Crop Production in Indonesia (Dian Dwi)

7/31/2019 Crop Production in Indonesia (Dian Dwi)

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R O P P R O D U C T I O N

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CROP PRODUCTION ININDONESIA

DIAN DWI KARTIKASARI


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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

BAB I CEREAL CROP : MAIZE ( Zea mays ) 41.1 USES OF MAIZE 41.2 PRODUCTION 51.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 81.3.1 SEEDLING 81.3.2 MAIZE MORPHOLOGY 91.3.3 GROWTH STAGE OF MAIZE 121.3.4 DEVELOPMENT 141.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 141.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE,

WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS 141.5 CROP PRODUCTION 161.5.1 SOWING 161.5.2 FERTILIZER 161.5.3 WEEDING 171.5.4 PESTS MANAGEMENT 181.5.5 HARVESTING 19

BAB II SUGAR CROP : SUGAR BEET ( Beta vulgaris ) 21

2.1 USE S OF SUGAR BEET 212.2 PRODUCTION 222.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 232.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 232.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 242.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 262.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE,

WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS 262.5 CROP PRODUCTION 262.5.1 SOWING 262.5.2 FERTILIZER 27

2.5.3 WEEDING 282.5.4 PESTS MANAGEMENT 292.5.5 HARVESTING 29

BAB III GRAIN LEGUMES : SOYBEAN (Glycine max) 303.1 USE S OF SOYBEAN 303.2 PRODUCTION 313.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 323.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 323.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 343.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 37

3.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE,WATER, SOIL REQUIREMENTS 37


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3.5 CROP PRODUCTION 383.5.1 SOWING 383.5.2 FERTILIZER 383.5.3 WEEDING 393.5.4 PESTS MANAGEMENT 39

3.5.5 HARVESTING 40

BAB IV OIL CROP : PEANUT ( Arachis hypogaea ) 414.1 USE S OF PEANUT 414.2 PRODUCTION 414.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 434.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 444.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 444.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 464.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE,


BAB V FIBER CROP : COTTON ( Gossypium hirsutum ) 494.1 USE S OF COTTON 494.2 PRODUCTION 50

4.3 MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 514.3.1 MORPHOLOGY 514.3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 524.4 ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION POTENTIAL 534.4.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS : TEMPERATURE,


REFERENCES


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INTRODUCTION

This report provides information about uses; production, morphology, growth, and

development; Adaptation and production potential include climatic requirements,

temperature, water, soil requirements; Crop production include sowing, fertilizer, weed and

pest management and harvesting of the crops in Indonesia such as maize, soybean, cotton,

peanut and sugar beat.

Indonesia extends from latitudes 6" N to 1 1 " S and from longitudes 95" W to

141" E. The greatest distance from west to east is 5 110 km, and the greatest distance

north to south is 1888 km. The Indonesian archipelago consists of 17 435 islands the five

largest being Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya (Figure. 1).Agriculture is a key sector of the Indonesian economy. About 45% of Indonesian

workers are engaged in agriculture, which accounts for 17% of GDP in 2001. Some 31

million ha (76.6 million acres) are under cultivation, with 35% to 40% of the cultivated land

devoted to the production of export crops. Some 60% of the country's cultivated land is in

Java.

Agricultural development in Indonesia has followed closely the growth of population

and its geographical distribution. Out of 215 million inhabitants, about 58.6 percent(124.2 million) reside in the inner islands of Java, Madura, Bali and Lombok, which together

compose only about 8 percent of Indonesias land area. The remaining 87.8 million

people occupy the outer islands, of which the larger are Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and

Papua.


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Figure 1 : Map of Indonesia

1. Daerah lstimewa Aceh

2. Sumatra Utara

3. Sumatra Barat

4. Riau 13. Java Timur

5. Jambi 14. Bali

6. Sumatra Selatan

7. Bengkulu

8. Lampung 17. Timor-Timur

9. DKI. Jakarta

10. Java Barat

11. Java Tengah

12. Daerah lstimewa Yogyakarta

15. Nusa Tenggara Barat

16. Nusa Tenggara Timur

18. Kalimantan Barat

Fig. 1. Map of Indonesia

19. Kalimantan Tengah

20. Kalimantan Selatan

21. Kalimantan Timur

22. Sulawesi Utara

23. Sulawesi Tengah

24. Sulawesi Selatan

25. Sulawesi Tenggara

26. Maluku

27. lrian Jaya


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The major crops grown in Indonesia are rice, maize, soybean, peanut, cassava, and

chili. The area under vegetable cultivation during 1993, excluding potato and sweet

potato but including onion, garlic and chili, was 775,000 ha, or about 3.7% of the total

cropped area. This produced 4.3 million t of vegetables, worth more than US$1 billion.

Average yields of vegetables were in the neighborhood of 5.6 t/ha. This translated into per

capita availability of vegetables (excluding potato, sweet potato, and export of vegetables)

of about 22 kg per annum, or 60 g per day, which is only 30% of the recommended

vegetable consumption of 200 g per day. The main vegetables grown in the country are

chili, yard long bean, shallot, cabbage, kidney bean, cucumber, Chinese cabbage, green

mustard, 140 Dynamics of Vegetables leek, spinach, French bean, eggplant, garlic, and

carrot. Vegetable cultivation is concentrated on Java.

In 1993-94, average per capita food consumption was about 712 g per day, of

which cereals and tubers made up 41.6%, oils and fats 38.3%, vegetables 5.3%, fruits 3.3%,

livestock products 3.6%, legumes 2.6%, and miscellaneous other foods the remaining 5.3%.

(CBS, 1993).


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BAB I : CEREAL CROPMAIZE ( Zea mays )

The term "maize" derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Tano word for theplant, maiz . It is known by other names around the world. In scientific and formal usage,"maize" is normally used in a global context. Equally, in bulk-trading contexts, "corn" is usedmost frequently.

In Indonesia, maize is the second most important cereal crop after rice, in terms of thepercentage area planted to maize relative to the total area for all food crops. Kasryno (2002)reported that during 1970-2000, the area planted to maize was about 19% of the total areaplanted to food crops. Rice occupied about 61% of the total area planted to food crops overthe same time period. Another 20% was planted to other food crop (palawija) such assoybeans, mungbeans, peanuts, cassava, and sweet potato.

1.1 Uses of Maize

In Indonesia maize is mainly used for animal feed although there are some alternative

uses in the biochemical industry. The share of maize used for human consumption is

approximately 10%.

a. Human Food and Animal Feed
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Maize is an all-important crop which provides an avenue for making various types of

foods for human food and animal feed. In addition to the maize that is fed to animals in

the form of grain, a significant portion of the crop is fed to animals as forage. Forage uses

of maize include fodder (leaves and stalks, tassels, husks), stover (dried stalks minus the

ears), and silage (entire plant chopped and fermented). It also has some medicinal values

and serves as raw-materials for many industries.

b. Medicinal

A crop which is highly edible and nutritious as maize, also has some medicinal uses

among the local people. It is used to cure many diseases, which it had over the years proved

to be very effective. These include:

Water filtered through cha rcoal obtained from maize stalk can be used as a treatment

to cure gonorrhea (AbdulRahaman, 1997).

An infusion obtained from stigma of maize inflorescence can be used for treatment

of diseases of the urinary tract or passage (AbdulRahaman, 1997).

Water obtained during the preparation of pap is used to soak bark or root of some.

This is used to treat fever and malaria.

c. Chemicals

Starch from maize can also be made into plastics, fabrics, adhesives, and many other

chemical products. The corn steep liquor, a plentiful watery byproduct of maize wet

milling process, is widely used in the biochemical industry and research as a culture medium

to grow many kinds of microorganisms

d. Ornamental and other uses

Some forms of the plant are occasionally grown for ornamental use in the garden. For

this purpose, variegated and colored leaf forms as well as those with colorful ears are used.

Size-superlative types, reaching 40 ft (12 m) tall, cobs 2 ft (61 cm) long, or 1 in (2.5 cm)

kernels, have been popular for at least a century.Maize kernels can be used in place of sand in a sandboxlike enclosure for children's

play. Additionally, feed corn is sometimes used by hunters to bait animals such as deer or

wild hogs.

1.2 Production

Among palawija crops, maize is an important source of calories for many

Indonesians. In 2008 the agricultural sector has contributed IDR 713,291 billion to the
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Indonesian economy (Table 1). Nearly half of this production value comes from food crops

(Figure. 2) of which maize accounts for 12% with IDR 40,608 billions.

Maize production in Indonesia is progressively growing, increasing 25% in terms of

area planted and 56% in aggregate production between 2003 and 2009, implying a growth in

average productivity of 25% between these years (Table 2).

Indonesia is a net importer of maize with minimal exports flows (Figure. 3). Maize

imports fluctuate according to the needs of the internal market and in 2006 reached a level of

16% of domestic production.

Given the importance of maize in the rural economy, the crop is grown across the

whole country. Java provinces account for over 50% of national maize production with

Lampung, South Sulawesi, North Sumatra, East Nusa Tenggara, Gorontalo being other

important production areas (Table 3).

During the last decade, most maize (57%) was grown in Java and contributed about

61% to national maize production. In contrast, about 43% of maize was grownoutside Java

and contributed about 39% to national production (CBS 1971-2001). Although maize

continues to be most widely grown in Java, maize area has tended to decline slightly over

time.

In Lampung, maize is mainly planted on dryland (tegalan) and rainfed lowlands. A

small portion is planted on irrigated lowlands. In 2000, the area planted to maize was about

32.4% of the total area planted to food crops, while rice occupied about 42% (Kasryno 2002).

In East Java, maize is mainly cultivated on dryland and rainfed areas, and some on

irrigated lowlands. In 2000, the area planted to maize in East Java was about 31% of the total

area planted to food crops, while the area planted to rice was about 47%. Again, in this area,

maize is the second most important food crop after rice.


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Table 1. Value of production of the agricultural sector 2003 2008 (Current IDR Billions)

Source: Indonesia Statistics & Information 2003-2008 - BPS 2009 Note: Food crops include rice, corn, soybean, ground nuts, mung bean, cassava, potatoes, etc. Estatecrops include cocoa, palm oil, coffee, sugar cane, etc.

Figure 2. Breakdown of value of production of the agricultural sector for 2008

Source: Indonesia Statistics & Information 2003-2008 - BPS 2009

Table 2. Maize Production in Indonesia

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Food Crops Directorate General


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Table 3. Share of National production in main production provinces

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Food Crops Directorate Generals

Figure 3. Import and Export of Maize in Indonesia

Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Trade, and BPS 2009

1.3 Morphology, growth and development

1.3.1 Seedling

The seed of a maize plant is called the kernel and consists of three major parts: the

fruit wall, endosperm and embryo. Once the seed absorbs water, germination commences.

The seedling uses seed starch reserves in the endosperm to germinate and a root, called the

radicle, sprouts from the kernel, which is illustrated in Figure 4. Soon after emergence of the

radicle, three to four lateral roots sprouting from the seed also emerge. At the same time orsoon after, a shoot emerges at the other end of the kernel (Figure 4) and pushes through the


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soil surface. This breaking through the soil surface is called emergence. When the tip of the

shoot breaks through the soil surface, elongation of the middle section of the shocalled the

mesocotyl, ceases, and the first leaf, which is termed the plumule, emerges (Figure 5).

The primary roots develop at the depth at which the seed is sown. The growth of these

roots slows down after the shoot emerges above the soil surface and virtually stops at about

the three-leaf stage. The first adventitious roots (roots other than those growing from the

radicle) start developing from the first node at the mesocotyl, which occurs just below the soil

surface. These adventitious roots continue to develop into a thick web of fibrous roots and are

the main anchorage for the maize plant; they also facilitate water and nutrien uptake.

Figure 4. A germinating maize seed illustratinggrowth of the plumule and radicle

Figure 5. First true leaf expansion andemergence of the second leaf

1.3.2 Maize Morphology

In the early growth stages, the leaves and stem are not readily distinguishable. That is

because the growing point (whorl) remains underground until the first five leaves have

emerged. Examination of a 1-metre-tall maize plant reveals a series of enlargements that

encircle the stem. These are called nodes. The space between two nodes is called an

internode. The earliest internodes elongate only slightly, so that the space between internodes

is only small. However, internodes of older plants elongate much more and account for height

in maize.

Leaves are made up of a blade and sheath. The blade extends from the stem at a node.

Below this node the leaf runs parallel to the stem and is called the leaf sheath. The sheath


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encircles the node, forming a pale collar. Between the stem and the leaf sheath is a

prominent ligule, a small, fine, hairy membrane surrounding the stem (Figure 6).

The stem (Figure 6) has two functions: to support the leaves and flowers and to

transport water and nutrients. Nutrients are carried in vessels, called xylem and phloem,

which are connected to the roots. The xylem transports water and mineral nutrients from the

roots up into the plant and can only flow one way. The phloem flows in both directions and

transports organic nutrients, especially sucrose, in a water based solution. The major

function of the leaves is to carry out photosynthesis for grain production.

New leaves arise from the growing point. Depending upon the variety, 16 to 23

foliage leaves will be produced. The diameter of the stem eventually becomes very large at

the base, which usually causes the lower 5 to 7 leaves to break loose and wither.

Problems such as nutrient imbalances, herbicide damage and disease symptoms

usually become evident through the leaves. Maize farmers should check the crop for

symptoms of these problems by observing the colour, growth, and development of the

leaves.

Figure 6. Maize stem and leaf Structures


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1.3.3 Growth Stage of Maize

Figure 7 illustrates the complete life cycle of maize from germination through to

maturity and harvest.

Figure 7. The growth stages of maize

Source. NSW Department of Primary Industries

Germination and emergence (stages ve to v2 in figure 7)

When maize seed is sown in soil with a temperature above 21C and adequate

moisture, it rapidly absorbs water and emerges within 2 or 3 days. If the soil temperature is

low (less than 18C), germination slows and radicle emergence may take as long as six to

eight days. In addition, radicle emergence is slow if the depth of sowing is deeper than 8 cm.

On the other hand, under rainfed conditions when the seed is sown in dry soil awaiting rain,

high soil temperature and inadequate moisture can cause the seed to die.

Nutrient reserves in the seed feed the emerging seedling for the first week until the

primary roots develop and begin to supply the plant with water and nutrients from the soil.

The stems first internode grows rapidly until eventually the seedling emerges, usually 4 or 5

days after sowing, provided there is enough moisture in the soil and temperature is optimal.

Early vegetative development (stages v3 to v10 in figure 7)

The adventitious root system develops from the first stem node below the soil surface

and takes over the main root function approximately 10 days after emergence (stages V3 to

V4 in Figure 7).


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All the leaves the plant will ever produce are formed by a single growing point below

the ground during the first 2 to 3 weeks. As the growing point is below the ground, young

maize plants are susceptible to damage from waterlogging, especially when combined with

high temperatures. However, if later conditions are favourable, the plant can recover well

from damage during this stage.

Three weeks after emergence the growing point is at the soil surface and, having

formed all the leaves, develops an embryonic tassel (stage V5). At this stage, leaf formation

is at its fastest stage of production and at 4 weeks eight leaves are fully emerged (stage V8).

Late vegetative development (stages v11 to v16 in figure 7)

This is one of the most critical stages in the development of the maize plant. The plant

grows and the stem elongates rapidly, with a high demand for water and nutrients nitrogen

(N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Leaf enlargement is complete by 5 weeks (V12) and

the roots quickly fill most of the root zone.

Ears begin to form within the plant soon after tassel initiation (V5); however, over a

2-week period in weeks 5 to 7 (V11 to V16), the highest one or two ears start rapidly

developing and ear size is determined. The number of rows per ear is determined first, then

kernels per row. At about 7 weeks the tassel reaches full size (V16).

Any adverse effect suffered at this stage, such as nutrient or water shortage, insect

damage, or too high a plant population, will significantly affect yield. Furthermore, damage

to pollen or ear structures in this period will be permanent, with little chance of compensation

later.

Flowering (stage r1 in figure 7)

At this stage plants will have finished producing all 20 leaves. Tassels fully emerge

(R1) and pollen sheds 40 to 50 days after emergence, with the length of time depending on

variety and environmental conditions. Silks emerge from the uppermost ear and sometimes

from the second ear. Pollination and fertilisation of the ears occurs. During this period thereis a high demand for water, and the uptake of N and P is rapid, although K uptake is almost

complete.

As pollen supply is abundant, poor seed set is usually due to nutrient or water deficits

that either delay silking or result in kernel abortion after pollination. If maize is flowering

during hot, dry weather this places extra stress on the plants resources and the silks may

wither and burn off before the pollen reaches the ear. Hence fertilisation does not occur for

all kernels and seed set is greatly reduced. This is commonly referred to as pollen blasting.


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1.3.4 Development

Cobs, husks and shanks are fully developed by day 7 after silking. The plant is now

using significant energy and nutrients to produce kernels on an ear. Initially the kernels are

like small blisters containing a clear fluid; this is referred to as the kernel blister stage. As the

kernels continue to fill, the fluid becomes thicker and whiter in colour. This is called the

milk stage. Next is the kernel dough stage, at which point the fluid within the kernels

becomes thicker as starch accumulates. During these kernel filling stages N and P uptake

continues at a rapid rate. As the number of ears and kernels has already been determined, it is

the kernel size that is affected by conditions during this stage. A low kernel weight will

reduce yield. Denting of the grain occurs around 20 days after silking; this is an indicator that

the embryos are fully developed. Initially at denting a line can be seen which slowly moves to

the tip of the kernel through until physiological maturity. This line is called the milk line

and marks the boundary between the liquid (milky) and solid (starchy) areas of the maturing

kernels (Figure 8).

Maturity Approximately 30 days after silking the plant has reached the maximum dry

weight, a stage called physiological maturity. This is where a black layer is noticeable at the

tip of each kernel, where cells die and block further starch accumulation into the kernel. At

this stage the milk line has completely disappeared. Kernel moisture at physiological maturity

is around 30%. The grain and husks begin losing moisture while healthy stalks remain green.

Eventually the leaves will dry off. Harvesting can commence when grain moisture is below

20%. The grain is dried down to 14% for delivery to storage or market.

Figure 8. Maize cob cross section showing milk line

1.4 Adaptation and Production Potential

1.4.1 Climatic Requirements: Temperature, Water, Soil Requirements.

In general, maize can grow optimally in areas with this characteristic :


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Soil pH : 5.8-7.8

Mean temperature : between 18C and 32C

Annual precipitation : between 500 and 5,000 mm.

Optimal annual rainfall : 1,000- 1,500 mm, 500-1,200 mm.

Maize can grow on many types of soils. Well drained, well aerated, deep loam, and

silt loam soils with adequate organic matter are most suited for maize cropping. On soils with

a low moisture retention capacity, or in areas of low rainfall, a low plant density should be

used. Maize yield increases with planting density on irrigated plot, but the reverse may occur

on rainfed plots. Soil fertility characteristics which are suitable for maize, have apparent

cation exchange capacity (CEC) > 16 cmol (+) kg -1 clay, base saturation > 20%, sum of

basic cations > 2 cmol(+) kg -1 soil, and organic carbon >0.5% (Sys et al. 1993; Djaenudin et

al. 2003).

In the rainy season soil preparation is commonly done two or three times for both

rained sawah and uplands (Table 4). First preparations are made before the rain, and the

second and third after the first rain. Sometimes manure is spread and mixed with the soil

during the last preparation. From the first soil preparation until wet season planting takes

between 17 and 35 days.

In the dry season, most farmers practice only minimal soil preparation o_ even none at

all because of the tight planting schedule and consequent possible labour shortages. Without

soil preparation, maize seed is usually planted seven to 10 days before the previous

crop is harvested, after which intensive weeding follows. Since less than 15 days are needed

to prepare the soil in the dry season, only 25% of the farmers repeat the work in the upland,

and no one did so three times. It appears that differing soil preparations are not related to

maize variety and whether it intercropped.

Table 4 The relationship of soil preparation frequency to maize cropping.

Source: 141 cases of sample farms, Central and East Java, 1985.


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1.5 Crop Production

1.5.1 Sowing.

The first step in the seed production process is to select a suitable growing area. This

area should provide a favorable growing environment, so it is necessary to pay attention to

such agroclimatic factors as temperature, rainfall, day length, and soil nutrient status. The

levels of these factors, as well as their incidence during the production cycle, are important,

because seed yields may be sensitive to unfavorable conditions during particular periods.

Perhaps as important as the selection of the growing area is the selection of contract growers.

Because maize seed multiplication is very labor-intensive and requires a high level of

supervision, seed production organizations (both private companies and public agencies)

generally do not attempt to carry out large-scale seed multiplication operations using their

own land and labor. Most commercial maize seed is produced by private farmers under

contract.

Planting starts with seed selection and preparation. Parent seed should be high in

genetic purity, germination, and vigor; if seed is to be planted mechanically, kernels should

be uniform in size. Most commercial seed farms use plant densities ranging from 45,000 to

65,000 plants per ha (20,000 to 26,000 plants per acre). To ensure maximum germination,

seed should be sown at a depth of 3-5 centimeters (cm). Depending on expected rainfall,

topography, and other factors, seed may be planted atop ridges, in furrows, or on flat beds

(with or without subsequent "earthing up").

Maize is not as drought tolerant as some of the other upland crops such as mungbeans

and sesame, so good soil moisture at sowing time is required before the crop is planted. It is

recommended that there be at least 30 cm of wet soil throughout the soil profile before

sowing. Aim to plant maize on deeper alluvial soils where possible.

1.5.2 Fertilizer.

Fertility management practices will vary depending on the natural fertility of the soil.

Considering the high value of the crop, fertilization of seed plots tends to be profitable, and

growers commonly apply nutrients to supplement natural soil fertility levels. Where

available, farmyard manure or compost is often applied and incorporated into the soil. In

addition, nitrogen (N), phosphorus, and potassium are applied as needed, as are

micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), boron (B), or sulfur (S) if needed. Fertilizer applications are

generally split into one basal application, a first topdressing (often applied 30-35 days after


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planting at the knee-high stage) and a second topdressing (often applied at the tasseling

stage).

1.5.3 Weeding

From the time of planting until about a third of its life, maize is very susceptible to

weed competition. Failure to weed during this critical period may reduce the yield by 20%

(Bangun 1985). The recommended practice is to weed twice or more depending on the extent

of weed infestation.

Practices that can be used in an integrated weed management program include:

a. Feeding to livestock.

Weeds, especially annual grasses, can be grazed or hand harvested to feed

livestock. However, it is important that the weeds are prevented from producing

seeds. It should be noted that there may be a trade-off to consider between the

amount of soil water used by the weeds and the soil water required by the crop.

b. Good agronomic practice.

Good agronomic practice includes making sure the crop seed used for sowing is

clean and free of weed seeds and has a high germination percentage. Good

seedling vigour is important because fast growing, vigorous seedlings are more

competitive with weeds. The sowing rate of maize is important as it is vital to

establish a uniform plant population that is optimal for the conditions.

c. Timely weed control.

Traditionally, cultivation has served the dual purpose of killing weeds and

preparing a seedbed. However, cultivation can also reduce the amount of soil

water available to the crop. Some upland soil types such as Labansiek and

Kompong Siem are friable and self-mulching and may require little or no

cultivation to prepare a seed bed. In this case, a pre-sowing cultivation can bereplaced by an application of herbicide such as glyphosate, which controls the

weeds without loss of soil moisture. Cultivation is also less effective in

controlling weeds when the soil is wet, as many weeds transplant and continue to

live and set seed. Herbicides can be used as an alternative under these conditions.

Farmers must follow label directions when using herbicides.

d. Grazing or burning.

Heavy grazing or burning is often used to control weeds and to make conditionseasier for cultivation. These practices have the disadvantage of reducing ground


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cover, increasing soil surface temperature, reducing soil moisture and causing soil

degradation. Burning also reduces soil organic matter content. Preserving soil

residues and even adding mulch such as rice straw can reduce the emergence of

weeds; it will also conserve soil moisture, reduce the soil temperature and

increase soil organic matter.

Weed species differ in their response to management practices because they have

different life cycles, nutrient requirements and modes of reproduction. They also vary in their

response to cultivation and their susceptibility to herbicides. It is therefore important for the

adviser and farmer to be able to recognise different weed species and understand their

weaknesses.

1.5.4 Pest Management

Maize production can be significantly reduced in the absence of effective

management of diseases, insects and weeds. There are a number of tools and strategies that

farmers can use for managing pests. These include:

a. Ensuring the maize crop is as healthy as possible to compete with the pest.

b. Planting early in the sowing window to avoid the high insect populations that are

experienced with late sowings.

c. Monitoring pest levels to determine whether they are causing economic damage

or are below critical thresholds.

d. Monitoring and preserving beneficial organisms that provide biological control

and should be utilised as the first line of defence in PM.

e. Using pesticides strategically if required and rotating chemical groups to

minimise the risk of organisms developing resistance to specific chemical groups.

f. Controlling host plants such as volunteer maize and grass weeds to reduce the

habitat available for pests to survive and multiply. Alternative crops that host thesame pests should be avoided in the crop rotation program.

g. Planting a trap crop (a crop that the pest prefers) to concentrate the pest

population away from the maize crop, thus reducing the area requiring insecticide

control

h. communicating with neighbours and other farmers in the area to incorporate

area-wide management of pests where possible

i. Selecting varieties that display good pest resistance.


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Area-wide management is the development of a pest management strategy to control

pests to below economic threshold levels across a whole area (commune) in the most

environmentally and economically sustainable manner possible. This strategy is employed by

farmers working together using the same techniques at a similar time to control the pest on a

broader scale than the individual farm basis. In order for this strategy to function

successfully, excellent cooperation, co-ordination and communication are required.

Pest Management (PM) involves using all of these tools and strategies in managing

pest populations to minimise reliance on insecticides in an economical way. It is important to

be able to identify various insects, diseases and weeds in order to determine an effective PM

strategy.

The following is an example of the major maize insect pests and a brief description of the

damage they cause.

Insect description : Three separate genera

of termites have currently been identified

as a problem maize crops, including

Microtermes sp., Hypotermes sp.,

Globitermes sp. and Macrotermes gilvus.

Hypotermes sp. and Globitermes sp. build

short, broad based, dome shaped mounds

in the field whilst the other two species

build their nests entirely below ground.

Damage : Traditionally termites are

fungus producers and they harvest plant

material to feed the fungus which they

then feed on themselves.

Figure 9. (top) Termite-damaged maize roots(bottom) Root termites.

1.5.5 Harvesting

The maize seed crop is harvested when the developing kernels approach physiological

maturity, the stage at which they attain their maximum dry-matter accumulation. The

moisture level at which this oc curs varies with genotype and environment. Seed companies

typically plan their harvesting schedules around the physiological maturity of the crop, which

is determined by closely monitoring kernel moisture percentage and heat unit accumulation.

Visual indicators may also be taken into account in determining physiological maturity, such


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as the formation of the "black layer" and progression of the "milk line" (Afuakwa and

Crookston 1984). Harvesting schedules may also be influenced by practical considerations

such as the availability of labor, plant capacity, and cost of artificial dry ing. In most

industrialized countries, harvesting is initiated when kernel moisture content falls within the

range of 30 to 35%.

A timely harvest is important, because it reduces exposing the crop to biotic and

abiotic stresses that can result in physical losses and quality reductions. Depending on

agroclimatic and other factors, maize left standing in the field may be subject to insect and

pest attacks, as well as ear molds, stalk rots, and other diseases. Theft may also be a problem.

In East Java, farmers harvested maize 120 130 days after planting, depending on the

variety, and harvesting was done manually. Some farmers sold maize directly in the field

soon after harvesting, and some carried their maize (particularly local maize) to the house,

where it was sun-dried for several days. After drying and shelling, the moisture content of the

grain was 17-20%. The local (white) maize was usually stored for home consumption and

sold gradually in small quantities. Farmers stored yellow maize (the hybrid or its

corresponding recycled hybrid) for a limited period (1-4 weeks), until they could get a better

price.

Seeds for the next planting were mostly selected from the last harvest and stored

above the cooking place (stove) to prevent infestation by storage pests, particularly weevils.

Only a few farmers in the dryland and rainfed lowlands bought new seeds after the original

purchase of a new variety. Only farmers in irrigated areas bought new pure hybrids.

About 80% of farmers in dryland and 90% in irrigated areas used green leaves for

livestock fodder. About 50% of farmers in the drylands and 25% in irrigated areas used dry

stems, dry cobs, and husks for fuel, and about 10% of farmers in both areas did not use crop

residues for any purpose.


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BAB II : SUGAR CROPSUGAR BEET ( Beta vulgaris )

English name: sugar beet

Other names: Tropische suikerbiet

(Nl.), Zuckerrbe (Ge),

Latin name: Beta vulgaris

L. Plant Family: Chenopodiaceae

Sugar beet is the largest sugar crop

in the world after sugar cane. It is mostly

grown in temperate and drier areas of theworld. Sugar beet requires a soil that is not

too stony or clayey. It has a relatively high

tolerance of saline and alkaline soils and

has a relatively low water use. Sugar beet

is grown as an annual crop and multiplied

by seed. It has a thickened taproot that

accumulates sugar.Under tropical conditions, the

growth cycle is about 6 months. This

makes it possible to grow 2 crops per year.

Keep in mind that sugar beet requires crop

rotation of not less than 1 to 3.

Consequently, sugar beet can be grown in

the same land only once in 3 years to

prevent pests and diseases. This results in

longer transport distances to the processing

plant since continuous monoculture

cultivation close to the factory (such as

possible with sugar cane) is not possible.

2.1

Uses of Sugar BeetSugarbeets are used primarily for production of sucrose, a high energy pure food.

Man's demand for sweet foods is universal. Honey was the main sweetener for primitive

man. Trade in sugar from sugarcane can be traced to primitive times too. The sugarbeet

was recognized as a plant with valuable sweetening properties in the early 1700s.

a. Human Food

Sucrose from sugarbeets is the principal use for sugarbeets. Sugarbeets contain from

13 to 22% sucrose. Sucrose is used widely as a pure high energy food or food additive. High

fiber dietary food additives are manufactured from sugarbeet pulp and major food processors


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in Indonesia have used these dietary supplements in recently introduced new products

including breakfast cereals.

b. Livestock Feed

Sugarbeet pulp and molasses are processing by-products widely used as feed

supplements for livestock. These products provide required fiber in rations and increase the

palatability of feeds. Sugarbeet tops also can be used for livestock feed. Sheep and cattle

ranchers allow grazing of beet fields in the fall to utilize tops. Cattle and sheep also will eat

small beets left in the field after harvest but producers grazing livestock in harvested fields

should be aware of the risk of livestock choking on small beets.

Beet tops (leaves and petioles) also can be used as silage. Sugarbeets that produce 20

tons/acre of roots also produce a total of about 5 tons/acre of TDN per acre in the tops. Tops

are an excellent source of protein, vitamin A, and carbohydrates but are slightly inferior to

alfalfa haylage or corn silage for beef cattle. Tops are equal to alfalfa haylage or corn silage

for sheep. Beet top silage is best fed in combination with other feeds. Tops should be

windrowed in the field and allowed to wilt to 60-65% moisture before ensiling. See

Morrisons Feeds and Feeding Handbook for a detailed description of the nutrient content of

sugarbeet tops and roots.

c. Industrial Uses

Molasses by-products from sugarbeet processing are used widely in the alcohol,

pharmaceuticals, and bakers yeast industries. Waste lime from the processing of sugarbeets is

an excellent soil amendment to increase soil pH levels. Waste lime is a good source of P & K

plant nutrients. Treated processing waste water also may be used for irrigation.

2.2 Production

The world harvested 227.7 million metric tonnes of sugar beet in 2010. Despite being

the worlds second largest sugar producer and exporter in the 1930s, Indonesias sugar

industry has been in a state of decline. Production output decreased by 30% over the

course of 1995-2000 due to the closing of several out of date mills on advice from the

IMF. Production figures have improved again since 2004 to over 2 million MET and

reaching 2.39 MET in 2010. Indonesia is South East Asias largest consumer of sugar and

the worlds third largest importer, mainly for raw sugar. Total demand stood at 5.01

million MET for 2010 with imports making up the remainder mainly from Australia,

Thailand and the Philippines. Production levels have failed to keep pace with the


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increased demand in domestic consumption and industrial use which is estimated to

reach 5.7 million MET by 2014.

Figure 10. Indonesia Sugar Production

Source: Statistics Indonesia (BPS)

2.3 Morphology, Growth and Development.

2.3.1 Morphology

The varieties of sugar beets grown here and abroad present a diversity of forms from

the standpoint of leaf and root development, and internal structure. The types identifiable by

general appearance and internal morphology may be alike or different.

The inner structure of the sugar beet root is well known; it has been described and

illustrated by many investigators. Suffice it to say that the root is composed of concentric

rings of vascular tissue alternating with bands of parenchyma (Figure 1A) . The inner rings

are mature at harvest time, more or less equidistant and relatively broad; those near the

periphery are narrow and close together. In fact, in a typical mature beet root, the ratio of

total radius of mature to immature rings is 10:1. The center of the beet root is occupied by a

solid star-shaped body referred to as the central core. It measures only a few millimeters

across but occasionally it is much thicker. Although it is quite uniform throughout its entire

length, it may taper abruptly from the neck region downward. This is frequently seen in beets

whose central core in the neck region is abnormally large. To distinguish the tapering core

from the uniformly thick one it is necessary to check the core diameter at different root

levels. The vascular rings are composed of collateral bundles in which xylem and phloem are

equally broad or in which the phloem or the xylem is the more massive. The interzonal

parenchyma is narrow, broad or varying in width. In the latter case the parenchyma bands

between the innermost rings are usually widest.


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Figure 10. Root of Sugar Beet Figure 11. Morphology of Sugar Beet

2.3.2 Growth and Development

Sugarbeets emerge from the soil with a pair of cotyledon leaves. These leaves will

normally yellow and drop from the plant, usually by the fifth or sixth leaf stage. The next

leaves to emerge from the crown are the first true leaves. Although these leaves appear

simultaneously and seem to be oppositely arranged, they are alternate with one of the leaves

developmentally behind the other. Stage separation between the first and second true leaves is

not possible.

All subsequent leaves emerge from the crown in an alternate pattern. The following

table represents the staging system for the sugarbeet up to the nine-leaf stage. The staging

method designates the leaf stages V 1.0 to V 9.0. Leaves are counted when the leaf blade is

fully unrolled.

Stage Description

G Germination stages prior to emergence

V1.0 Cotyledons emerged and no evidence of first or second

leaf

V1.1 Cotyledons and first and second leaf just visible

V1.5 Cotyledons present and at least 50% of next

leaves unrolled

V1.9 Cotyledons present and at least 90% of next leaves

unrolled, but not completely

V2.0 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf not visible


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Stage Description

V2.1 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf just visible

V2.5 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf at least 50%

unrolled

V2.9 Two leaves unrolled and third leaf 90% unrolled

Each subsequent leaf stage (V3.0 V8.9) is described similarly. As crop development

progresses beyond V2.0 leaf stage, two or more developing leaves are always present.

Therefore, true V3.0, V4.0; etc. growth stages are not possible. The system uses decimal

fraction of each leaf stage to allow better separation between leaf stages and increase

accuracy of GDD predictions. The decimal fractions are used to represent the percentage or

amount of the next emerging leaf that has unrolled. For example, if a plant has three fully

unrolled leaves and the fourth leaf is approximately 60 percent unrolled, the stage is V3.6. At

later leaf stages when several unrolled leaves may be present, use the most advanced leaf of

the recent emerged pair in the estimate; be sure to never count the cotyledons. Turn over for

pictures of different sugarbeet growth stages for further guidance .

Figure 12. Sugar Beet Growth Stages


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In general, maize can grow optimally in areas with this characteristic :

Soil

Well drained, loamy to clay loam

pH 6.5 to 8.0 tolerate mild salinity

pH


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of seed/acre. Sugarbeet planters should not be operated at more than four miles per hour.

Planting speeds greater than four miles per hour result in increased skips, increased seed

doubles or triples and seed damage. Sugarbeet seed should not be planted greater than 1.5 in.

deep.

Sugar beet can be cultivated on a wide range of soils but a deep soil (> 1 m) is better

adapted to its long tap root. The crop grows well between pH 6,5 to 8 and tolerates saline

soils better than sugar cane.

Soil preparation is similar to other crops. But extra care should be taken to have a thin

seedbed: one or several harrowing is needed after plowing in order to break the clods. The

ideal sowing depth is 2.5 cm (maximum 3 cm). Soil structure should be maintained in order

to avoid water clogging and the lack of oxygen in the soil. The optimum population is

100.000 plants/ha (42.000 plants/a). This can generally be achieved with an initial sowing

density of 1.2 unit/ha (considering a 80-85% germination rate and knowing that each unit

contains 100.000 seeds). But, if difficult conditions are expected at emergence, it may be

useful to sow at a higher density and to have a light thinning once the crop is well

established.

Sugar beet can be sown by hand or mechanically, 1 seed per hole, either on a flat bed

(50 cm between rows and 16-17 cm between plants for a sowing density of 1,2 unit/ha) or on

ridges, which can be very practical for irrigation. Tropical sugar beet is monogerm: a single

plant comes out of each seed and therefore thinning is not needed.

The ideal sowing period will depend on the region where sugar beet is grown (climate

and crop rotation); an appropriate sowing window would have to combine warm temperatures

on a well drained soil, and will have to be followed by mild rainfalls.

2.5.2 Fertilizer

Sugarbeets are unique in their nitrogen (N) requirements. Too little nitrogen results in

poor leaf canopies, premature yellowing and reduced yields, while too much nitrogen leads to

a reduced sucrose content, increased impurities and lowered sucrose extraction. For proper

nitrogen management, pregrowing season soil nitrate-nitrogen (NO 3-N) should be determined

in a reputable laboratory that uses appropriate procedures and interpretations. NO 3-N is

mobile in the soil so residual nitrogen level should be determined annually. Phosphorus and

potassium should be determined every three to four years.


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Sugarbeet quality involves two concepts: the percent sucrose in the root and the level

of impurities in the root, both of which affect sucrose extraction by the processor. Production

of high quality sugarbeets is especially important to growers whose payment is based on the

extractable sucrose content of their beets.

Proper nitrogen fertilizer use normally increases yield of both roots and sucrose and

also may increase impurities and decrease the percent sucrose in the root. Use soil test

information to select fields with nitrogen levels suited to expected yields, and to select

fertilizer rates appropriate for expected yield goals. Excessive amounts of either residual or

fertilizer nitrogen usually significantly lowers beet quality. Sugarbeets require 8 to 9 lbs of

nitrogen/ton to produce a high quality, good yielding crop. Table 5 shows the nitrogen,

phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets.

Table 5. Nitrogen, phosphate and potash recommendations for sugarbeets

*Subtract amount of NO 3-N in top 2 feet of soil from these figures to determine the amount of N fertilizerto apply.

2.5.3 Weeding

Sugarbeets are poor competitors with weeds from emergence until the sugarbeet

leaves shade the ground. Emerging sugarbeets are small, lack vigor, and take approximately

two months to shade the ground. Thus, weeds have a long period to become established and

compete. Sugarbeets are relatively short even after they shade the ground so many weeds that

become established in a field prior to ground shading will become taller than the sugarbeets,

shade the sugarbeets, and cause severe yield losses. To avoid yield loss from weed

competition, weeds should be totally controlled by four weeks after sugarbeet emergence and

weed control should be maintained throughout the season.

A combination of cultural, chemical, and mechanical weed control methods should be

used to maximize weed control in sugarbeets. Some weed species such as kochia, common

mallow, common milkweed, and velvetleaf are difficult or impossible to control selectively in


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sugarbeets with herbicides. These weeds in particular, and all weeds in general, should be

effectively controlled in other crops in the rotation. Spot spraying or hand weeding small

areas should be used to prevent establishment of problem weeds. Sugarbeets should not be

planted on fields badly infested with problem weeds.

Cultivation with a row crop cultivator is a universal and essential weed control

method in sugarbeets. Also, the rotary hoe or spring tine harrow can be used to remove small

weeds from well rooted sugar beets. Hand weeding is still an important method of weed

control in sugarbeets

Generally herbicides will be more cost effective than hand weeding in moderate to

heavy weed densities. Hand weeding may be more cost effective in low weed densities,

especially if the target weed species are herbicide tolerant or too large for effective control.

2.5.4 Pests Management

Our seeds can be coated with plant protection products that will protect the crop

against most early attacks of insects and fungi. The type of pests and diseases occurring later

in the season will often depend on the region where sugar beet is cultivated. Nevertheless:

Powdery mildew and cercospora are two leaf diseases that are found almost

everywhere; a foliar spray with an appropriate fungicide is strongly advised when

first symptoms appear.

Some insects (ex. leaf eating caterpillars) might also from time to time attack the

crop later in the season; the use of an insecticide must then be evaluated on a case

by case basis.

2.5.5 Harvesting

Sugar beet has no ripening stage. If well managed (no damage due to root rots and

leaf diseases), the crop can continue to grow almost indefinitely. In practice, harvest is often

done after 4, 5 or 6 months. Sugar beet can be harvested by hand or mechanically. The leaves

usually stay in the field where they are used as green manure. The amount of soil on the root

at harvest should be limited as much as possible.


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BAB III : GRAIN LEGUMESSOYBEAN ( Glycine max )

3.1 Uses of Soybean

Soybean has great potential as a major source of protein for the Indonesian people. As

an inexpensive protein source, it has long been known and used in a great variety of food

products, such as tofu, tempe, tauco and kecap. Soybean provides as much or more protein

and calories than animal products.

Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and

vegetable oil.

Soybeans can be broadly classified as vegetable (garden) or field (oil) types.Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, better texture, are larger in size,

higher in protein, and lower in oil than field types.

Among the legumes, the soybean, also classed as an oilseed, is preeminent for its high

(38-45%) protein content as well as its high (20%) oil content. Soybeans are the second-most

valuable agricultural export in the United States behind corn. The bulk of the soybean crop is

grown for oil production, with the high-protein defatted and "toasted" soy meal used as

livestock feed. A smaller percentage of soybeans are used directly for human consumption.

a. Oil

Soybean seed contains about 19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans

are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes and solvent-extracted with

commercial hexane. The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes

hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold

as "vegetable oil", or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. The remaining soybean

meal is used mainly as animal feed.

b. Meal

Soybean meal is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean

flakes, with a 50% soy protein content. The meal is toasted ( amisnomer because the heat

treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a hammer mill. Soybean meal is an essential

element of the American production method of growing farm animals, such

as poultry and swine, on an industrial scale that began in the 1930s; and more recently

theaquaculture of catfish.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misnomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poultryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catfishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquaculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_pighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poultryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammer_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misnomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein


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c. Flour

Soy flour refers to defatted soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-

mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to

minimize denaturation of the protein to retain a high Protein Dispersibility Index (PDI), for

uses such as extruder cooking of textured vegetable protein. It is the starting material for

production of soy concentrate and soy protein isolate.

Defatted soy flour is obtained from solvent extracted flakes, and contains less

than 1% oil. Full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans, and contains about

18% to 20% oil. Due to its high oil content, a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill

must be used for grinding rather than the more common hammer mill. Low-fat soy flour is made by adding back some oil to defatted soy flour. The lipid

content varies according to specifications, usually between 4.5% and 9%. High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted

flour at the level of 15%. Lecithinated soy flour is made by adding soybean lecithin to defatted, low-fat or

high-fat soy flours to increase their dispersibility and impart emulsifying properties.

The lecithin content varies up to 15%.

d. Infant formula

Soy-based infant formula (SBIF) is used for infants who are allergic to pasteurized

cow milk proteins. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid

forms. Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth,

development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula

3.2 Production

In Indonesia, soybean is an important component of the national food supply. It is not

only a protein source, but also a source of minerals, vitamins and fat. In 100 gram of soybean,

there are 33.3 g protein, 15 g fat, 213 mg calcium, 0.65 vitamin B1, 0.23 mg vitamin B2 and

vitamin C (Hermana, 1985). The availability of soybean in country will improve the

nutriention of society through the consumption of soybean and its processed products such as

tofu, tempe, and soy sauce. The demand for soybean is increasing since the industrial sector

based on soybean product has been growing significantly.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Dispersibility_Indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extruder#Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textured_vegetable_proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecithinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecithinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textured_vegetable_proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extruder#Foodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Dispersibility_Indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)


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Soybean imports are used as food for both animals and humans. The volume of

soybean imports in 1994 was 800,000 ton and in 1995, it increased to 807,000 ton. In the

period 1997-1998, imports of soybean increased continually. National production was, on

average, 12.11 Kw/ha in 2001. This was well below experimental yields that averaged 20-30

Kw/ha in 2001.

Government efforts to increase soybean production have had only minor success. The

low productivity is caused both by a lack of significant improvements in technology and poor

management techniques. The overall result has been a declining domestic production and an

upward trend in soybean imports.

Table 6. Area, Production, Productivity, Supply, and Demand for Soybean from

1997-2001

Source: PSE dan Bappenas (2002)

Soybean production decreased about 0.81 percent annually. Area decreased about 0.52%

annually. Productivity decreased about 0.29% annually. In Java, increasing population caused

the decline in area. Area in the outer islands was relatively stabile. Total demand for soybean,

either for food and animal use, increased about 2.21% per year. The result was a widening

import gap. A number of constraints have held back domestic production:

1. Suitable land extension is limited because of the high degree of acidity in most

other parts of the country.

2. Most additional land that could potentially grow soybean is hilly and rolling, so it

leads to easy erosion.

3. Farmers have not adopted improved technology

4. Fluctuating prices have made soybeans risky

3.3 Morphology, Growth and Development

3.3.1 Morphology

Habitat:


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Grown in areas where the summer is hot and rather damp; withstand excessive heat or

severe winters; grown on a wide range of soils.

Habit:

Erect, bushy pubescent annual with grey hairs on all parts of the plants; some are

prostate and twining, a tendency which increases with shade; determinate cultivars

develop terminal inflorescence; indeterminate cultivars shows axillary inflorescence.

Roots:

Taproot, nodules small spherical sometimes lobed.

Stem: Branched; buds in axils of cotyledons. The primary leaves do not normally develop

unless tip damaged.

Leaves: Alternate, trifoliate, rarely five foliage; petiole long narrow, cylindrical; stipules,

small lanceolate, stipels minute; leaflets ovate to lanceolate, usually palea green in

colour, base rounded; apex acute or obtuse; lateral leaflets often slightly oblique; most

cultivars drop leaves when pods begin to mature.

Inflorescence: Short clustered axillary raceme; terminal if determine type.

Flowers:

Small, bracteoles two, ovate, acute.

Calyx: Hairy, persistent, united for half-length with two upper and three lower lobes.

Corolla:

White or lilac; standard ovate, emarginated (notched at the extremity); wings narrow,

obovate; keel shorter that wings, not fused along upper surface.

Androecium: Stamens monadelphous; vexillary stamens free at the base; anthers uniform, globose.

Gynoecium:

Hairy sessile, few ovuled, style curved, glabrous, stigma capitate.

Fruit:

Pod; borne is cluster on short stalks; pale yellow, grey or black; slightly curved.

Seed:

Globose; testa straw yellow; green, brown or black or blotched and mottled incombination of these colours, hilum small; cotyledon yellow or green.


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Pollination: Self-pollination is the rule. Flowers open in the early morning and pollen is shed just

before or at the time of opening and is shed directly onto the stigma. Bees and other

insects visit flowers so that cross-pollination can take place, but is usually less than

one per cent.

Figure 13. Morphology of Soybean


The soybean is a dicotyledonous plant that exhibits epigeal (above the surface)

emergence. During germination, the cotyledons are pushed through the soil to the surface by

an elongating hypocotyl. Because of the energy required to push the large cotyledons through

heavy soils, soybeans generally emerge best if they are planted no deeper than 2 inches. After

emergence, the green cotyledons open and supply the developing leaves with stored energy,

while capturing a small amount of light energy.


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The first leaves to develop are the unifoli olate leaves. Two of these single leaves

appear directly opposite one another above the cotyledons. All subsequent leaves are

trifoliolates comprised of 3 leaflets.

Soybean development is characterized by two distinct growth phases. The first is the

vegetative stages (V) that cover development from emergence through flowering The second

is the reproductive (R) stages from flowering through maturation.

a. Vegetative stages

Germination Stage

The radical, or primary root, is first to emerge from the seed. Shortly afterward, the

hypocotyl (stem) emerges and begins growing toward the soil surface pulling the cotyledons

(seed leaves) with it. This hook-shaped hypocotyl straightens out once emerged and as the

cotyledons unfold. Emergence normally takes five to ten days depending on temperature,

moisture conditions, variety and planting depth. During this time, lateral roots are also

beginning to grow from the primary root.

Cotyledon Stage

In this stage unifoliolate leaves are fully expanded. The cotyledons supply the nutrient

needs of the young plant (for about seven to 10 days). The cotyledons will lose about 70% of

their dry weight to this nutrient reallocation.

First trifoliolate

The first trifoliolate is fully emerged and opened.

Second node

Plants are 6-8 inches tall and have three nodes with two unfolded leaflets. Active

nitrogen fixation from the bacteria is just beginning to occur. Most of these root nodules are

within 10 inches of the soil surface with millions of bacteria in each nodule. Nodules that are

pink or red inside are active in nitrogen fixation. White, brown or green nodules are not

efficiently fixing nitrogen and are probably parasitic on the plant.Third to Fifth nodes

Soybean plants are about 7-9 inches tall with four nodes (three unfolded leaflets). The

number of branches seen on the plant may increase at this point. At this stage the plant

normally has axillary buds in the top stem that will develop into flower clusters (racemes).

Sixth node

Plants are often 12 to 14 inches tall at this stage with seven nodes with unfolded

leaflets. The unifoliolate and cotyledons may have senesced from the plant. New stages are


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quickly unfolding every two to three days. Lateral roots have crossed over the row

underground in any rows 30 inches or less

b. Reproductive Stages

Flower Initiation

At least one flower is located on the plant at any node on the main stem. Plants have

lengthened to 15-18 inches tall. Soybean flowering always initiates on the third to sixth node

on the main stem depending on vegetative stage when flowering begins. This flower initiation

will progress up and down the plant. Branches eventually also flower. Within each raceme,

the flowering will occur from the base to the tip, so basal pods are always more mature.

Full Bloom stage

Soybeans are around 17-22 inches. An open flower is seen at one of the two top nodes of the

main stem. At least one of these two upper nodes shows a fully developed leaf. At this stage,

the soybean has accumulated about 25% of its total dry weight and nutrients and has obtained

about 50% of its mature height.

Pod Initiation

Plants can be up to 23-32 inches tall. A pod on the upper four nodes is 3/16 inch long.

Temperature or moisture stress at this time can affect yield through total pod number, bean

number per pod or seed size.

Full Pod

This stage shows rapid pod growth and the beginning of seed development at the

beginning of the full pod stage. This stage is the most crucial period for seed yield.

Seed Initiation

Seed filling during this stage requires much water and nutrients from the plant.

Redistribution of nutrients in the plant occurs with the soybean providing about a half of

needed N, P and K from the plant's vegetative parts and about a half from N fixation and

nutrient uptake by the roots.Full Seed

This stage is also known as the "green bean" stage or beginning full seed stage, and

total pod weight will peak during this stage. Growth rate of the beans is rapid

Initial Maturity

This stage begins with one normal pod on the main stem which obtains the mature

color (brown or tan). Dry matter begins to peak in individual seeds. This is visually seen

when all green color is lost from both the seeds and pods (they appear yellow). Seeds containabout 60% moisture at physiological maturity.


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Full Maturity

On the soybean plant, 95% of the pods have reached their mature color and only five

to 10 days of good drying weather after this stage will be required to have the soybeans at

less than 15% moisture, or harvest moisture



Soybeans grow best in slightly acid soil but can tolerate a wide range of pH (pH 5.8 to

7.0). Soil pH also affects the types and ability of soil organisms to live, including nitrogen-

fixing bacteria. Humus in soil will buffer extremes in pH, and lime can be added to amend

soil and counteract acid soil.Soybeans need a minimum soil temperature of 55 to 60oFahrenheit to germinate. Germination rates increase at warmer temperatures. A seed that's in

the soil but cannot rapidly germinate and emerge above the soil surface will have a higher

chance of exposure to diseases and damping off.

Soybean is a hardy plant and well adapted to a variety of soils and soil conditions.

Producing the best quality crop and maximum yields will require top quality soil. Thus, soil

is one of the first things to consider when planting a crop. A healthy, fertile, workable soil

will actually provide seedlings and growing plants with protection from adverse weatherincluding cold, frost, drought, excess water, and protection from pests and diseases.

Ideal soil for optimum soybean production is a loose, well-drained loam. Many field

have tight, high clay soil that becomes waterlogged when it rains. When the soil dries out, a

hard crust surface may form which is a barrier to emerging seedlings. These high clay soils

are low in humus and may have imbalance in mineral nutrients. Also, these soils may have

few beneficial soil organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, earthworms and others). High

clay soils may be amended with peat moss, sphagnum, organic mulch to increase the humus

content. Sand may be added to loosen and aerate the soil and allow better drainage. The

advantages of loose, well-aerated soil include

1. movement of air to roots and nitrogen-fixing root nodules,

2. increased water-holding capacity with adequate drainage,

3. reduced erosion,

4. reduced weed populations,

5. maintenance of steady and balanced nutrients to roots and balance pH, and


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6. increased potential to protect roots from harmful nematodes, insects pests, and

pathogens.

3.5 Crop Production

3.5.1 Sowing, fertilizer, weed and pest management, harvesting

Most farmers plant the seed in rows; About 50% use a plant spacing of 20 x 20 cm.

Only 11% of the farmers (but particularly those in Jember) broadcast their seed. The method

of planting, whether as monoculture or intercrop, and whether in rows or not,

influences the weeding practices. In Jember, where most farmers broadcast their seed, only a

small number (24%) weed their crop. In other areas, more than 80% of farmers weed

their crop. Farmers generally weed twice in Lampung Tengah, Wonogiri, and

Grobogan; in Gunung Kidul and Ponorogo, only one weeding is usual. In the former areas,

farmers usually weed 10-15 days and again 30-35 days after planting; in the latter areas, they

weed 10-15 days or 20 25 days after planting.

3.5.2 Fertilizer

Phosphate and potash fertilizer can be applied broadcast and incorporated into the soil

before planting or applied as a starter at planting time. If applied as a starter, the

recommended placement of the fertilizer is in a band 2 inches to the side and 2 inches below

the seed. "Popup" (a small amount of fertilizer placed in contact with the seed) should not be

used on soybean. Soybean is very susceptible to fertilizer salt injury.

Since phosphorus and potassium move very little in the soil, it is possible to "build

up" or increase the available level of these nutrients in the soil. The application of

approximately 20 pounds of P 2O5 per acre will increase the phosphorus soil test level by

Zinc (Zn) deficiencies have been found in isolated areas in the state. Problem areas are

generally limited to sandy soil. However, zinc deficiencies are not uncommon on soils withhigh calcium carbonate levels at the soil surface or where topsoil has been removed in

leveling for irrigation.

The first symptom of Zn deficiency in soybean is usually a light green color developing

between the veins on the older leaves. New young leaves will be abnormally small. Bronzing

of the older leaves may occur. When the deficiency is severe, leaves may develop necrotic

spots. Shortened internodes will give plants a stunted, rosetted appearance.

Iron (Fe) deficiency (chlorosis) may be observed in soybean, especially on high calciumcarbonate level soils during cool, wet periods. The youngest leaves of Fe deficient plants will


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be distinctly yellow. The interveinal areas of the leaves will be bright yellow while the veins

remain green. Soil treatments for correcting Fe deficiences are not usually effective. A

suggested foliar treatment would be to dissolve 20 pounds of ferrous sulfate in 100 gallons of

water and apply at the rate of 10 to 20 gallons per acre. Profitable yield of soybean is more

likely on high testing soils at high levels of management. Plant recommended varieties at

optimum stands in narrow rows. Weed control is very important.

3.5.3 Weeding

An important goal is stand uniformity. In general, if weeds are controlled, soybeans

will yield more in narrow rows than in 30 inch rows. Benefits from narrowing the row width

will depend on location, soil conditions, weather conditions, planting date, and variety. In

northern and central regions of the U.S., soybeans grown in narrow rows yield more than

those grown in corn-width rows. In southern areas, there is a similar trend toward narrower

rows and higher yield if good weed control is achieved. The rule of thumb is that the

soybean canopy should completely close (cover and shade the space between rows) by

flowering time. The faster the soybean canopy closes, the fewer the number of weeds will

grow. In narrow rows, weeds can not be cultivated easily.

3.5.4 Pests Management

Crop scouting has been used for many years to help identify pest problems and

determine what action, if any, should be taken. However, scouting is only one part of an

overall approach known as integrated pest management (IPM). The objectives of integrated

pest management are to consider all appropriate methods of lowering pest levels (rather than

relying solely on chemicals), to use pesticides only according to need, and to help produce

crops more profitably.

One way to improve profitability is to lower costs. Pesticide costs may be reduced byapplying chemicals only when necessary and using only the amount needed to control the

pests. To know precisely when to take action against crop pests it is necessary to scout for

pests regularly and systematically and to know how many pests must be present before they

will cause economic damage to a crop. (This level is called the economic threshold ). Some

knowledge about the advantages and disadvantages of specific pesticides can be very helpful

in selecting the best product and minimum application rate needed for control.

Growers are quick to recognize the profit-robbing potential of pests, but it is just as importantto realize that using a pesticide when it is not needed can also cut profits. The use of proper


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scouting procedures and knowledge of economic thresholds can ensure that growers use

pesticides properly and realize maximum returns for their investment.

The purpose of field scouting is to obtain an objective summary of the pest situation.

Some of the information obtained will be useful in making immediate pest control decisions.

Other observations will help in knowing what to expect at a comparable time next year.

3.5.5 Harvesting

For use as a green vegetable (called edamame), soybean pods should be harvested

when the seeds are fully grown but before the pods turn yellow. Most varieties produce beans

in usable condition over a period of a week to 10 days. The green beans are difficult to

remove from the pods unless the pods are boiled or steamed 4 to 5 minutes, after which they

are easily shelled.


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BAB IV : OIL CROPPEANUT ( Arachis hypogaea)

In 1753, Linneaus described the domesticated peanut species as Arachis (derived fromthe Greek arachis, meaning a weed) hypogaea (meaning a underground chamber) or a

weed with fruit produced below the soil.

4.1 Uses of Peanut

Peanuts have many uses. They can be eaten raw, used in recipes, made into solvents

and oils, used in make-up, medicines, textile materials, peanut butter, as well as many other

uses. Popular confections made from peanuts include salted peanuts, peanutbutter (sandwiches, peanut candy bars, peanut butter cookies, and cups) , peanut brittle, and

shelled nuts (plain/roasted). Salted peanuts are usually roasted in oil and packed in retail-size

plastic bags or hermetically sealed cans.

Dry roasted salted peanuts are also marketed in significant quantities. Although

peanut butter has been a tradition on camping trips and the like because of its high protein

content and the fact that it resists spoiling for long periods of time, the primary use of peanut

butter is in the home, but large quantities are also used in the commercial manufacture of

sandwiches, candy, and bakery products. Boiled peanuts are a preparation of raw, unshelled

green peanuts boiled in brine and often eaten as a snack. More recently, fried peanut recipes

have emerged - allowing both shell and nut to be eaten. Peanuts are also used in a wide

variety of other areas, such as cosmetics, nitroglycerin, plastics, dyes and paints.

4.2 Production

The peanut is known by several names throughout the world, such as groundnut and

earth nut, because the seeds develop under the ground. Peanuts are produced on a signicant

basis in more than 30 different countries throughout the world. The worldwide production for

2002 was estimated to be in excess of 31 million metri tons (MMT)

Indonesian peanut production growth has been trending down in the last 8 years.

Post, based on historical growth, predicts that the production will continue declining by

approximately 2.5 percent in MY 2011/2012 and MY 2012/2013.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butter_and_jelly_sandwichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_barhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butter_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiled_peanutshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitroglycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitroglycerinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmeticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiled_peanutshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butter_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_barhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butter_and_jelly_sandwichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_butterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_oil


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food manufacturers such as PT. Garuda, PT. Dua Kelinci, Orang Tua Group, and PT. Mitra

Foods are accounting for 65 percent of total food use of peanut in Indonesia.

Feed use of peanut is predicted to stay constant at around 70,000 MT both in the

current and next marketing year. The popularity of peanut oil is declining due to the growing

use of palm oil in Indonesia. Consequently, Indonesian peanut supply that goes to peanut mill

is predicted to decrease from 65,000 MT in MY 2010/2011 to 35,000 MT in MY 2011/2012.

The mills are expected to press less peanut at 20,000 MT in MY 2012/2013.

4.3 Morphology, Growth and Development

4.3.1 Morphology

Additional important morphological points are:

1. Perennial, dicotyledonous legume

2. Complex plant

3. Seed

a. 2 large cotyledons

b. epicotyl with apical meristem and 6-8 differentiated leaves

c. hypocotyl

d. radicle or primary root

root grows ~ 8X faster than shoot during germination and emergence with up to

100 lateral roots and no visible new leaves by the 12 th day after germination.

4. Apical dominance: very little

a. two lateral branches arise

from the cotyledonary node

that equal or exceed the

primary stem providing

essentially 3 initial shoot

apices.

b. runner or virginia types:

reproductive branches rarely

arise from the primary or

central stem.


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Growth stages

Germination and emergence

A peanut seed has two cotyledons, or seed leaves, and an embryo. After emergence,

the cotyledons unfold above the ground. The embryo is not totally protected by the

cotyledons and can easily be physically damaged during the harvesting, storage, shelling and

planting operations. A damaged embryo will not develop properly, and although it may

germinate and establish, yields will be much lower than those of plants from undamaged

seed. Plants growing from damaged seed often have a curled or J-shaped root system. This

defect can also be a symptom of pre-emergence herbicide damage.

Peanut seed germinates best at soil temperatures of 20 35C. The radicle, or root,

takes one to two days to emerge from the seed. After five days the taproot is 10 15 cm long.

Lateral roots then start to develop and secondary roots grow from the laterals. After five to

ten days, the root is supplying minerals from the soil to the plant. Effective rooting depth of

the peanut plant is around 100 120 cm. Where there are no soil restrictions, the peanut plant

has a long, spike-shaped root up to 150 cm long, with the primary root system branching to

a depth of 60 80 cm.

Emergence through the soil, known as cracking, begins six to fourteen days after planting.

Dry or cool soils can delay emergence for up to three weeks, often resulting in poor

establishment due to soil-borne disease. Emerging peanut seedlings can push through quite

hard and crusted soil, hence the term cracking, but very crusted soil will restrict

emergence.

Vegetative growth

After 20 days there may be eight to ten fully-expanded leaves. Unlike most legumes,peanuts have four leaflets per leaf, which partially fold up at night. Peanut foliage can grow

at a rate of 150 to 200 kg per hectare per day once full canopy cover is reached. Peanuts are

indeterminate in vegetative and reproductive development. This means the plant does not

stop growing in order to flower and produce a crop. They continue to grow leaves and stems

while also flowering and setting pods. The pods must, therefore, compete with the shoots for

carbohydrate and nutrients.


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There are differences between varieties. Newer varieties achieve higher pod yields

compared to older varietie s, because a larger portion of the newer varieties growth goes into

pods rather than vegetation.

Flowering

Flowers can appear throughout the season. The yellow flowers open at night, self-

pollinate in the early morning and wither by evening of the same day. Flowers grow along

the branches and each node can produce sev

Crop Production in Indonesia (Dian Dwi)

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