for China

II. Best Practices - So Far…

A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make money B. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites (collectivism / individualism)C. Würtz - McDonalds and “glocalization” practices on the Web D. Matters of tone, context, metaphorE. Bucher - Designing for China

A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make money

A. Whitney - HP and Cisco get it … and make money

HP and Cisco more successful than competitors because of “knowledge,” “persuasion” feedback loops from local channels

HP and Cisco more successful than competitors because of “knowledge,” “persuasion” feedback loops from local channels

Knowledge

Knowledge

Confirm.Implement. Decision

Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge


Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge


Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

Knowledge

Knowledge


Persuasion

Persuasion

Innovation

B. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websitesB. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites

Study of U.S. Hispanic / non-Hispanic responses to two websites:AT&T: www.att.com

Telefonica: http://www.telefonica.com

Important contrasts emerged across scale of

individualism (U.S. sites and visitors) vs.

collectivism (Hispanic sites and U.S. Hispanic visitors)

Study of U.S. Hispanic / non-Hispanic responses to two websites:AT&T: www.att.com

Telefonica: http://www.telefonica.com

Important contrasts emerged across scale of

individualism (U.S. sites and visitors) vs.

collectivism (Hispanic sites and U.S. Hispanic visitors)

http://www.att.com/

http://www.telefonica.com/

http://www.att.com/

http://www.telefonica.com/

B. Leonardi - U.S. / Hispanic websites (collectivism / individualism)


1. U.S. Hispanic users noted important differences between U.S. and Hispanic websites – first of all, as Hispanic websites used words (primarily, the pronoun nosotros, “we”) and images to reflect and foster the Hispanic cultural value of collectivism and group membership.

2. While these differences were obvious to Hispanic users – U.S. Non-Hispanic users largely failed to notice these differences.

1. U.S. Hispanic users noted important differences between U.S. and Hispanic websites – first of all, as Hispanic websites used words (primarily, the pronoun nosotros, “we”) and images to reflect and foster the Hispanic cultural value of collectivism and group membership.

2. While these differences were obvious to Hispanic users – U.S. Non-Hispanic users largely failed to notice these differences.



[cf. findings by Cassell and Tversky 2004 re. online community in Junior Summit 1998: – The population trend showing that “we” words

decrease and “I” words increase with time appears to hold true for each of the regions independently though at different rates. For instance, North American children used "we" words significantly less than the mean, and increased their use at a rate slightly slower than their peers; meanwhile, children from Central and South America started at a lower point but increased at the same rate.

[cf. findings by Cassell and Tversky 2004 re. online community in Junior Summit 1998: – The population trend showing that “we” words

decrease and “I” words increase with time appears to hold true for each of the regions independently though at different rates. For instance, North American children used "we" words significantly less than the mean, and increased their use at a rate slightly slower than their peers; meanwhile, children from Central and South America started at a lower point but increased at the same rate.



best practices – – use language as well as images to foster group

membership for collectivist cultures;– use country-specific design whenever possible (e.g.,

Telefónica dividing its site into 8 country-specific sites) - http://www.telefonica.com/

[Cf.: those with English as second language – like those with English as first language – prefer alphabetically-organized links over content-based links and search engines: but – higher preference for content-based links among English as first language users. Kralisch and Berendt 2004)

best practices – – use language as well as images to foster group

membership for collectivist cultures;– use country-specific design whenever possible (e.g.,

Telefónica dividing its site into 8 country-specific sites) - http://www.telefonica.com/

[Cf.: those with English as second language – like those with English as first language – prefer alphabetically-organized links over content-based links and search engines: but – higher preference for content-based links among English as first language users. Kralisch and Berendt 2004)

C. Würtz - McDonalds and “glocalization” practices on the Web


Use of animation to assimilate interpersonal communication (high context)

Promotion of (collectivist/individualist) values

Level of transparency Navigation around the site

Use of animation to assimilate interpersonal communication (high context)

Promotion of (collectivist/individualist) values

Level of transparency Navigation around the site



Interpersonal communication Interpersonal communication - - Japan

The use of videos to convey what would be conveyed in gestures in real life conversations

The use of videos to convey what would be conveyed in gestures in real life conversations



Collectivistic / individualistic valuesCollectivistic / individualistic values

Collectivist cultures tend to emphasise being in good physical shape and time spent with family and friends as their dominant values, whereas the notion of freedom and personal time valued in individualist societies implies relaxation and time spent by oneself. Images of individuals dancing or doing sports are more prominent in HC websites than LC websites, whereas in LC countries, individuals will tend to be portrayed in more relaxed situations, or situations connoting holiday activities, such as a trip to the lake or listening to music. [see http://www.mcdonalds.co.jp/community/sports_h_f.htmlfor example of sports / community themes in Japan]

http://www.mcdonalds.co.jp/community/sports_h_f.html







Individualism - Individualism - Germany, Switzerland



Individualism - Individualism - Switzerland

“You’re immediately at the centre of attention - your individuality, your everyday life, situations in which you recognize yourself and where you would like to see yourself.”<http://www.mcdonalds.ch>



Collectivistic / individualistic Collectivistic / individualistic values - values - India



TransparencyTransparency“… the extent to which the user is required to make an extra effort in order to find the information he is looking for. The term is borrowed from the usability field, referring to the apparentness and obviousness of the method of use of a website or other user interface.”

In contrast with Low Context / high transparency sites -



TransparencyTransparencyIn contrast with Low Context / high transparency sites -

Most HC sites depend on links and information being described by a limited amount of text, sometimes exchanged with an illustration. This gives a less transparent, more vague overview of the content in the website compared to LC sites, and often requires that the user “chases” the information, through exploration of the site and performing “mouse-overs” (placing the cursor over a link to reveal more content information before finally clicking it).

This tendency coincides neatly with the idea that in LC cultures, it is the sender that does all the work in clarifying information and getting the point across, while in HC cultures, it is the receiver who has to work to retrieve the information. (Würtz 2004, 118f.)



TransparencyTransparency

DenmarkDenmark



TransparencyTransparency

Japan



Linear (LC) versus parallel (HC) Linear (LC) versus parallel (HC) navigationnavigation

China

hyperstructure

China

hyperstructure



Implications for Site DesignImplications for Site Design

Non-verbal communication such as body-language may represent itself on HC websites through imagery and animated effects on the website.

Thought patterns are especially reflected in the navigation of the site, for instance through the subtle or obscure guidance and opening of new pages in new browser windows common on HC websites. Navigation reflecting the linear thought pattern prevailing in LC cultures is evident in the restricted amount of new browser windows as well as apparent and specific guidance.

Non-verbal communication such as body-language may represent itself on HC websites through imagery and animated effects on the website.

Thought patterns are especially reflected in the navigation of the site, for instance through the subtle or obscure guidance and opening of new pages in new browser windows common on HC websites. Navigation reflecting the linear thought pattern prevailing in LC cultures is evident in the restricted amount of new browser windows as well as apparent and specific guidance.




The collectivism/individualism variable is reflected in the values that are reflected in the imagery the website, such as images of individuals versus groups, products placed together with individuals, the situations that the individuals are placed in and the extent to which emphasis is placed on community work.

The power distance dimension is apparent in the hierarchical structure of the website. High power distance is reflected in tall hierarchical website structures, either through the implementation of many pages with incoherent layout, or the opening of new browser windows for new pages, instead of in the same browser window. Low power distance is reflected in flat or shallow hierarchical structures, either through the implementation of few pages with coherent layout, or the opening of pages within the same browser window.

The collectivism/individualism variable is reflected in the values that are reflected in the imagery the website, such as images of individuals versus groups, products placed together with individuals, the situations that the individuals are placed in and the extent to which emphasis is placed on community work.

The power distance dimension is apparent in the hierarchical structure of the website. High power distance is reflected in tall hierarchical website structures, either through the implementation of many pages with incoherent layout, or the opening of new browser windows for new pages, instead of in the same browser window. Low power distance is reflected in flat or shallow hierarchical structures, either through the implementation of few pages with coherent layout, or the opening of pages within the same browser window.




The time perception variable, which is tightly bound with the thought pattern, is also apparent in the navigation of the site. It is also apparent in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user’s patience and will to explore the site to seek information.

The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/non-transparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues. The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company, as illustrated on the Japanese McDonald’s website, can perhaps also be considered a reflection of slow message speed, in relation to the emphasis on relationships. (Würtz 2004, 120f.)

The time perception variable, which is tightly bound with the thought pattern, is also apparent in the navigation of the site. It is also apparent in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user’s patience and will to explore the site to seek information.

The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/non-transparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues. The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company, as illustrated on the Japanese McDonald’s website, can perhaps also be considered a reflection of slow message speed, in relation to the emphasis on relationships. (Würtz 2004, 120f.)

D. Matters of …tone

context metaphor

D. Matters of …tone

context metaphor

Has the Tone of Online English Become Globalized?

Has the Tone of Online English Become Globalized?

Mary Evans, Alicia McBride,

Matt Queen, Alexander Thayer,

and Jan Spyridakis

Department of Technical Communication

University of Washington

Mary Evans, Alicia McBride,

Matt Queen, Alexander Thayer,

and Jan Spyridakis

Department of Technical Communication

University of Washington

Below-surface differences?Below-surface differences?

Icons, symbols, colors, graphic design

Information structure; semanticsand syntax

ToneTone

Varies along multiple dimensions– We focus on formality

May influence credibility of a text May be judged differently by people from

different cultures May be related to cultural dimensions

– E.g., power distance

Varies along multiple dimensions– We focus on formality

May influence credibility of a text May be judged differently by people from

different cultures May be related to cultural dimensions

– E.g., power distance

MethodologyMethodology

320 university Web sites from 20 countries– Inner and Outer Circles of English (Kachru, Gilsdorf)

“About Us” text analyzed 3 coders tallied frequencies of tone elements:

– Personal pronouns (e.g., I, we, you)– Passive and active voice clauses– Verb contractions (e.g., it’s, you’re, we’re)– Informal punctuation (dashes, ellipses, fragments)– Friendly language (“Welcome”)

Overall formality score computed for each site

320 university Web sites from 20 countries– Inner and Outer Circles of English (Kachru, Gilsdorf)

“About Us” text analyzed 3 coders tallied frequencies of tone elements:

– Personal pronouns (e.g., I, we, you)– Passive and active voice clauses– Verb contractions (e.g., it’s, you’re, we’re)– Informal punctuation (dashes, ellipses, fragments)– Friendly language (“Welcome”)

Overall formality score computed for each site

Formality definedFormality defined

Frequencies of individual tone elements were expressed in standard units (z-scores).

Z-scores were summed into tone formality scores. Passive voice contributes positively and other tone

elements contribute negatively to the score. A related study found that the tone elements

influenced perceptions of tone (in the US).

Frequencies of individual tone elements were expressed in standard units (z-scores).

Z-scores were summed into tone formality scores. Passive voice contributes positively and other tone

elements contribute negatively to the score. A related study found that the tone elements

influenced perceptions of tone (in the US).

Culture remains influentialCulture remains influential

Strong positive correlation between power distance and tone formality– The greater the power distance, the more

formal the tone– Evidence that culture influences online tone

No correlation between willingness to express emotion and tone formality

Strong positive correlation between power distance and tone formality– The greater the power distance, the more

formal the tone– Evidence that culture influences online tone

No correlation between willingness to express emotion and tone formality

Inner and Outer Circles differInner and Outer Circles differ

Tone is significantly more formal in Outer Circle countries (India, Philippines, etc.)– E.g., passive voice significantly more common

Tone is significantly less formal in Inner Circle countries (UK, Australia, US, etc.)– E.g., informal punctuation, personal pronouns

significantly more common

Tone is significantly more formal in Outer Circle countries (India, Philippines, etc.)– E.g., passive voice significantly more common

Tone is significantly less formal in Inner Circle countries (UK, Australia, US, etc.)– E.g., informal punctuation, personal pronouns

significantly more common

Context, MetaphorsContext, Metaphors

Context matters!the context of users - especially if social /

active / collective / performative - can offset “offputting” effects of (Western) computer culture (individualism / literate / text-based) - (Crump 2004)

Metaphors matter!“Pipeline vs. river metaphor” vis-à-vis male /

female acceptance / use of computing technologies (Clayton 2004)

Context matters!the context of users - especially if social /

active / collective / performative - can offset “offputting” effects of (Western) computer culture (individualism / literate / text-based) - (Crump 2004)

Metaphors matter!“Pipeline vs. river metaphor” vis-à-vis male /

female acceptance / use of computing technologies (Clayton 2004)

E. Designing for ChinaE. Designing for China

China – websites are more complex, more oriented towards entertainment (high context / collectivist)

--> more complex because of

1. guiding principle of “give the people what they want at once”

--> “…clearness and transparency in Chinese (yi mu liaoran) not only means, to ‘get an overview’ but also means ‘ to find quickly what one is looking for’. …In contrast to western website that are characterized by a deep hierarchy and fewer elements on each level, Chinese websites have a flat hierarchy with as many elements on each level as possible. (Bucher 2004, 424)

China – websites are more complex, more oriented towards entertainment (high context / collectivist)


1. guiding principle of “give the people what they want at once”

--> “…clearness and transparency in Chinese (yi mu liaoran) not only means, to ‘get an overview’ but also means ‘ to find quickly what one is looking for’. …In contrast to western website that are characterized by a deep hierarchy and fewer elements on each level, Chinese websites have a flat hierarchy with as many elements on each level as possible. (Bucher 2004, 424)

E. Designing for ChinaE. Designing for China


– 2) “aesthetics of abundance” –Chinese popular culture, e.g., in New Year’s pictures, calendars, paintings. “…strong and rich colour, density, and opulent presentation symbolize happiness and wealth.” (424)

– 3) search patterns:– mainland Chinese prefer vertical layout /– Hong Kong Chinese prefer horizontal


– 2) “aesthetics of abundance” –Chinese popular culture, e.g., in New Year’s pictures, calendars, paintings. “…strong and rich colour, density, and opulent presentation symbolize happiness and wealth.” (424)

– 3) search patterns:– mainland Chinese prefer vertical layout /– Hong Kong Chinese prefer horizontal

[email protected] 2002: Power of the Audience

Media Studies

Yahoo! China Yahoo! US


Media Studies

Yahoo! China Yahoo! US

Main Features

Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)

News

Yahoo! Worldwide

Ente

rtai

nmen

t

Search Field

Overview: Yahoo! Services

Main Features

Overview: Yahoo! Services

Web Site Directory(14 Main Subjects)

News

Entertainment

Search FieldSearch Field

Yahoo! Worldwide

SMS Services

Sport: Chinese Soccer League

Advertisement

Music & Email

Film

Headlines

WallpaperDownloads

Film

Shopping

Member Section

Yahoo! Announcement

US Local Yahoo!

Search Field (2)

Other Yahoo! Services


Media Studies

News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advert

isem

ent

Ads

Service(SMS)

Service (Games)

Service(Search Maschine)

Serv

ice

Navigation

NavigationMember Section

Classified Ads

TV

Pro

gra

mIn

tera

ctiv

e

Poll

Pre

ssR

ele

ase

About Us

Sina´s Customer

News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Tabloid News

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advertisement

Advert

isem

ent

Ads

Service(SMS)

Service (Games)

Service(Search Maschine)

Serv

ice

Navigation

NavigationMember Section

Classified Ads

TV

Pro

gra

mIn

tera

ctiv

e

Poll

Pre

ssR

ele

ase

About Us

Sina´s Customer

Yahoo USA: 14 Page elements

Yahoo China: 14 Page elements

Sina 23 Page elements


Media StudiesComment on Sina.com

I understand that a portal…needs to arrange much information on the front page. But since I’m familiar with Sina, I know where I should go…but for people unfamiliar, this arrangement is messy…[it] will be really confusing.

(Hu, Qiping 2002, 22)

F. Postlude: designing Arabic-language sites


In response to this lecture/presentation, Erika C. Linke, Associate Dean of University Libraries, asked for my suggestions regarding design for Arabic-language websites.

This became the opportunity to test the guidelines presented here - by developing a hypothesis regarding what culturally-aware website design might look like for Arabic-language cultures, based in the first instance on Hall’s analysis of Arabic cultures as “high context/low content.” So I wrote to Dean Linke:

I would be willing to make some predictions, based on analogues with other high-context cultures (such as China and Japan), e.g., less text/linearity/information - more pictures, more "entertainment" elements.

What I'm not sure about here would be use of colors. As well, if designing for a high uncertainty avoidance culture, then it would probably be best to use relatively controlled navigation structures. (email, August 05, 2004)

I had also asked for assistance in this matter from several colleagues working in Arabic-language cultures. Deborah Wheeler, who has done “on the ground” research on ICTs and culture in the Middle-East for many years now, provided a very helpful reply…

In response to this lecture/presentation, Erika C. Linke, Associate Dean of University Libraries, asked for my suggestions regarding design for Arabic-language websites.

This became the opportunity to test the guidelines presented here - by developing a hypothesis regarding what culturally-aware website design might look like for Arabic-language cultures, based in the first instance on Hall’s analysis of Arabic cultures as “high context/low content.” So I wrote to Dean Linke:

I would be willing to make some predictions, based on analogues with other high-context cultures (such as China and Japan), e.g., less text/linearity/information - more pictures, more "entertainment" elements.

What I'm not sure about here would be use of colors. As well, if designing for a high uncertainty avoidance culture, then it would probably be best to use relatively controlled navigation structures. (email, August 05, 2004)

I had also asked for assistance in this matter from several colleagues working in Arabic-language cultures. Deborah Wheeler, who has done “on the ground” research on ICTs and culture in the Middle-East for many years now, provided a very helpful reply…



…web site design must be culturally compatable, which means that web sites, for a company say, are highly graphics based, use lots of flash and java, and have very little text or data. Another constraint is the tendency to want to keep information private, only shared with those who are trustworthy or need to know something. Your observations of Asia, apply to the Arab region. (email, August 5, 2004)

This reply is helpful first of all as it confirms my original hypothesis. This, of course, doesn’t “prove” anything - but it does suggest that the general frameworks developed here, based on Hall’s schema (which, nicely enough, began with his work on Arabic-language cultures) are at least generally helpful.

Secondly, Dr. Wheeler’s reply goes beyond my general hypothesis to provide important additional information that should be useful to website designers - and to those of us “surfing” such sites: we should know better what the presence and absence of graphics and text, respectively, signifies.

Finally, Dr. Wheeler also points us to the following:

Norhayati Zakaria, Jeffrey M. Stanton and Shreya T.M. Sarkar-Barney, "Designing and Implimenting Culturally-Sensitive IT Applications: The Interaction of cultural values and privacy issues in the Middle East," in Information Technology and People Vol 16 Issue 1, 2003, pp. 49-75.

Thanks!

…web site design must be culturally compatable, which means that web sites, for a company say, are highly graphics based, use lots of flash and java, and have very little text or data. Another constraint is the tendency to want to keep information private, only shared with those who are trustworthy or need to know something. Your observations of Asia, apply to the Arab region. (email, August 5, 2004)

This reply is helpful first of all as it confirms my original hypothesis. This, of course, doesn’t “prove” anything - but it does suggest that the general frameworks developed here, based on Hall’s schema (which, nicely enough, began with his work on Arabic-language cultures) are at least generally helpful.

Secondly, Dr. Wheeler’s reply goes beyond my general hypothesis to provide important additional information that should be useful to website designers - and to those of us “surfing” such sites: we should know better what the presence and absence of graphics and text, respectively, signifies.

Finally, Dr. Wheeler also points us to the following:

Norhayati Zakaria, Jeffrey M. Stanton and Shreya T.M. Sarkar-Barney, "Designing and Implimenting Culturally-Sensitive IT Applications: The Interaction of cultural values and privacy issues in the Middle East," in Information Technology and People Vol 16 Issue 1, 2003, pp. 49-75.

Thanks!

In summary…In summary…

…design indeed is highly culturally specific and …universal principles – for example of website usability – are implausible.-- Bucher 2004, 425

Beyond traditional localization (language, law, appearance, usability) sense-making as a function of worldview vs. “design from nowhere” (Suchman)

…internationalization practices should not be reduced to the interface as the visible part and operable layer of the system, but to a consideration of the whole computing system as the “interface” linking people to their socially constructed and determined activities (Grudin 1993, in Nocera and Hall 2004)

…design indeed is highly culturally specific and …universal principles – for example of website usability – are implausible.-- Bucher 2004, 425

Beyond traditional localization (language, law, appearance, usability) sense-making as a function of worldview vs. “design from nowhere” (Suchman)

…internationalization practices should not be reduced to the interface as the visible part and operable layer of the system, but to a consideration of the whole computing system as the “interface” linking people to their socially constructed and determined activities (Grudin 1993, in Nocera and Hall 2004)


Soraj Hongladarom: local cultural values may be preserved if…our research agenda becomes: In what way should the ICTs be adopted

such that they become merged with the lifeworld of the people?

Provide education (but how and what kind?). Develop local content for the locals and let them do it. Break the one way flow of information from the West to Thailand

and then to the community. Strengthen local values and traditions and at the same time promote

active interaction with outside world. Others? (2004)

Soraj Hongladarom: local cultural values may be preserved if…our research agenda becomes: In what way should the ICTs be adopted

such that they become merged with the lifeworld of the people?

Provide education (but how and what kind?). Develop local content for the locals and let them do it. Break the one way flow of information from the West to Thailand

and then to the community. Strengthen local values and traditions and at the same time promote

active interaction with outside world. Others? (2004)


The democratic potential of the Net for promoting ‘civic pluralism’ will partly rely on its being constructed by those capable of negotiating global differences, creating multiple, complex meanings and crossing boundaries (2003).

Beverly Bickel, “Voices of Afghan Women” <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/bickel.html>

The democratic potential of the Net for promoting ‘civic pluralism’ will partly rely on its being constructed by those capable of negotiating global differences, creating multiple, complex meanings and crossing boundaries (2003).

Beverly Bickel, “Voices of Afghan Women” <http://www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol8/issue2/bickel.html>

REFERENCESAbdat, Sjarif and Graham P. Pervan. 2000. Reducing the Negative Effects of Power Distance During Asynchronous

Pre-Meeting with Using Anonymity in Indonesian Culture. In Fay Sudweeks and Charles Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 209-15. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University Press.

Addison, Tom and Elisha Sirkissoon. 2004. User Interfaces: Black South Africans’ Preferences Re Some Language, Icon And Usability Features. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 469-481. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Bucher, Hans-Jürgen. 2002. The power of the audience: Interculturality, interactivity and trust in Internet Communication. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication 2002: Proceedings of the Third International Conference …Montreal, Canada, 12-15 July 2002, 3-14. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University Press.

Dahan, Michael. 1999. National Security and Democracy on the Internet in Israel. Javnost-the Public, VI (4), 67-77.Duncker, Elke. 2002. Cross-cultural usability of computing metaphors: Do we colonize the minds of indigenous

web users? In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 217ff. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Ess, Charles (ed.). 2001. Culture, Technology, Communication: Towards an Intercultural Global Village, with Fay Sudweeks, Foreword by Susan Herring.. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Hall, Edward. 1976. Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books.Hannerz, Ulf. 1992. Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning. New York: Columbia

University Press.Harris, Roger, Poline Bala, Peter Songan, Elaine Khoo Guat Lien, and Tingang Trang. 2001. Challenges and

Opportunities in Introducing Information and Communication Technologies to the Kelabit Community of North Central Borneo. New media and society 3 (3): 271-296.

Hermeking, Marc. 2004. Cultural Influences On Internet Diffusion and Website Acceptance: Some Findings From Cross-Cultural Marketing Research. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 442-453. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

REFERENCESAbdat, Sjarif and Graham P. Pervan. 2000. Reducing the Negative Effects of Power Distance During Asynchronous

Pre-Meeting with Using Anonymity in Indonesian Culture. In Fay Sudweeks and Charles Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 209-15. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University Press.

Addison, Tom and Elisha Sirkissoon. 2004. User Interfaces: Black South Africans’ Preferences Re Some Language, Icon And Usability Features. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 469-481. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Bucher, Hans-Jürgen. 2002. The power of the audience: Interculturality, interactivity and trust in Internet Communication. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication 2002: Proceedings of the Third International Conference …Montreal, Canada, 12-15 July 2002, 3-14. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University Press.

Dahan, Michael. 1999. National Security and Democracy on the Internet in Israel. Javnost-the Public, VI (4), 67-77.Duncker, Elke. 2002. Cross-cultural usability of computing metaphors: Do we colonize the minds of indigenous

web users? In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 217ff. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Ess, Charles (ed.). 2001. Culture, Technology, Communication: Towards an Intercultural Global Village, with Fay Sudweeks, Foreword by Susan Herring.. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Hall, Edward. 1976. Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books.Hannerz, Ulf. 1992. Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning. New York: Columbia

University Press.Harris, Roger, Poline Bala, Peter Songan, Elaine Khoo Guat Lien, and Tingang Trang. 2001. Challenges and

Opportunities in Introducing Information and Communication Technologies to the Kelabit Community of North Central Borneo. New media and society 3 (3): 271-296.

Hermeking, Marc. 2004. Cultural Influences On Internet Diffusion and Website Acceptance: Some Findings From Cross-Cultural Marketing Research. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 442-453. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

REFERENCESHofstede, Geert. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills:

Sage.______. 1983. National cultures in four dimensions. International Studies of Management and Organization 13, 52-

60.______. 1984. The Cultural Relativity of the Quality of Life Concept. Academy of Management Review 9, 389-98.______. 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill.Hofstede, G. and Bond, M.H. 1988. The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth.

Organizational Dynamics 16 (4), 5-21.Heaton, Lorna. 2001. Preserving Communication Context: Virtual Workspace and Interpersonal Space in Japanese

CSCW. In Ess (2001), 213-240. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Hongladarom, Soraj. 2001. Global Culture, Local Cultures and the Internet: The Thai Example. In Ess (2001), 307-

324. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Jørgensen, Gitte. 2003. Can an online library service bridge the gap of cultural understanding? Seeing design isues in

the light of cross-cultural communication. IT University, Denmark.Kampurri, Minna and Markku Tukainen. 2004. Culture in Human-Computer Interaction Studies: A survey of ideas

and definitions. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings: Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 43-57. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Leonardi, Paul. 2002. Culture inside the Technology: Evidence for Paying Attention to User-end Cultural Practices in Web Design. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 297ff. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Maitland, Carleen and Josef Bauer. 2001. National Level Culture and Global Diffusion: The Case of the Internet. In Ess (ed.), Culture, Technology, Communication…, 87-128. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Nakada, M., T. Tamura, L. Tkach-Kawasaki and T. Iitaka. 2004. Does Old Japan Determine New Japan? The relationship between Seken, the Internet, and political consciousness in Japan, in F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004. Murdoch University, Australia, 143-156.

Rahmati, Nasrin. 2000. The Impact of Cultural Values on Computer Mediated Group Work. In Fay Sudweeks and Charles Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 257-74. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Rey, Lucienne. 2001. Cultural Attitudes toward Technology and Communication: A Study in the “Multi-cultural” Environment of Switzerland. In Ess (2001), 151-160.

REFERENCESHofstede, Geert. 1980. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values. Beverly Hills:

Sage.______. 1983. National cultures in four dimensions. International Studies of Management and Organization 13, 52-

60.______. 1984. The Cultural Relativity of the Quality of Life Concept. Academy of Management Review 9, 389-98.______. 1991. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill.Hofstede, G. and Bond, M.H. 1988. The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth.

Organizational Dynamics 16 (4), 5-21.Heaton, Lorna. 2001. Preserving Communication Context: Virtual Workspace and Interpersonal Space in Japanese

CSCW. In Ess (2001), 213-240. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Hongladarom, Soraj. 2001. Global Culture, Local Cultures and the Internet: The Thai Example. In Ess (2001), 307-

324. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Jørgensen, Gitte. 2003. Can an online library service bridge the gap of cultural understanding? Seeing design isues in

the light of cross-cultural communication. IT University, Denmark.Kampurri, Minna and Markku Tukainen. 2004. Culture in Human-Computer Interaction Studies: A survey of ideas

and definitions. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings: Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 43-57. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Leonardi, Paul. 2002. Culture inside the Technology: Evidence for Paying Attention to User-end Cultural Practices in Web Design. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 297ff. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Maitland, Carleen and Josef Bauer. 2001. National Level Culture and Global Diffusion: The Case of the Internet. In Ess (ed.), Culture, Technology, Communication…, 87-128. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Nakada, M., T. Tamura, L. Tkach-Kawasaki and T. Iitaka. 2004. Does Old Japan Determine New Japan? The relationship between Seken, the Internet, and political consciousness in Japan, in F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004. Murdoch University, Australia, 143-156.

Rahmati, Nasrin. 2000. The Impact of Cultural Values on Computer Mediated Group Work. In Fay Sudweeks and Charles Ess (eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication, 257-74. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Rey, Lucienne. 2001. Cultural Attitudes toward Technology and Communication: A Study in the “Multi-cultural” Environment of Switzerland. In Ess (2001), 151-160.

REFERENCESStewart, Concetta M., Stella F. Shields, and Nandini Sen. 2001. Diversity in On-Line Discussions: A

Study of Cultural and Gender Differences in Listservs. In Ess (ed.), 161-186. Sy, Peter. 2001. Barangays of IT: Filipinizing mediated communication and digital power. new media

and society 3(3): 297-313.Wheeler, Deborah. 2001. New Technologies, Old Culture: A Look at Women, Gender, and the

Internet in Kuwait. In Ess (2001), 187-212.Willis, Ann. 2000. Nerdy No More: A Case Study of Early Wired (1993-96). In F. Sudweeks & C.

Ess (eds.), Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication 2000, 361-72. Murdoch, Australia: School of Information Technology, Murdoch University. Available online <http://www.it.murdoch.edu.au/~sudweeks/catac00/>

Wilson, Mary. Forthcoming. Communication, Organizations, and Diverse Populations. Special issue of new media and society.

Würtz, Elizabeth. 2004. Intercultural Communication on Websites: An analysis of visual communication in high- and low-context cultures. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 109-122. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Yoon, Sunny. 2001. Internet Discourse and the Habitus of Korea’s New Generation. In Ess (2001), 241-260.

REFERENCESStewart, Concetta M., Stella F. Shields, and Nandini Sen. 2001. Diversity in On-Line Discussions: A

Study of Cultural and Gender Differences in Listservs. In Ess (ed.), 161-186. Sy, Peter. 2001. Barangays of IT: Filipinizing mediated communication and digital power. new media

and society 3(3): 297-313.Wheeler, Deborah. 2001. New Technologies, Old Culture: A Look at Women, Gender, and the

Internet in Kuwait. In Ess (2001), 187-212.Willis, Ann. 2000. Nerdy No More: A Case Study of Early Wired (1993-96). In F. Sudweeks & C.

Ess (eds.), Second International Conference on Cultural Attitudes towards Technology and Communication 2000, 361-72. Murdoch, Australia: School of Information Technology, Murdoch University. Available online <http://www.it.murdoch.edu.au/~sudweeks/catac00/>

Wilson, Mary. Forthcoming. Communication, Organizations, and Diverse Populations. Special issue of new media and society.

Würtz, Elizabeth. 2004. Intercultural Communication on Websites: An analysis of visual communication in high- and low-context cultures. In F. Sudweeks and C. Ess (eds). Proceedings Cultural Attitudes Towards Communication and Technology 2004, 109-122. Murdoch, Western Australia: Murdoch University.

Yoon, Sunny. 2001. Internet Discourse and the Habitus of Korea’s New Generation. In Ess (2001), 241-260.

Cross-Cultural Communication Online: How Diverse Cultural Values and Communicative Preferences Shape...

Documents

Transcript of Cross-Cultural Communication Online: How Diverse Cultural Values and Communicative Preferences Shape...