Critical Studies 4 Notes

7/31/2019 Critical Studies 4 Notes

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CRITICAL STUDIES 4: URBAN DESIGN NOTES ANSWER TWO QUESTIONS ONLY

QUESTION 1

(i) An explanation of the basic principles of figure-ground theory:

(i & ii) Include interdependence of figure and ground; importance of movement and viewpoint.

The figure-ground theory is a visual process which revolves heavily around perception.

Since individuals perceive the environment as a total unit, he/she responds to the whole

of what is seen and this whole is composed of the stimuli of which the person is aware

of first, through "spontaneous concentration" -the figure. Then latter, those of which

the person is not aware or does not attend -the ground. A key aspect of such

phenomenon is that only one possible perception of it can prevail at a given moment; in

other words, figure and ground can never be observed simultaneously, but only 'flips'

back and forth. The figure/ground process is perceptual and changes momentarily.

When we refer to the figure above (Rubin's vase and faces), two different objects can be

perceived, a vase, and two faces looking at each other. When the vase is figural all the

rest of the picture is ground; when the faces are figural the vase disappears into the

ground. As we study the picture, we may be able to change our perceptions from one

figure to the other in order to appreciate the process of emerging figures and receding

grounds. As Weber states, the stronger the figural character of the ground, the stronger

its tendency to claim the common contour as its own boundary. Perceptually, a contour

has so-called one-sided function: this means it belongs to the figure, and is set off from

the rest of the visual field, which becomes the ground.

It is important to note the interdependency of figure and ground. There is a relationship

between them, as each of their members are mutually dependent on each other. If the

black vase did not exist, the contours would not be formed, hence the faces would not

be visible. Similarly, if the white faces did not exist, the black vase would not be visible

in the middle. Figure and ground must both exist, in order to create a total unit. You

cannot have one without the other.

vase (black object)

two faces (white object)

contour (outline)


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(ii) An assessment of its importance in urban design:

The figure-ground theory in relation to urban design is founded on the study of the

relative land coverage of: solid mass -> figure (buildings), and open voids -> ground

(parks, streets, squares). It is through a predominant "field" of solids and voids that

creates the urban fabric as a whole, punctuated by object buildings and spaces, such as

major landmarks and open spaces that provide focal points and sub-centers within the

field. The figure-ground approach to spatial design is an attempt to manipulate the

solid-void relationships by adding to, subtracting from, or changing the physical

geometry of the pattern.

When interpreted and used as a drawing, the figure ground drawing is a graphic tool for

illustrating mass-void relationships; a two-dimensional black and white abstraction in

plan view that clarifies the structure and order of urban spaces. It can identify the

textures and patterns of the urban fabric as well as problems in it's spatial order.Furthermore, includes continuity of void spaces

(circulation) and a sense of scale (fine grain to

coarse grain). With the objective to clarify spatial

structure by establishing a hierarchy of spaces

individually enclosed but ordered directionally in

relation to each other. In doing so, we understand

the importance of the figure-ground theory and

the impact it has on urban design. However, it can

lead to a static and two-dimensional conception ofspace.


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(iii) a description of Weber's five principles of figural segregation for urban spaces:

1)Centricity: Spaces have a 'focal point' (or foci) induced by concentration of 'forces'. A

shape's perceptual centre does not have to coincide with its geometric centre. Shapes

may have any number of secondary perceptual centres, induced at the edges of the

shape as well as at the radial points of its contours.

For example, the diagrams of St Peter's Square, Rome, below show the perspective

effects and position of how fountains reinforce obelisk as the central feature (even

though not in geometric centre).

However, the more regular, concave, and centrally symmetrical a shape is, the less it is

characterized by multiple centres. Naturally, the few the member of subcentres that

compete with the main centre, the stronger the figural character of the shape will be.

Hence, why a circular or spherical shape is the strongest possible figure, it posses onlyone main centre and is thus fully autonomous from its surroundings. Whereas square

shapes have a major focal point and minor foci at their corners, which may compete

with or support the central point.

2)Concavity: Shapes which are surrounded by concave contours are more likely to be

seen as figures than the areas that surround them. A concave shape has, of course,

greater centrality. The more concave a space, the stronger will be its perceived

centricity, and this its figural character. In the case of a concave circular shape perceived

from its centre, the textural gradient is absolutely even over is entire surface. However,

when perceived from a point father away from the centre, textural density will increase

towards the centre of the field of vision- that is, toward that part of the wall that is

farthest away.


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For example, The Pantheon, Rome. A person in the centre will perceive the boundaries

as being equidistant, and the perceptual concavity of space will be fully realised.

However, perceptual effects of concavity may be evident regardless of where one is

located in a space.

3)Closure: The less enclosed a figure, the stronger will be the competition between

figure and ground. The degrees of enclosure is particularly important in urban spaces as

they have no top boundary (ceiling). 'Cognitive contours' (pronounced eaves / cornice

lines) which acts as invisible boundaries can increase the degrees of enclosure. A height-

width ratio of 1:7 is claimed to be the maximum at which a sense of enclosure may be

maintained - at this point the field of vision is mostly sky. The sense of a clearly defined

centre begins to be lost at a ratio greater than 1:2 (this figure also applies to the width -

height ratio). Many successful urban spaces do, however, exceed the 1:2 height-width

ratio.

For example, the diagrammatic comparison of the two street profiles in the figure below

shows how architectural elements which protrude over a space, such as architraves or

overhangs, may hint at more complete boundaries, and help establish a sense of closure.


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4)Uniformity and coherence of boundaries: where the boundaries are not uniformly

articulated their parts will compete with each other for visual dominance, thus

weakening the figural quality of the bounded space. Absolute uniformity is not required;

similar scale and materials, repetition of elements, colonnades etc. may provide

sufficient uniformity. This principle is particularly important for the upper contours.Dissimilar formats of buildings can also be arranged in ordered repetition to achieve an

overall unified effect.

For example, the Campo in Siena, the contrasting size and format of the becomes the

dominant element in an otherwise uniformly articulated boundary. The Palazzo actually

establishes a focus of its own, rivalling the self-contained figure of the open space.

5)Internal division of space: The placing of elements with a space, obelisks, fountains,

statues etc- as markers (often) of the centre. These markers may be so dominant as to

reduce the ability of the space itself to achieve figural dominance. Rows of trees or

columns many also have this effect, depending upon view point. For the internal spaces,

the rivalry between spatial and corporeal figures is often provided by pillars or columns

that carry the vaults or ceilings of large rooms, and so subdivide them into smaller,

ancillary spaces. By virtue of their position and size, space-articulating elements can

either enhance the figural character of a space, or be so dominant that they are stronger

than the main spatial figure.

Here are a series of diagrams depicting columns as a means of defining zones within

spaces.


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(iv) An analysis on ONE of the following urban spaces, indicating the extent to which it

exhibits such figural qualities: [PIAZZA SAN MARCO, VENICE]

The Piazza S. marco is an example of an urban space in which the figural dominance of

an enclosed space alters with viewpoint. This space has the form of a trapezoid with a

height-width ratio (piazza) of approximately 1:2.5. As a result, from San Marco, the

length appears greater (perspective illusion), as you move into space uniform

boundaries enclose viewer and space achieves figural dominance. Whereas from Ala

Napoleonica (narrow end) Church of San Marco and free-standing Campanile dominate

space and buildings achieve figural dominance.

When viewed from the cathedral, the effect of closure provided by the uniformly

articulated facades of the Procuratii and the Ala Napoleonica provides the sense of a

self-contained spatial figure whose boundaries are subordinate. However, when

observed from the narrow end, the spatial figure of the square is challenged by thearchitectural forms of the cathedral and the campanile. Both these structures break the

uniformity of the contour by virtue of their height and individual internal articulation.

The result is a theatrical effect, the space acts as subordinate ground for dominant

buildings, which serve as symbols of a great city. From the narrow end of the figural

character of space is further weakened by a decreasing sense of closure towards the

church. This is caused by the opening of the trapezoidal shape of the square, which

results in a decreasing height-width ratio in a piazza.

The final feature of the Piazza San Marco is the Piazetta, which opens ups towards thewater. The campanile both functions as a pivot between the piazza and the Piazetta and

as a bounding object between them. Together, the piazza and Piazetta form a flowing

space consisting of two interlocking spatial figures. It is the very controlled ambiguity

between spatial corporeal figures that makes these spaces such a distinctive setting,

with visual closure (and framing of long distance view) by two columns at lagoon end of

Piazetta. Furthermore, this world-famous urban space gradually assembled over 1000

years - also functions as a gateway to city.


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(v) an analysis of an urban space with which you are familiar, in Auckland; indicating

the extent to which you believe that it succeeds - or fails - to achieve figural

dominance.

An urban space in Auckland which I believe succeeds to achieve figural dominance is the

Aotea Square. It is located in the City centre, outside the Aotea Centre. With an area of

approximately 8500m2

the large, urbanised space works as a central hub for relaxing,

socializing and circulation. Due to it's vast openness and close proximity to nearby

buildings, it creates a contrast between them. The surround architecture has an average

height of 5 metres, therefore they are dominated by the open space of the square. The

contrast between open space and building figure is very strong, as a result the square

becomes the figure, and achieves figural dominance, although it has almost no vertical

height.

The Aotea Square is a good example of the architectural solitaire, acting as an isolatedurban space that dominates all surrounding structures. The square's long rectangular

form dominates it's boundaries and clearly stands out from the neighboring architecture

around it. The light pink paving of the square is pushed against surrounding buildings,

emphasising the boundaries of the square. In doing so, it acts as the contour and helps

claim the figure of the square. The contour allows us to understand it's perimeter and

form more clearly.

As you enter the square (from the sides), your eyes are draw across the long rectangular

urban space, which is almost uninterrupted and seems to go on forever. Within the

center of the square, there are large steps with a long and slow gradient rise with grass

and seating, promoting spaces for sitting and playing. Due to the square's strong figural

character, it effortlessly claims the common contour between itself and surrounding

buildings, becoming it's own boundary. As a result of the contour's one-sided function

(claimed by the square), it causes the surrounding buildings to be set off from the rest of

the visual field, becoming the ground and less dominant. In doing so, the Aotea Square

succeeds to achieve figural dominance within it's urban space.


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QUESTION THREE

(i) a description of the three major ways in which Cullen suggests the drama of the city

may be appreciated.

Expand upon "three major ways" - the Introduction contains much more than this.

1) Concerning optics - Visual appreciation of the city through movement, in which the

scenery of towns is revealed in a series of jerks or revelations, as a pedestrian walks

through the town at a uniform speed. Its revolved around the impact it has on our

emotions through the manipulation of elements in the city. For example, a long straight

road has little impact because the initial view is soon digested and becomes

monotonous. The human mind reacts to a contrast, to the difference between things,

and when two pictures are in the mind at the same time, a vivid contrast is felt and the

city becomes visible in a deeper sense. The city comes alive through the drama of

juxtaposition. Unless this happens, the town will slip past us featureless and inert.

Drama in a city can be created by revealing views of a town through a series of jerks and

revelations. This is called serial vision. By manipulating the elements of the town, an

impact on the emotions is achieved. As mentioned earlier, a long straight road has little

impact because it is monotonous. When we refer to the sketch above, we understand

that there is more to the town than just a straight road. The road leads us into the town

and bends slightly before we enter a new area with new elements. If this is repeated,new views will suddenly and consistently be revealed to us, although we are travelling at

a uniform speed. The significance of all this is that although the pedestrian walks

through the town at a uniform speed, the scenery of the town is revealed at difference

stages.


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2) Concerning place - Concerned with our reactions to the position of our body in its

environment. For example, when we enter a room, we know when we are 'outside it',

'entering it' or 'in the middle of it'. At this level of consciousness we are dealing with a

range of experience stemming from the major impacts of exposure and enclosure. Place

a man on the edge of the 500ft cliff and he will have a very lively sense of position, puthim at the end of a deep cave and he will react to the fact of enclosure. Since it is an

instinctive and continuous habit of the body to relate to the environment, this sense of

position cannot be ignored; it becomes a factor in the design of the environment (just as

an additional source of light must b reckoned with by a photographer, however

annoying it may be).

There is, for instance, a typical emotional reaction to belong below the ground level and

there is another resulting from being above it. There is a reaction to being hemmed in

as in a tunnel and another to the wideness of the square. Therefore, if towns are

designed from the point of view of the moving person (pedestrian or car-borne) it is

easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic experience, a journey through

pressures and vacuums, a sequence of exposures and enclosures, of constraint and

relief. Arising out of this sense of identity or sympathy with the environment, this

feeling of a person in street or square that he is in it or leaving it, we discover that no

sooner do we postulate a here automatically we must create a there, for you cannot

have one without the other.


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3) Concerning content - This last category is understood through appreciating the fabric

of towns: colour, texture, scale, style character, personality and uniqueness. Accepting

the fact that most towns are of old foundation, their fabric will show evidence of

differing periods in its architectural styles and also in the various accidents of layout.

Many towns do so display this mixture of styles, materials and scales. Yet there exists atthe back of our minds a feeling that could we only start again we would rid of this

hotchpotch and make all new and fine and perfect. We would create an orderly scene

with straight roads and with buildings that conformed in height and style. Given a free

hand that is what we might do... create symmetry, balance, perfecting and conformity.

After all, that is the popular conception of the purpose of town planning.

However, conformity often leads to boredom. Therefore, we must look closely and

study conformity carefully, in order to apply this to urban design and create interesting

content that stimulates the human mind. Conformity from the point of view of the

planner, is difficult to avoid but to avoid it deliberately, by creating artificial diversions,

is surely worse than the original boredom. For example, there is a programme is to re-

house 5000 people. They are all treated the same, they get the same kind of house. How

can one differentiate? Yet if we start from a much wider point of view we see that

tropical housing differs from temperate zone housing, that buildings in a brick country

differ from buildings in a stone country, that religion and social manners vary the

buildings. And as the field of observation narrows, so our sensitivity to the local gods

grow sharper. There is too much insensitivity in the building of towns, too much reliance

on the tank and the armoured car where the telescopic rifle is wanted.

With a commonly accepted framework, one that produces lucidity and not anarchy, we

can manipulate the nuances of scale and style, of texture and colour of character and

individuality, juxtaposing them in order to create collective benefits. In fact the

environment thus resolves itself into not conformity by interplay of This and that. It is a

matter of observation that in a successful contrast of colours not only do we experience

the harmony released by, equally, the colours become more truly themselves. In doing

so, the drama of the city may then be appreciated.


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(ii) an explanation of what you understand by the term "collective benefits" and an

assessment of its importance as an urban design goal.

After reading the introduction of Gordon's "The Concise Townscape", it allowed me to

understand the term "collective benefits" as being the advantages gained from the

gathering of people to form a town. For example, a single family living in the country can

scarcely hope to drop into a theatre, have a meal out or browse in a library, whereas the

same family living in a town can enjoy these amenities much more frequently and easily.

This is a benefit gained through many families living within close proximity, forming a

community and town. The little money that one family can afford is multiplied by

thousands and so a collecting amenity is made possible and facilities become easier to

fund and support. However, a city is more than the sum of its inhabitants, it has the

power to generate a surplus of amenity, which is one reason why people like to live in

communities rather than in isolation.

When we look at collective benefits and the effects it has on urban design, we can see

the direct relationship between them. By bringing people together, they create a

collecting surplus of enjoyment and by bringing buildings together and collectively they

can give visual pleasure which none can give separately. As the amount of people

increase and gather, housing buildings and facility buildings will also increase, creating a

town that provides all types of amenities for it's residents and visitors alike. Through the

idea of collective benefits, living quality can be improved, as population and facility

growth increases. Without population growth, urban design cannot advance and expand.

Thus, it is important that people continue to gather and embrace the advantages ofcollective benefits.


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(iii) a description of a short journey in Auckland that offers the kinds of urban

experience outlined by Cullen in the above quotations.

A short journey in Auckland which I believe has a strong urban experience is the

movement down Queen Street and transitioning onto Vulcan Lane, inside the city centre.

The first sequence is of relief and low pressure. As we move down Queen Street, we

have a strong sense of urbanism, as deep cantilevered canopies reign over us, whilst

lanes of vehicles stream past us through the street centre. We feel the wideness of the

street and feel uncontained, whilst the true openness is dramatized and made real.

However, as we turn into Vulcan Lane, there is a sudden change in the urban design. We

are pressed through the tightness of the lane and almost immediately we notice the

slight uphill slope, and the lack of open space. the space is smaller, it has also created acontrast in people's movement speed, because the smaller and narrower Vulcan Lane

causes people to move slower, in comparison to wider open Queen Street, where

people can move much more freely and quickly. The lane is more enclosed and

constrained, thus creating a strong contrast in space between Queen Street and Vulcan

Lane.

The centre space has been divided by public seating, rubbish bins and a few tall trees. By

leaving the centre spaces uncovered, we can look up through trees at the tall

neighbouring buildings, as they tower over us. Canopies are also evident, but the

difference in scale between the building height and canopy creates a volumetric

contrast, which stimulates our emotions. The sequences are very different between

these two spaces, and so are the shops and amenities. As mentioned by Cullen "we can

manipulate the nuances of scale and style, of texture and colour and of character and

individuality", and it has clearly been applied throughout lane, as there is a

concentration of cafes and restaurants, and less retail which is different to Queen Street.


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There is no space for vehicle movement, only human circulation. Furthermore, flankingthe two sides is outdoor seating for the many cafe's and restaurants. The space isn't so

much created for moving through, but for relaxing and staying. Due to all these

differences and characteristics of the areas, we are able to experience the strong sense

of individuality of the street and lane, through the juxtaposing and manipulation of

spaces. In doing so, I believe that the short journey through Queen Street onto Vulcan

Lane is a good example of urban experience outlined by Cullen.


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(iv) an assessment of the relevance of Cullen's ideas to the urban debate in Auckland.

Are ideas derived from historic European towns relevant in twenty-first century NZ?

Reliance upon visual sense and emotional response?

Thus, Architecture having a purely aesthetic, artistic

importance. Where the architect has total artistic freedom (assuming the role of the

artist, imaginative, creative, emotional with no limits ie: Frank Gehry, and Eisenman

(Romantics)

Also from a Hermeneutic point of view ie:intuitionVSArchitecture that is Rational , thatconforms to society, that is tightly bound by reason and theory,

that isn't given the opportunity to express itself creatively..


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(ii) a discussion of the implications of his statement, indicating the extent to which you

agree with his differentiation between the art of architecture and the art of

relationship.

Cullen's statement on urban design implies that a good townscape environment must

be created through a mixture of buildings, trees, nature, water, traffic and

advertisements etc that are weaved seamlessly together. That way, drama is released

and a dramatic event is created in the environment. In our modern society, there is a

great amount of research that is put into making a city work: demographers, sociologists,

engineers, traffic experts, all co-operating to form the myriad factors into a workable,

viable and healthy organization that should meet the needs of everyday people. It is a

tremendous human undertaking. However, if at the end of it all, a townscape lacks any

of these elements, it will fail. He believes a good city environment should have anabundantly textured urban fabric. This leads to his differentiation between the art of

architecture and the art of relationship.

The art of architecture as described by Cullen can be achieved by ridding ourselves of

the thought that the excitement and drama we seek can be born automatically out of

the scientific research and solutions arrived at by the technical man (or the technical

half of the brain). Although we naturally accept these solutions, we are not bound by

them. This is because the solutions are based on the best of averages around us. These

averages do not give an inevitable result for any particular problem are so to speak,

wandering facts which my synchronize or, just as likely, may conflict with each other.

However, since a town could take one of several patterns and still operate with success,

we are able to discover a pliability in the scientific solution and it is precisely in the

manipulation of this pliability that the art of relationship is made possible.

The art of architecture and the art of relationship is a tug between conforming to

society that is tightly bound by reason and theory, and at the same time creating

architecture that has aesthetic and artistic performance. For a good urban environment

to be created, we must move away from the scientific attitude, and that we must

therefore turn to other values and other standards. We must turn to the faculty of sight,for it is almost entirely through vision that the environment is apprehended. In doing so,

we will be able to create architecture that has a balance between aesthetic, artistic

importance, and a strong relationship.


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