*Critical ThinkingTopic 1Barriers to Critical ThinkingRecognizing Arguments

Lecture Notes 2008 McGraw Hill Higher Education

*Barriers to Critical Thinking Why do people find critical thinking so difficult?Lack of relevant background informationPoor reading skillsPrejudiceSuperstition EgocentrismSociocentrismUnwarranted assumptions and stereotypingRelativistic thinkingOverpowering emotionsFace-savingFear of changeSelf-deception (Ref. Baasham p 11)

*Barriers to Critical ThinkingEgocentrism. The tendency to see reality as centered on oneself. Two common forms of egocentrism are:Self-interested thinking: Tendency to accept and defend beliefs that harmonize with your own self-interest. (e.g. lecturers vs adminstrators).

*Can you detect the egocentricism in the text below?Kelvin: You know I really hate people who complain!Ron: Oh?Kelvin: Yeah. You know some people go on and on about what they dont like and why. They just go on complaining, as if anyone is interested. But you cannot tell them otherwise they never give you a chance! They really irritate me. You hope they will change the subject, but, no, they never do. And they keep on repeating themselves. You wonder whats wrong with themRon: (sigh)

*Self-serving bias: To see yourself better in some respect than you actually are: Overrating oneself. Critical thinking requires one to be honest about ones own abilities. Remember that your wants and needs are not more important than anyone else's. Critical thinking is objective. Refers to people who claim to be more talented or knowledgeable than they really are!

*Answer the following questions (Y/N?).a) Do you consider yourself a person with some skill or talent?b) Are you a friendly person? c) Do people like you?d) Are you civic-conscious?d) Are you informed about what happens in your country?THINK!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

*Barriers to Critical ThinkingSociocentrismThis refers to Group centered thinking. Sociocentrism distorts critical thinking in two waysGroup Bias: the tendency to see ones own group (e.g.nation, race) as being inherently better than all others. People absorb this unconsciously, usually from childhood (e.g. pride/ suspicion)Conformism: Refers to our tendency to follow the crowd. The desire to be a part of the in-group is an extremely powerful motivation

*Can you give examples of your own to show sociocentrism ?You can take examples from: social beliefs, traditions, family values, race, gender, different generations, peer groups, institutions etc.

*Barriers to Critical ThinkingUnwarranted Assumptions and StereotypesAn assumption is a belief without absolute proof or evidence. Unwarranted Assumption: Something taken for granted without good reason. One common type of this is: (e.g.attraction towards another) Stereotype: assuming that all people within a group (e.g., sex, race) share all the same qualities; So a particular individual who belongs to this group has the same qualities (e.g. male dancers)Stereotypes are arrived at through the process of generalization, i.e. drawing conclusions about a large group from a small sample.

*Stereotype: Discuss the following statements.1.Anyone who smokes is a cool guy.2. Girls like to date only rich guys.3. I am going to meet my friends Italian fiance tomorrow. I am not looking forward to it. Italians are portrayed as rogues and belonging to the Mafia. I hope he is okay!

*Relativistic ThinkingRelativism is the view that truth is a matter of opinion. Subjectivism: the view that truth is a matter of individual opinion; what one thinks is true is true for that person. Moral Subjectivism: The view that what is morally right for person A is what he thinks is morally right. Cultural Relativism: the view that what is true for person A is what person As culture or society believes to be true. Cultural moral relativism: The view that what a culture thinks is morally right to do, is morally right to do, in that culture. (e.g. affects tolerance ..)Relativism is false. Read the example given.

*A Conversation between lecturer and student: What are your comments? Are the students arguments acceptable?S: Sir, I dont understand why you gave me a D on this paper. L: Well, as I have commented in your paper, you state your opinion but do not offer any reasons to back them up.S: Do you mean you gave me a low grade because you disagree with my opinions?L: No, not at all Sue Ling. You received a low grade because you didnt give reasons to support your opinion.S: But isnt everyone entitled to his or her own opinion.? And can anyone prove that ones opinion is right and others wrong? So why do I have to give reasons for my opinion when I have a right to my own opinion and no-one can prove that I am wrong?L: (Sigh) (Bassham p20)

*Wishful ThinkingBelieving what you want to be true (without evidence or despite evidence to the contrary). This error is quite common, for example,(?) belief in tabloid (sensational/ shocking/ scandalous)headlineshealing crystalsquack curescommunication with the deadit wont happen to me beliefsetc.

*Characteristics of a Critical ThinkerStrives for clarity and precisionSensitive to the discussed thinking errorsIntellectually honest (admits ignorance and limits)Welcomes criticisms of beliefs; open to revising basic beliefsBases beliefs on facts, not on preference or interest. Thinks independently (doesnt let groups control their beliefs). Values having true beliefs, not comfortable ones. Intellectual perseverance; will strive for truth even when it is hard to do.

*Activity -Issues for discussion.What do you think about these issues?Healing amulets (GOODLUCK CHARM)Communication with the deadTraditional medicinal cures

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Recognizing Arguments

*What is an argument?People think an argument is a kind of shouting match! It is not so. In critical thinking, an argument is a claim defended with reasons. The purpose of the argument is an attempt to convince someone (or even yourself) of something.

*How does critical thinking help? Critical thinking aids the formulating of good arguments. It also helps evaluating whether we should be convinced that some claim is true or some argument is good

*Characteristics of a good ArgumentAn argument is composed of one or more premises and a conclusion. It is a group of statements (of one or more premises) intended to prove or support another statement called the conclusion.

*Characteristics of a good ArgumentIt shows reasoning using plain language It uses declarative sentences (claims), i.e. a sentence that is true or false (but not both)

*What is a claim?A claim is a declarative sentence which is used in such a way that it is either true or false (but not both). For example,1.Critical Thinking is a skill that can be acquired.2.Dinosaurs once walked this earth.

The following sentences are not claims:3. Open the door now! (Order)4. Please, God, help me to pass this exam. (Request/Prayer)

*Identify whether the following sentences are statements or not.Statement: a sentence/utterance that can be viewed as either true or false. 1.Capital punishment is wrong.2.Tiger Woods is the greatest golfer ever.3. We could stop at the next rest area.4. I hope that you pass the exam.5. If she calls, tell her I am at the meeting.

*Definitions Statement: a sentence/utterance that can be viewed as either true or false. Argument: group of statements, one or more of which is/are intended to prove or support another statement.

*DefinitionsPremises: statements in an argument offered as evidence or reasons why one should accept another statement.The Conclusion: the statement that the premises support/prove.

*What is a statement?Examples: Red is a color. (physical statement) Abortion is morally wrong. (moral statement) The Matrix is a better movie than Titanic. (evaluative statement)The following are not statements.What time is it? (question) Close the window! (command) Oh, my goodness! (exclamation) Statement test: Does it make sense to put it is true that or it is false that in front of it? If so, it is a statement. If not, its not.

*Tricky statementsRhetorical question: a sentence that has the grammatical form of a question but is meant to be understood as a statement. Dont you know smoking will kill you? (means: Smoking will kill you.) How am I supposed to do that? (means: I cant do that.)

Tricky statementsOught imperative: a sentence that has the form of a command but is a statement about what ought to be done. Do yoga! really means You should do yoga. Dont throw rubbish into the drain!This really means You should not throw rubbish into the drain!

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*Identify whether the following sentences are statements or not.1 Girls with long hair are more beautiful than those with short hair.2 Walk on the pavement at all times. 3 It was truly great party!4 Am I supposed to follow whatever you say?5 Please write legibly so I can read.6 Cant you see that pornography demeans women?(Adapted from Baasham pp 33)

*Identifying Premises & ConclusionsIn identifying premises and conclusions we are often helped by indicator words. Indicators provide clues that premises or conclusions are being put forward. Premise indicators: since, for, seeing that, in as much as, in view of the fact that, because, as, given thatConclusion indicators: therefore, hence, so, it follows that, wherefore, thus, consequently, that is whyBe careful. These indicators are sometimes absent or sometimes misleading.

*Tips on finding Conclusions in arguments without indicators1.Find the main issues; determine the authors position. 2.Look at the beginning and end of the text; it is usually there. 3.Ask yourself, What is the writer/speaker trying to prove?

*Tips on finding Conclusions in arguments without indicators4.Try putting the word therefore before one of the statements. If it fits it is the conclusion. 5.The because trick e.g. The writer/speaker believes (conclusion) because (premise(s). (The conclusion precedes the indicator word because)

*Examples of arguments using indicator words.1.You want people to be honest with you, so be honest with them.2. Your life is what your thoughts make it. That is why it is important to guard our minds from unhealthy habits of thinking, habits that hold us back from accomplishing.3. What is right in one place may be wrong in another, because the only criterion for distinguishing right from wrongis the moral system of the society in which the act occurs. (W.H.Shaw Business Ethics)Can you identify the premises and conclusions in the above sentences?

*Is it possible to formulate arguments without indicators?Yes!1. My cat is smarter than my dog. It can survive for a week just scavenging for food but not my dog. Without being fed it will just starve.

2. I cannot be responsible for all that happens to me. There are many factors outside my control, like the environment, other people and their decisions, the pressures of life and so on.Can you identify the premises and conclusions in the above sentences?

*Distinguishing arguments from non-argumentsHow to distinguish?The basic test is simple. It is called an argument when:1 It is a group of 2 or more statements2 One of these statements (conclusion) is claimed to be supported by the others (premises)

*Argumentative discourse confused with argumentsWhat is not an Argument?5 types that are confused with arguments: reportsunsupported assertionsconditional statementsillustrationsexplanations

*What is not an Argument?(1)

1.Reports: statements made to convey information.More people moved to the south this year. Oil prices dropped today, thus so did gas prices. Notice that, even though there is a conclusion indicator, this is still a report. 2.Unsupported Assumptions: when someone puts forth what they believe but does not intend for any of their statements to support another.People arent afraid of dying; they are afraid of not living. People like this course because of the professor. Notice the presence of a premise indicator, but not a premise.

*What Is Not An Argument?(2)3.Conditional statements: (if-then) e.g.,: If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.Most common forms: If A then B; B if A. Antecedent: usually, the part that directly follows If Consequent: Usually, the part that follows then. But conditionals need not always have if or thene.g., In the event of rain, the picnic will be cancelled.

*More On Conditional StatementsConditionals are not arguments, but they can look like them. Conditional: If I were taller I would play basketball. Argument: I am tall, so I would make a good basketball player. If Rhode Island were larger than Ohio, and Ohio were larger than Texas, then Rhode Island would be larger than Texas. This is a conditional statement; If the first two things are true, then the third is true.

*More On Conditional StatementsIf Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Ann. If Bob is taller than Ann, then Bob is taller then Lori. Thus, if Bob is taller than Chris then Bob is taller than Lori. This is an argument. The latter follows from the two former statements.Chain arguments: consist of conditional statements. If A then B. If B then C. Therefore, if A then C. e.g., If Allen moves I will be all alone. If I am all alone then I will be sad. So if Allen moves I will be sad.

*What Is Not An Argument?(3)4. llustrations: examples of a claim.Many wildflowers are edible. For example, daises and day lilies are delicious in salads. Be careful Some arguments can look like illustrations because they use counter examples. Many people think that all Star Trek fans are zit faced nerds. But that is not true. For example, Christian Slater is a Star Trek fan and he is not a zit faced nerd.

*What Is Not An Argument?(4)5. Explanation: tries to show why something is the case (not argue that it is the case). (Consists of explanandum and explanans).Usually offers up a causal explanation for something that is already accepted as true.Titanic sank because it struck an iceberg. (explanation) Capital Punishment is wrong because it is murder. (argument) Explanandum: what is explained (the event). Explanans: the explanation (the cause).Explanadum because Explanans.I ski because I think it is fun. (explanation)You should ski because it is fun. (argument)

*Arguments vs. Explanation (1)(how to tell the difference?)The Common-Knowledge TestIf it points at something that is common knowledge, it is probably an explanation. Most people dont present arguments for things people already believe.E.g.TV is very influential in society because most people watch it. The Past-Event TestIf it points at a past event, it is probably an explanation. Usually people dont argue X occurred. E.g. The US entered WWII because of Japans attack on Pearl Harbor.

*Read the following & decide whether they are arguments. Identify the premise & conclusion.1. Doctor, the patient is Room 345 is dying. He is gasping for breath.2. If you dont do as I say, you will be punished.3. The sea is blue because of the refraction of light.4. The accident was not my fault! She beat the red lights and banged into my car. It was my right of way.5. I hope to pass the interview. Do you think I have a chance?

*Try this puzzleSuppose you need to measure exactly 1 cup of water. All that you have in your kitchen are two containers. The smaller container holds 3 cups and the larger holds 5 cups. How can you use these two containers to measure exactly 1 cup of water?

*Try this puzzle