Critical Observations and Questions on a Classic: The SORO ... · SORO pyramid. The figure is...
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1 Special Warfare magazine article – Resistance Pyramid Challenged – DRAFT – Hasler – Edits Changed - 131130MAY16-A Critical Observations and Questions on a Classic: The SORO Resistance Pyramid Challenged INTRODUCTION For decades, serious students of resistance and unconventional warfare (UW) have regarded the Special Operations Research Office (SORO) resistance and insurgency pyramid as a classic model of how to think about resistance. It first appeared in 1963 as part of a series of studies on resistance during the Cold War and has influenced special forces and other thinkers and practitioners of UW down through the decades. Its enduring usefulness is apparent by its inclusion in the United States Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) recent 2012 updates to those classic SORO studies, and by its inclusion in current official Army doctrine for UW. Moreover, many courses taught in US Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center & School) (USAJFKSWCS or SWCS), Special Operations Center of Excellence (SOCoE) and unit training / education opportunities throughout the SF and other regiments make use of the figure. This author routinely tells his audiences that if one refuses to study all but one single page of UW doctrine the page containing this figure is that single page they should choose. That is how enlightening this model can be. However, as enduringly useful as it continues to be as a concise, impressionistic overview of resistance, it is time to look at the model with loyal, but questioning, opposition. Where the model is grossly useful in conveying the import gestalt that many activities typical of and necessary to resistance must be done in a clandestine manner or have clandestine aspects, it is simultaneously simplistic, redundant, and demonstrably mistaken throughout its entire structure. A great many things below the overt-clandestine “waterline” which purport to show a division between those activities which are “clandestine” and those which are “overt” are superficial, assume too-narrow of a focus, suit only a specific example, or are arguably misleading or inarguably wrong. Generations of special operations forces (SOF) leaders and professionals have internalized the inferences of the SORO pyramid and recognize the image as a symbol for basic understanding of resistance. To the extent SOF and Department of Defense (DOD) doctrine, organization, training, material, leadership and education, personnel and facilities (DOTMLPF) and US government (USG) policy decisions are made based on those internalized conclusions – and that model and those conclusions are in error – our resistance-related DOTMLPF and policy decisions risk being fallacious. It is therefore necessary to look at the model admired by many, including this author, with a fresh and critical eye. INTRODUCTION THE PROBLEM METHOD FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS -- General Findings / Observations -- Specific Findings / Observations CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS CHALLENGE TO THE SOF COMMUNITY & KINDREDS REFERENCES
Transcript of Critical Observations and Questions on a Classic: The SORO ... · SORO pyramid. The figure is...
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SpecialWarfaremagazinearticle–ResistancePyramidChallenged–DRAFT–Hasler–EditsChanged-131130MAY16-A
CriticalObservationsandQuestionsonaClassic:TheSOROResistancePyramidChallenged
INTRODUCTION
Fordecades,seriousstudentsofresistanceandunconventionalwarfare(UW)haveregardedtheSpecialOperationsResearchOffice(SORO)resistanceandinsurgencypyramidasaclassicmodelofhowtothinkaboutresistance.Itfirstappearedin1963aspartofaseriesofstudiesonresistanceduringtheColdWarandhasinfluencedspecialforcesandotherthinkersandpractitionersofUWdownthroughthedecades.ItsenduringusefulnessisapparentbyitsinclusionintheUnitedStatesArmySpecialOperationsCommand(USASOC)recent2012updatestothoseclassicSOROstudies,andbyitsinclusionincurrentofficialArmydoctrineforUW.Moreover,manycoursestaughtinUSArmyJohnF.KennedySpecialWarfareCenter&School)(USAJFKSWCSorSWCS),SpecialOperationsCenterofExcellence(SOCoE)andunittraining/educationopportunitiesthroughouttheSFandotherregimentsmakeuseofthefigure.ThisauthorroutinelytellshisaudiencesthatifonerefusestostudyallbutonesinglepageofUWdoctrinethepagecontainingthisfigureisthatsinglepagetheyshouldchoose.Thatishowenlighteningthismodelcanbe.
However,asenduringlyusefulasitcontinuestobeasaconcise,impressionisticoverviewofresistance,itistimetolookatthemodelwithloyal,butquestioning,opposition.Wherethemodelisgrosslyusefulinconveyingtheimportgestaltthatmanyactivitiestypicalofandnecessarytoresistancemustbedoneinaclandestinemannerorhaveclandestineaspects,itissimultaneouslysimplistic,redundant,anddemonstrablymistakenthroughoutitsentirestructure.Agreatmanythingsbelowtheovert-clandestine“waterline”whichpurporttoshowadivisionbetweenthoseactivitieswhichare“clandestine”andthosewhichare“overt”aresuperficial,assumetoo-narrowofafocus,suitonlyaspecificexample,orarearguablymisleadingorinarguablywrong.
Generationsofspecialoperationsforces(SOF)leadersandprofessionalshaveinternalizedtheinferencesoftheSOROpyramidandrecognizetheimageasasymbolforbasicunderstandingofresistance.TotheextentSOFandDepartmentofDefense(DOD)doctrine,organization,training,material,leadershipandeducation,personnelandfacilities(DOTMLPF)andUSgovernment(USG)policydecisionsaremadebasedonthoseinternalizedconclusions–andthatmodelandthoseconclusionsareinerror–ourresistance-relatedDOTMLPFandpolicydecisionsriskbeingfallacious.Itisthereforenecessarytolookatthemodeladmiredbymany,includingthisauthor,withafreshandcriticaleye.
INTRODUCTIONTHEPROBLEMMETHODFINDINGSANDOBSERVATIONS--GeneralFindings/Observations--SpecificFindings/ObservationsCONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONSCHALLENGETOTHESOFCOMMUNITY&KINDREDSREFERENCES
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THEPROBLEM
Figure1:SOROResistancePyramid
Theclassicmodel(withminorupdatesasincludedinARISandUWdoctrine)ispresentedaboveinfigure1“SOROResistancePyramid.”InUndergroundsinInsurgent,Revolutionary,andResistanceWarfare2ndeditionthisfigureislabeled“UndergroundOperations”[1].InHumanFactorsConsiderationsofUndergroundsinInsurgencies2ndeditionitislabeled“CovertandOvertFunctionsofanUnderground”[2].Seeingthemodelintermsof“undergrounds”insteadof“resistance”isunderstandableinboth
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casesbecausetheyarepredicatedontheassertionstatedinUndergroundsthat“thereport’smainthesis–thattheundergroundpartofaninsurgencyisthesinequanonofallsuchmovements–isdemonstrablyaccuratetoday”[3].Withalldueandsincererespecttoboththeclassicstudiesandtherecentupdate,whyshouldweacceptthatassertionasvalid?Amoreholisticapproachtounderstandingthephenomenonofresistanceshouldberootedinitspoliticalandorganizationalefforts;notseenprimarilythroughtheoperationallensofonlyoneofitscomponents.
Whenoneconceivesof“anunderground”theclassicnotionisofsomewhoaresolelymembersofaseparatecomponentdistinctfromothers.Inotherwords,oneiseitherintheunderground,orintheauxiliary,orintheguerrilla(orarmed)force,orinthepubliccomponent.“Underground”understoodlikethisisanoun.Butisthatsimplemodeltrue?Isitnotmoreaccuratetosaythatindoctrine,opinionandacademiawehavetendedtousethesenounsasgrossgeneralizationsthatallowustocrudelymodelessentialfunctionsrequiredinresistance?We“bin”participantsofresistanceintothesestructuresinsteadoffocusingonrequiredfunctions;“underground”(and“auxiliary,”“armedforce”and“publiccomponent”)shouldreallybeemphasizedasadjectives.Despiteourlongstandingtraditionalviewthatthesefunctionscanbemeaningfullydelineatedbygroup,theyactuallyrepresentresponsibilitiesthatbluracrosssuchgroups.
Thereisn’tsufficientspaceheretoconductadetailedtextualcriticismofUndergroundsorHumanFactors.Itishopedsomeonereadingthisarticlewilldoso.However,hereareaselectfewguidingdefinitionalassertionsfromtheprefaceofUndergroundsthatdrivethework[4]:
--Theprefacementionsthe1963study’sdefinitionofundergroundandthenstatesthat“almosteverypartofthisdefinitiondeservesexamination.”
--Theprefaceobservesthatlinesbetweenlegalandillegalhaveblurred,statingthat“manyinsurgenciesoperatesimultaneouslyinthelegal,illegalandquasi-legaldomains….”
--Itobservesthat“likewise,itishardtofindtheboundarybetweenclandestineandovertoperationsbecausemoderninsurgenciessimultaneouslyconductboth.”
--Itcontinuestosaythat“todayitismorelikelythatthesuccessfulinsurgencywillgainsomeleveloflegitimate,openpoliticalacknowledgementwhilesimultaneouslycontinuingquasi-legalandillegalactivity.”
--Itobservesthat“moderninsurgenciesnowalmostuniversallyincludebothcriminalactivityandsomeformofallianceorcooperationwithcriminalnetworks.”
Therepeatedemphasison“blurring”seemstosupportthisauthor’sassertionthatstrictdelineationsbetweenwherearesistancemembermightbe“functionallyassigned”arenolongervalid.
Theprefacealsomakesthreedecisionalstatementsorassertionsthathaveskewedresistanceprofessionals’understanding:
--First,thestudyusefullyidentifiesaneedtoadda“publiccomponent”totheclassicversion’s(andsubsequentUWdoctrine’s)threecomponentsofunderground,auxiliaryandguerrillaforce.However,becausetheoriginalstudyanditauthorsandtherecentstudyanditsauthors/sponsorsarefixatedonthe“primacy”oftheundergroundinresistance,thecurrentstudyauthorsarbitrarilydefinethepubliccomponentasnothavinganyclandestineaspects,statingthat“thepubliccomponentisdifferentfrom
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theundergroundinthatitisnotclandestineandmostoftenalegalentity.”[5]Thischaracterizationisincongruentwithbothitsownguidingdefinitionalassertions(above)andwithreality.
--Second,thestudyusefullyrecognizesthattheso-called“guerrillaforce”componentfromtheclassicstudy(andthroughoutUWdoctrine-evendecadesbefore1963)needssomequalificationtomoreaccuratelyidentifythatthereismorethanonesingletemplatefor“armedforce.”Unfortunately,thecharacterizationincludedisarguableandfurthercomplicatesunderstanding.Infact,therearemanyvariationsof“armedforce”thatarenotcoveredintherevisededitions.
Whatthestudycouldhavedoneisdescribeamoreaccuratespectrumofwhatcouldbecalled“irregulararmedforce.”Suchforcecouldbecontrastedwithstandingconventionalstatearmiesandstatelegallyconstitutedpoliceforces.Itshouldincludeeverythingonaspectrumfromtheindividualresistor’ssingle,criminalactofassault/mayhem/murder/assassinationthroughsmall-scaleelementillegalactsofviolencesuchasrioting,ambushes,raids,bankrobberies,kidnappings,sabotage,bombingetc.,upthroughaprogressivelylargerscaleofsimilaractions,andfinallyup-to-and-includingrelativelylarge-scaleandextensiveguerrillaarmyactions.The“armedforce”discussioncouldhavearticulatedthatthefunctionof“armedforce”isonlysometimesthepopularandmythicalnotionoftheguerrillaonhorsebackintheforest.“Armedforce”iseverybitafunctionofviolencewieldedbymembersofan“underground,”“auxiliary,”“guerrillaforce”or“publiccomponent.”
Regrettably,thestudycontrivedamuchlessnecessarycontrastbetweenso-called“armedcomponents”denotingregular-likestandingmilitaryorganizationsandaso-called“guerrillacomponent”differentiatedrespectivelybyso-called“regularandirregularorganizationandtactics”[6].
--Third,thesinglemostegregiousdecisionalstatementorassertionisthefinalcharacterizationinthepreface.Sayingtheoriginalworkfocusedonundergroundfunctions,itsaysthelatterwork“includesalookatthefunctionofleadershipspecifically”[7].Theelaboratingsentencesthatfollowarequitetelling;insomewaysinadvertentlyfortheUndergroundsauthors.
“Theleadersofinsurgent,resistance,andrevolutionarymovementsoftencreateoremergefromtheunderground.Undergroundleadersprovidestrategicandtacticaldirection,organization,andtheideologyofthemovement.Theyperformthosefunctionswithintheuniqueandcompellingcontextoftheircountry,culture,andpoliticaleconomy.Howtheymanagetheoftenconflictingtrendsthatdefinetheframeworkoftheirinsurgentmovementsinlargemeasuredeterminesultimatesuccessandfailure”[8].
Thesestudiesareexplicitlyabouttheunderground,butitisunfortunatetosoeasilyrecognizetheobviousbiasimplicitinbothstatingandimplyingthateverythingstrategicallycriticaltoresistanceemanatesfromtheundergroundcomponent.Thepreface’sownstatementbeliesthisfoundationalassumption.“Leaders…oftencreateoremergefromtheunderground.”Really,whichisit?Ifleaderscreateundergroundsthentheyemergefromoutsideofthem;logicallyonecannotbeborneofthatwhichhehimselfbegets.Thisallowsthatleaders–whichprovidestrategicandtacticaldirection,organization,movementideology,andmanagethatwhichwilldeterminingultimatesuccessorfailure–donotequatetotheundergrounditself.Theundergroundisestablishedtoperformcertainfunctionsrequiredbytheresistanceleadership;itisnotautomaticallyandinherentlytherootfromwhichallothermanifestationsandideologyofthemovementgrow.
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Unfortunately,theauthorsbeginwithleadershipasthesubject,butthentransitionthesubjectto“undergroundleaders.”Theyautomaticallyequateleadershipwithunderground.Notethattheauthorsacknowledgethatresistance(anditsprospectsforsuccess)existswithinalarger“compellingcontextof…country,culture,andpoliticaleconomy,”buttheychoosetonarrowtheactorsfromresistanceleadershipwritlarge–eschewingthestrategicpoliticalleadershipwhichcouldexistanywhere–toveryspecificallyundergroundleadership.
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METHOD
Tohighlightsomeoftheproblemsinherentinover-emphasizingtheroleofundergroundswithinthecontextofresistanceasawhole,thisauthordevelopedanexaminationmodeltodeconstructtheclassicSOROpyramid.Thefigureisdeconstructedbyexaminingeachlineseparately,inorder,startingfromthebottomofthepyramidandworkingtowardsthemodel’sexplicitend-statetipatthetopofthepyramid.
SoWhat?
IfweconceivetheessenceofresistanceasanundergroundastheSOROpyramidintheHumanFactorsandUndergroundsstudiesdo–andthe“underground”iseffectivelyequatedto“leadership”–thenthiswillsupportanemphasisonadvisingthe“underground”versusadvisingthe“resistance.”
IfweacceptthefurtherassertionconveyedintheSOROpyramidthattheoverwhelmingpreponderanceofactivitiesthatcomprisearesistancephenomenonare“clandestine”withoutlookingcarefullyatwhateachactivitycomprises,thenthiswillsupportanoveremphasison“clandestinity.”
Correspondingly,ifournotionof“underground”conjuresanimageofflesh-and-bloodpeopleinanorganizationwhoarealwaysahair-triggerawayfromexposureanddestructionbyanomnipotentandomnipresentstate–thenwewilltendtomakeDOTMLPFdecisionsthatemphasizetechniquestophysicallyconcealpeopleandactivities.
Ifweaccepttheparallelassertionbymanyintheresistanceprofessionalcommunitythatclandestineactivitycannotbedonewithoutsensitiveactivitiesthenthiswillsupportaconceptionofresistanceandsupporttoresistance(STR)whichemphasizesthetoolbagofsensitiveactivitiesandthoseofficiallysanctionedtousethattoolbagasthevanguardofsuchaneffort.
However,iftheHumanFactorsandUndergroundsstudiesareinerror–ifundergrounddoesnotequatetoleadershipandundergroundsarenotthesinequanonofresistance–thenunderstandingofresistancerequiresabroader,moreunifyingcontextwhichexplainsit;theunderlyingpoliticalandorganizationalactivitiesthatarefundamentalactivitiesofhumaninteractionsincetimeimmemorial.
Moreover,iftheemphasison“clandestine”isdissectedtoshowthatinthemajorityofactivitiesandspecificexamplesitistheintent–thehiddenagenda–thatismostoftenclandestine,andmostactivitiesareacombinationofovert,lowvisibility,clandestineandsometimescovertaspects,thenthisdownplaysthecentralityofphysicalconcealmentandtheassociatedsensitiveactivitiestoolbagtoarelativelyrareapplicationoftechniquestoveryspecificandhigh-risksituations.
Thechallengeinshort:Resistanceisprimarilyafunctionofpoliticalactivity;notafunctionof“clandestinity.”ByoveremphasizingtheroleofwhattheSOROpyramiddenotesas“clandestine,”andbyoveremphasizingtheroleoftheundergroundastheHumanFactorsandUndergroundsstudiesdo,theresistancecommunityhasmorphedintobelievingthatresistanceshouldbeseenprimarilythroughthelensofsensitiveactivities,relatedsubjectsandderivativeactors.
Thispapersuggeststhatresistanceshouldbeseenthroughtheeyesofitsleadership,andanyprospectiveSTRshouldbeseenholisticallythroughtheeyesofthepolicymaker,seniorexecutivecivilianleaderandcommander;notthesubordinatestaffsectionorspecialofficeforhighly-specializedspecificproblemsolving.“Thesensitiveactivities‘tail’shouldnot“wagtheUW(orSTR)‘dog.’”
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Theexaminationmodelconstructedtoconductthisanalysisisshownatfigure2“ExaminationModelSOROPyramid–HaslerAPR16.”ThisexaminationmodelisnotintendedasareplacementfortheclassicSOROmodel.Itishopedthatthisarticleanddesiredfollow-oncommentarywillsupportthecommunity-wideefforttocraftamoreaccurateandusefulresistance/insurgencymodelin/andforthefuture.Nordoesitpurporttocomprehensivelyincludeeveryconsiderationthatmightreasonablybeconsideredgermanetoresistanceortoanyspecificsupporttoresistance(STR)event.Itissimplyatoolusingcriteriaselectedbythisauthortohighlightandconsiderafewselectareasofinquiry:(1)tohelptestthevalidityoflong-standingassumptionsabouttheovert,low-visibility,clandestineandcovertaspectsofresistance-relatedactivities;(2)toidentifythespectrumofactorswhomightundertakeoremploytheseactivities;(3)tochallengethespatialplacementofactivitiesinthelinearlogicoftheclassicmodel;(4)toillustratealogically-propercontextualrelationshipofpoliticalactivitysubsumingallDIMEFILandsubsumingsubversion,whichitselfsubsumessabotageandotheractivities.Finally,followingClausewitz,if“warispolitics(orpolicy)byothermeans,”[9]thenitfollowsthatresistance“war”andSTRisasub-classofwhatisfundamentallyandinescapablyapoliticalact.Thereforethemodel(5)emphasizesthedominantandubiquitousroleofpoliticalactivities,andcorrespondinglyde-emphasizeswhatmanywouldtraditionallyregardas“military-centric”activities.
Theresistanceprofessionalcommunityhasa21stcenturyemphasisonseekingtobetterourunderstandingof,andcapabilitiesin,enduringengagementandpreparationintheso-called“steadystate,”“phasezero,”‘left-of-bang,”or“left-of-the-beginning”(etc.).Suchcapabilitiescanprovideearlyunderstanding,strategicshapingandproactivepolicyoptionsthatpromiseenhancedsecurity,legitimacyandeconomy.Itthereforeseemsparticularlyappropriatetoemphasizethevarietyofpoliticalaspectsintheso-calledpolicy“greyzone”betweenasmall,homegrownresistancesufferinglocaldisgruntlementsthattheUSGmaybeunawareof,oronlydimlyawareof,throughthelongandwideresistancespectrumoflimitedstakes,interestsandinvolvement,up-to-and-includingdeliberate,unapologeticandfull-throatedsupportforamajor,deadlyresistancecapableoftakingdownanentirenation.
Theauthorconsideredeachitemoneverylineofthepyramid,madeobservationsanddistinctions,raisedquestionsforcommunityconsiderationandcomment,andcolored-inormadeannotationsonwhicheversectorsoftheexaminationmodelwereappropriatetotheactivity.Thecolorsandannotationsyieldedreportablepatterns.TherawanalysisworksheetsareonfileatSWCS-SFDandarenotincludedhere.Anyonemayusetheblankexaminationmodelprovidedtorecreatetheobservations,distinctions,patterns,questions,conclusionsandrecommendationsreportedbelow.
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FINDINGSANDOBSERVATIONS
--GeneralFindings/Observations(Limitedtothetop10)
1.Thelinebetweenso-called“overt”andso-called“clandestine”isinaccurateandshouldberemoved.
2.Everyhumanbeingactsclandestinely;usuallyfortriflingandselfishreasons.Sometimeshumansactclandestinelytohiderelationships,interactions,theirowndeliberateactionsortheactionsofothers,expectedeffects,etc.Mostofthetimetheseclandestineactivitiesarenotveryimportant.Sometimestheyaredoneforveryseriousreasons;up-to-and-includingmattersofwar/peace,tyranny/freedom,andlife/death.
3.Activitiesattributedsolelytotheundergroundareinfactconductedbymanydifferentkindsofactorsinallcomponents.
4.Thereisaconceptualtensionbetweentwodifferinginterpretationsofwhatanundergroundis.TheSORO/ARISstudiescontendthatundergroundsareessentiallyequatedto“leadership.”Anopposingschool(representedbythisarticle)contendsthat“underground”isonlyafunctionofarequiredmethodofoperation;thatis,incertainspecificcircumstances,onlybyconductingsomeaspectsofsomeactivitiesinaclandestine(and/orcovert)mannerwillitbepossibletoconductthoseactivitiesatall.
5.Resistancedoesnotequatetounderground.
6.Clandestinedoesnotequatetounderground.
7.Leadershipdoesnotequatetounderground.
8.Theoverwhelmingmajorityofresistanceactivitiesarepolitical(persuasionandorganizational),not“military.”
9.Alargepercentageoftheactivitiesshownas“clandestine”canandaredonebylegal,standingorganizations.
10.TheexaminationmodelfigureshowingwhereanactivityislocatedhorizontallyonthepyramidgraphicintheSOROmodelinalmostallcasescouldberepresentedbyaverticalline,astheactivityinmostcasescanbeconductedanywherealongthatprocess.
--SpecificFindings/Observations(startingatthebottomofFigure1-SOROResistancePyramid)
Thisisthebaseconditionofallstates.Grievancesareaddressedwithinthelegalsystemallowedusingformalandinformalpoliticalpersuasion.Politicalorganizationsexist,andallorganizationsandindividualshaveapoliticalpoint-of-viewwhichtheyrepresent,defendand/oradvance.Humanaffairsnaturallycompriseamixofovert,low-visibility,clandestineandcovertactivities.All“components”ofresistanceexistincivilianizedform.Eventheabilitytousearmsandconductviolenceispresentinallactorsalbeitinadormant,force-in-reserveposture.Thislayerisnotonlynotclandestine,itisnotthe“purview”of,andshouldnotbeseenasafunctionof,theunderground.
1.--Dissatisfactionwithpolitical,economic,socialadministrative,and/orotherconditions;nationalaspiration(independence)ordesireforideologicalandotherchanges
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Whatevertheinitialsparkofresistance,orwhereitmaybelocated,anearlygenericpurposeofaresistancepursuinggoals–asopposedtomerevoyeursandgossips–istheexploitationoftheprevailingbaseatmosphere.Resistancewillseekwaystowidendiscontentusingpropaganda,lies,andpoliticalandpsychologicaleffort;discreditinggovernment,police,andmilitaryauthorities;formingfavorableopinionsinkeytargetaudiencestosupportresistancegoals;fomentingdistrustofestablishedinstitutions;provokingagitation,unrestanddisaffection;organizingandsupportingstrikes,riotsanddisorders;sappingmoraleofgovernment,administration,policeandmilitarymembers;generalizedsabotage;selectandcarefullysynchronizedspecificactsofsabotage,terror,assassinations,bombingsandotherpoliticalviolence.Thisisarepresentative,notacomplete,list.This“creation”ofeffectsisthekey“subversionazimuth”thatcharacterizesresistance.
Notethatthedescriptionaboveislargelysynthesizedfromtheactivitiesspreadthroughoutthepyramid.Anyoftheseactivitiescanoccuratanypointduringthecourseofaresistanceeffort.Theywillbelimitedorexpandedinscaleandeffectivenessasafunctionoftheconditionsspecifictothatresistancecontext.Note,too,thatinthepyramidthereareonlythreeinstancesoftheverbto“create”oritsequivalent.ThismeansthattheSOROmodelmostlyreflectsexpansionorreplicationversuscreationofwhollynewactivities.Theheightandwidthofthemodelislargelyasedimentarypileoflayersofrepeatedsimilaractivities.Totheextentthattheproportionsofwhatispurportedtobe“clandestine”and“underground”isvisuallyinfluentialitis,infact,largelyanopticalillusionofredundant(orcontinuous)contentpiledhigheranddeeper.
Althoughmostoftheseactivitiesatsomespecifictimes,andsomeoftheseactivitiesatmosttimes,willrequiresomeclandestineaspectstoexecute,theyareinherentlypoliticalandorganizationalfunctionsandeffects.Theyarenotinherentlyfunctionsoftheneedtoactinaclandestinemanner.Thereforetheydonot“belong”toasupposed“classofclandestineactivities.”Theyarenotthepurviewofthe
underground.
Thesearefourseparate,dissimilarthingsorideaswhichshouldnotbelumpedtogether.
Thisisclearlyaviolent,illegalpolitical(andoperational)activity.However,therearenuancesastohowandwhenitoccurs,andthisactivityprovidesausefulillustrativeexampleofhowactivitiesandactorsdo
notfallneatlyintocontrivedbins.Everyactofassassinationrequiresindividualorconspiratorialsecrecytohidetheintentbeforetheactionoccurs;a(clandestine)concealmentofwhatistooccurbeforethefact.Inmostcasesalowvisibilitypostureispreferableuponfinalapproachtothetargettominimizethechancesofscrutinyandinterventionbysecurityforces,passersbyetc.Theactitselfcanbeadecidedly
2.--Creationofatmosphereofwiderdiscontentthroughpropaganda,lies,andpoliticalandpsychologicaleffort:discreditinggovernment,police,andmilitaryauthorities
3.--Assassination,formingfavorablepublicopinion(advocatingnationalcause),creationofdistrustofestablishedinstitutions
3A.--Assassination
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overtpoliticalone,asintheinfamousassassinationofAustrianArchdukeFerdinandbyaSerbiannationalistin1914.OtherexamplesincludetheIrishRepublicanArmy,Al-Qaidaorotherviolentextremistorganizationswhotookcreditforspecifictargetedkillings.Evenwhenadeathisobvious,theactualcauseofdeathmayhidethefactthatitwasadeliberate,clandestineassassinationmission.Examplesmayincludecaraccidents,poisonings,asphyxiationwithapillowthatappearstobedeathbynaturalcauses,death-by-copambushes,etc.Oftentimes,andforobviousreasons,sponsorsarelikelytowishtoremainunknown(covert).Therefore,overt,lowvisibility,clandestineandcovertaspectsrepresentamixofcharacteristicsforactivitieslikeassassination;itisnotsimplya“clandestine”activity.
Noristhecategorizationoftheactornecessarilyclearcut.Considerthisrealisticexample:
Imaginearesistancemember(“FarmerJoe”)whoisafull-timefarmerlivinginaruralareawhotransportshisgoodsbytruckintotheregionaltowncenteronceamonthforsale.Inhishomevillageheisconsideredanelderwisemanwhosewisdomandcounselisrespectedinmatterspertainingtothecommongood.Whentimesarehardheknowstherightpeopletomakesurenoonefromhisvillagewillgohungry,orwithoutshoes,ormedicineorabed.Ifthegovernmentneededsomeonetospeakforthevillagehewouldcertainlybeelectedbyhisneighbors.Hecanalsobetrustedtolookaftervillagesecuritywhennecessary;hehassetupaneighborhoodwatchandhasenlistedvolunteerstoputoutfiresandrunofftheoccasionalpredator.
Unbeknownsttotheentirevillage,hecanalsomusterperhapssixothersfromamongthemwhoareloyalenoughtohimthattheyarewillingtobreakthelaw.Infact,asasmallbandtheyhavebeenconductingcriminalraidsonlocallandlords’propertiestoconductactsofharassinganddispiritingvandalism,sabotagethelandlords’vehiclesandcommunications,andtostealwhatevertheycanfindofvalueandcarryawayforimmediateuse,saleorhiddenawayforarainyday.
Duringhismonthlytripstotownhestopsandtalkstoselectneighbors,friends,acquaintancesandbusinesspartnersinagive-and-takesharingofinformationoneveryrelevantandinterestingsubject.Whenhegetstotown,partofthegoodshetransportedisunobtrusivelydroppedoffatatowncharityforsorting,packagingandfurthertransportinsmallerquantitiestoworthyrecipients.Afterthemarketisconcluded,hedinesordrinksteawithotherassociatesbeforeheadingbacktohishomevillage.Thegatheringincludessomefromthetown,somefromothertownsandregions,andnotafewwhohavebusinessorotherinterestsinevenfar-flunglocaleslikethecoast,ormountainsorthecapitol.Thefarmeriskeentorelateeveryrelevantandinterestingsubjecthehasexperiencedtothesepersonsandtheyallagreethatsomeofwhattheyhaveexperiencedandhopewillberelayedtothefarmer’sassociatesonhisreturntriptohishome.Theyallagreeitwillbeswelltomeetagainatsomeotherlocationataspecifictimeandonaspecificdatetodothisalloveragain.Theyhavetheforethoughttomakecontingenciesforalternateplacesandtimesshouldtheynotbeabletomakeitnexttimebecauseofweatherorsomeunforeseendifficulty.Theymakesurethatifanyofthemdon’tshowupatallthattheyknowacoupleofwaystogetbackintouch;evenifitwon’tbeforquiteawhile.Beforetheirfarewells,thefarmergivesalistofhard-to-finditemsthathisvillagecouldsureputtogooduse.Hegivesthosefar-flungfellassomeoftheproceedsfromthesaleofhisgoodstocoversomeofthecost.
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FarmerJoereverseshisroutetothevillage,andwhilehestopsoffatselectspotstosharethenewsorperhapsdropoffsomeprizedacquisitionsfromtown,healsotakesakeeninterestinwhatheobservesonthisreturnroute;likewhetherhenoticesanyvehiclesfromhisvisitintownthathappentobegoingthesamewayheis.Oncehegetsbackhomeandtakessometimetoappreciatethestillness,hemustershissmallbandafternightfallinhisbarn.Afterretrievingsomeofthedynamitehekeepsonhandforremovingstumps,andmakingsureeveryonehasavarmintgun,knifeandotheritems,heleadsthemoverpathsintheforestwhichonlythelocalsknowtosomehideyholesformoredynamiteandequipment,andontoaroadbridgeoveradeepravine.Afterplacingoutlookouts,heandahelperplacethedynamiteonthebridgeandretiretowaitforthetextmessagesfromfriendly(far-flung)acquaintancesthatwilltellhimwhensomegovernmentVIPwillleavehisfamilyvacationhomeinthecountry,andreturningtothecapitolinhisprivatecaratnightwillpassoverthatbridgeduringareliabletimeframe.Dynamitedetonatedandbridgecollapsedontime,VIPdeathconfirmed,thesmallbandreturntotheirhideyholestoconcealthoseitemsthatneedconcealing,andalltheresttheytakebacktothesedateandsimplebackdropofvillagelife.Thereisworktobedonetomorrow!
FarmerJoeisanassassin.Heisnotreallyconductingactivitieswhereotherscan’tbecauseofstaterepression,sobythatcriteriahedoesn’ttechnicallybelongtotheunderground.However,onecouldargueheisatleastconnectedtowhatwethinkofas“theunderground.”Heisalsoanauxiliary,amemberofthe“shadowgovernment”(albeitataveryhumbleechelon),andmostdefinitelyamemberofan“armedforce.”Heisanintelligencecollector,atransportagent,asecurityorganizer,partofacommunicationsnetwork,contributorandpatronofthelocalareacomplex,etc.,etc.Heisaleaderinmanywaysandavaluableactorthatcutacrossallrolesandcategories.Thisreasonableexamplehighlightswhythecommunity’sthinkingabouttheseactivitiesandwhosupposedlydoesthemmeritadditionalconsideration.Itfurthershowsthatassassinationandclandestineactivitiesdonot“belong”totheunderground.
Everymeansofconveyingamessagefromonehumantoanother(ormany)isamethodofformingopinions.Thesemethodsareanormal,routineandinseparablepartofhumanlifesotheyarenotsomehowthespecializedpurviewofundergrounds.Thereisalsoasignificantdifferencebetweenwhatthisactivitymeansatthetacticalandstrategiclevels.Asatacticalconcern,thisshouldconnotealistoftechniques.Atthestrategiclevel,thiscanbeinterpretedasanobjective(orobjectives).Usingthe“FarmerJoe”exampleagain,tacticallyheisengaginginmuddyboots,retailcommunicationtothe“public,”whichisafunctionpartlyofthekaleidoscopeofhisindividualinterpersonalskills,andpartlywhatherepresentsasanexemplarofapoliticalposition.Dotheraidsonlocallandlordsbypersonsunknowncontributetoalocal,favorablepublicopinionorcansuchactionsbeshapedtodoso?HowdoesorcouldtheassassinationofagovernmentVIPinsomeprovinciallocaleaffectpublicopinionintheregionaltown,thecapitolortointernationalaudiences?Howdoopen,legalindigenouspoliticalpartiesexploittheevents?Howdoapoliticalopportunistsofallstripes?Howdoforeignmeddlers?Therearemanyfacetstoconsiderinthisactivity;“resistance”inmanywaysisanart.Mostofthesepermutationshavenothingtodowiththeunderground,andapartfromtheclandestinenatureof“hiddenagendas”–atimelessandinseparableaspectofbasichumanpoliticalinteraction–havenothingtodowithbeingclandestine.
3B.--Formingfavorablepublicopinion
13
Thisspecificgoalisout-of-placeinagenericlistofactivitiesbecausenotallgrievancesandattemptstoaddressorleveragethemare“national”innature.Itwouldbemuchmoreappropriatetooutlinehowdifferentnarrativesareusedbytheresistancetoaddressthemotivatingconcernsofspecifictargetaudiences,andhowallsuchapproachesproperlysynchronizedcontributetoresistanceinitial,intermediateandstrategicobjectives.TheMarxistVietCongexampleofdownplayingtheoverallcommunistnationalobjectivesandemphasizinglocalgrievancesisinstructive.
Thisisthesecondofonlythreeexamplesthroughouttheentiremodelwhereadeliberateactof“creation”asopposedtoexploitationofsomethingisstated.Aretheresubtledifferencesbetweenleveragingandcreatingforresistancecadre?Ifso,whatarethey?Inanycase,thisisredundantwithlayer#2above.
Thesearethreeseparate,dissimilarthingsorideaswhichshouldnotbelumpedtogether.Ifthereisalogicalordertothesethreeactivitieskepttogether,infiltrationshouldprobablybelistedfirstastheabilitytofomenttheotheractivitiesareoftensubsequenttohavingactorsmanipulateorganizationsfromtheinside.Theextenttowhichthisisnottrue–thatis,thatitisnotinsidermanipulationbutatypicalpoliticalagreementtocolludeformutualobjectives–reinforcestheassertionthatamajorityofresistance“warfare”islessamatterof“clandestineorganization”anduseof“sensitiveactivities”thanitispedestrian(albeitpurposeful)politicalactivity.
Notnewactivities;redundantwithpreviousactivities.
Infiltrationisbothanimportant,signatureactivityofresistance,andausefulexampleforwhythisclassicSOROmodel–andtheassumptionsthatderivefromit–needtobemorecriticallyexamined.Infiltrationisafundamentaltaskofespionagewhichitselfisasoldashumanity.Infiltrationtoconductactiveoperationssuchaspreparationforsabotage,shapingagendas,co-optingleadershipatalllevels,targetingofopposition,etc.,isalsofundamentaltoresistance.Thelongstandinghistoryofcommunistresistanceexperienceisatreasuretroveofexamplesforthesetechniques.Whichiseasier:tocreateafrontorganizationtosupportresistancegoalscompletelynewandofsuspectcredibilityoutofwholecloth,ortoinfiltrateandtakeoverstandingorganizationswhichalreadyhaveareputationandacceptedpositioninsociety?
Thequestionforthisarticleistowhatdegreeisthis“underground”or“clandestine”activity?Ifhavingahiddenagendabecauseonewantstodoactivitiesthathe/shewantstohidefromothersis
4.--Increasedagitation,unrest,anddisaffection,infiltrationofadministration,policeandmilitaryandnationalorganizations,andslowdownsandstrikes
3C.--Advocatingnationalcause
3D.--Creationofdistrustofestablishedinstitutions
4A.--Increasedagitation,unrest,anddisaffection
4B.--Infiltrationofadministration,policeandmilitaryandnationalorganizations
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“clandestine”thanarguably,everyhumanonearthisa“clandestineoperative.”Whatisthedifferencebetween“infiltrate”and“join?”IfJohnSmithhasradical“left-wing”politicalconvictionsbuthidestheseandjoinsanorganizationwhosecharteristofurther“right-wing”causes,hasJohnSmith“infiltrated.”Hisjoiningisentirelyovert;addedtotheorganization’spubliclyavailablerolls,issuedanofficialmembershipcard,andphotographedatmeetings.IfothersknowJohnSmithasaleftistradicalandmayraiseembarrassingquestionsastowhyhemightwanttojoinsuchanorganization,Smithmayneverthelesswanttokeephisovertmembershiplowvisibility.IfsomeoneorsomeentitydispatchedSmithona“mission”tojointherightistorganizationforsomepurpose,thenthesponsorofthatrelationshipmaywanttherelationshiptobeconcealed.So,Smith’sjoiningofthisgroupis(orcouldbe)overtandlowvisibilitymembership,withaclandestinehiddenagenda,andpossiblycovertsponsorshipallatthesametime.Thisexample–probablyminusthecovertsponsorship–happensroutinelyallofthetimeasamatterofnormal,fundamentalpoliticalandorganizationalactivity.Thereisnothingessentially“underground”aboutit.InsteadofSmith,thinkagainofFarmerJoe.Thereaderhasalreadyseenthathisactivitiescutacrossmanycomponentsandmanyroles.IfJoe,asthedefactovillageheadmanandsecurityorganizerforhisareaisinvitedtojointhelocalgovernmentpoliceauxiliarybythelocalgovernmentofficialsthemselvesisthisanactofinfiltration?Ishedoingsoasa
memberofthe“underground”thatthereaderhasalreadyseenistoonarrowofacategorytodescribehimandhisactivities?
Standard,routinepoliticalactivity.Theoperationaleffectsdesiredofsuchactivitiesandhowthetimingofsucheffectsarepartofacoherent,forward-lookingsynchronizedoperationalplanisamatteroflegal,standardpoliticaloperationalart.Whenthegoalofagivenpoliticalpurposeis“resistance,”wecansometimesclaimthatitisalso“resistance”operationalart.Theclandestinenatureofthehiddenagendaismorefundamentallyafunctionofpoliticalactivitythanitisofaresistancecomponent“underground.”Noneofthisroutinepoliticalandorganizationalactivityrequiressensitiveactivitiestounderstandortobeeffective.
Thesearesixseparate,dissimilarsubjectsorideas–similaronlybythequalifyingverb“infiltrate”–
whichshouldnotbelumpedtogether.Totheextentthatthereissomelinearlogictohowthesesubjectsareordered,fromtheperspectiveofbeingperceivedasprovocativebyallpartiestheorderofintroductionislikelytobethis:money;propaganda;equipment(non-lethal);foreignagents(non-violent);agitators;foreignequipment(lethal);weapons;andforeignagents(violent).
Thisuseof“infiltration”herediffersfromthepreviousdiscussionwhere“infiltration”largelymeant“join.”HerethemeaningisclosertotheArmydefinition(paraphrased)tomoveundetectedthroughorintoanareaoccupiedbyenemyforcestooccupyapositionofadvantage.[10]BothmeaningsareusedinUWdoctrine.
Infiltrationofsomethingforeigndoesnotdenote“externalsupport”inthesensethatthereadermightassumethereisexternalsponsorship.Itcansimplymeanforeign-sourced.AcriminalorganizationthatbuysabulkshipmentofcellphonesassembledperhapsinJapanforanAmericancompany,shipped
5.--Infiltrationofforeignagentsandagitators,andforeignpropagandamaterial,money,weaponsandequipment
4C.--Slowdownsandstrikes
15
uponcompletiononSouthKoreancargoshipsintoHongKongforsaletoanyonewhocanmeettheaskingpricecannotbesaidtobereceiving“externalsupport”fromJapan,theUS,SouthKoreaorHongKong.
Theactivityof“infiltration”isanoperationthatmayhavemanycomponentpartsandmanydisparateactors.Anincompletelistofsuchconsiderationsincludes:Whoidentifieswhatorwhomaybedesirabletoinfiltrateandforwhatintendedpurpose;whomakesthedecisionstotaketherisksandbeartheexpensesofinfiltrationfromtheperspectiveoftheresistance,thesubjectprovider(s),andthesubjectsponsor(s)–ifany;whodevelopstheoverallinfiltrationplan,whodevelopstheplanforeachsubordinatesegmentofthelargeroperationalplan;whoarrangesandexecutespaymentsforthatinfiltrated–thismaybedifferentpersonsmakingseveralseparatepaymentstovarioussegmentsoftheoperation;doessomeorallofthepaymentmechanismhavetobehiddenfromauthorities,andifsowhoconstructsthesetransfermechanisms;whoorwhatwilldotheactualtransportortransferofthesubject;whowillstagethesubjectonthefarexternalsideofaborder,thenearexternalside,andthenearinternalside;Ifthesubjectistobetransportedortransferreddeeperintodeniedareawhoisresponsibleforthis;ifthesubjecttoistobebroken-down,reconfigured,re-packaged,cached,stored,concealed,etc.,whoisresponsibleforthis;Ifthestoredsubjectbecomesanassetoftheareacomplex,howdoesthistransfertakeplace,whoisinchargeofmanagingtheassetplanofthatareacomplexandhowarethecommunicationsbetweentheinfiltrationpartyandthatcomplexmanagercoordinatedandconducted;Ifthemannerofconcealmentcontainsamisinformationplanwhoisresponsiblefordevelopingit,approvingitandexecutingit;whoprovidessecurityduringeachsegmentandindividualstepofexecutingthisinfiltrationplan;ifthesubjectisapersonoritemthatmusteventuallyberetrievedwhodoesalloftheseconsiderationsinreverseforexfiltration…andsoon?
Thepointofthislong,detailedlististoremindthereaderthatevenasimpleconceptsuchasinfiltrating(somethingorsomeone)intoadeniedareacanbeexpectedtobeacomplexoperationwithmanymovingandstationarypartsandmany,manyparticipants.Itrequiresanoperationalplan,approvedbyasignificantleader,inaccordancewithalargerresistance(orother)strategicandpoliticalpolicyplan.Noneoftheseneedbeinan“underground.”Doessuchanoperationrequireanundergroundoperatingclandestinelyandusingsensitiveactivities?Insomecasestheansweris“Yes,itcan’tbedonewithoutit,”butitisnotalwaysthecaseanddoesnotapplytomostoftherhetoricalquestionsraisedabove.Noteveryaspectofsuchanoperationisplanned,approvedorexecutedbymembersofanunderground;itisatfirstanoperationalplanwhichmayormaynotincludesomeundergroundelementsforspecificpurposes.Norissmugglingsomething–evenacrossanunfriendlyinternationalborderwithpotentiallydeadlyconsequencesifcaught–“sensitiveactivities”intheintelligencecommunityjargonmeaningoftheterm.Toassertotherwiseistoignoremillenniaofhumanexperience.
Moreover,situationsvary.Thereaderhasalreadyseenthatthelevelofwhat“underground”participationisinvolvedisblurredbytheFarmerJoeexample.Inaddition,variablesofurban/ruralproportions;developed/undeveloped;relativelawfulnessorunlawfulness;thestateofelectroniccommerce;accesstocoastlineandmeansoftransport;thestatesecuritypostureandmanyothervariableswillaffectthe5W’sofhowaninfiltrationwilloccur.Infiltrationislikelytobethechildofmanyfathersanddoesnot“belong”totheunderground.
5A.--Infiltrationofforeignagents
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Thetermforeign“agent”istoobroadandtoovaguebecausethespecificcharacteristicsofeachpossibletypeofagentpresentsdifferentriskprofilesandchallengestoexecute.Herearefourofseveralpossibleexamples:
1.Istheforeignagentanintelligenceoperativeofaforeignpower,respondingtoaresistanceappealforexternalassistance,cometoassessthetargetcountry’sstrengthsandweaknessesandtoconductnegotiationswithandassessmentsoftheresistanceitselfregardingthefeasibilityofpotentialsupportatanationalpolicylevel?Espionageagainstthetargetcountryandpossiblecollusionwithindividualsregardedbythatcountryasenemiesofthestatearebothillegalandarguablyactsofwar.Andyet,thisforeignintelligenceoperativemayenterthecountrythroughthecapitolairport,withapassport,withatargetcountry-approvedvisa,forbusinesswithlocalcitizensapprovedandmonitoredbythestate,permittedsomeleisureactivitiesandtravelwhileincountry,andofficiallystampedoutofthecountrybystateborderofficialsbeforehisvisaexpires.Let’sassumeoneormoreofthosemeetingsforbusinessincludeddiscussionsofmutualinterestbetweentheforeigngovernmentrepresentativeandalegallocalpoliticalfigurewhoisnotamemberoftheresistancebutisclandestinelysympathetictoandwillingtorelaymessagesfromtheforeigngovernmenttotheresistance.Fromtheperspectiveoftheresistance,whatofthisis“underground”activity?Thelocalpoliticianisamemberofalegalpoliticalparty.Totheextenthecanbeidentifiedwiththeresistanceatall,hecouldbeconsideredamemberofa“publiccomponent”orasanauxiliarywhoprovidescommunicationorintelligence.
2.Whatifoneoftheprimaryorganizationsinvolvedinlegaloppositiontothestateisachurch,synagogue,mosqueortemple(CSMT)?AssumethisCSMTisalignedwiththeresistanceorganizationonlyatthesenior-leaderdecision-makerlevelsandonlybecausethetwoorganizationssharesomesimilarpoliticaloutlooksandobjectives.However,therank-and-filepriest,pastor,rabbi,imam,etc.(PPRIe)dotheirworkforandamongthepopulacewhichtheresistanceistryingtomobilize.WhatifaPPRIefromanothercountrywasinvitedtotraveltovisittheCSMTinthetargetcountryasavisitingscholarandgivelecturesonGeneSharp’smethodsofnon-violentresistance–inthecontextoflargerCSMTdoctrine–tootherPPRIeoftheCSMT?Whatofthisis“underground”activity?Theorganizationisknownandlegal,andevenknownbythestatetobeinoppositiontoituptosometolerablethreshold.ThevisitingPPRIeisknownopenlyasaforeigner,amemberofanorganizationisatleastpartiallyresistanttoit,inthiscasehasareputationforbeinganauthorityonnon-violentresistancemethods,andcanbeexpectedtoteachsuchmethodstoothersinthetoleratedoppositionorganization.BygivingsuchinstructionheisengaginginakindofcadrebuildingthatisessentialtotheCSMTmethodoforganizationalgrowthanddoctrinalstrength.Howisthis“underground”activity?
3.Whatifthe“foreignagent”isanindependent,non-government-affiliatedtechnicalexpertintelecommunicationsinvitedandpaidbyanexistingresistanceorganizationtoimproveitscommunicationsequipmentandproceduresandadviseontargetcountryX’scommunicationsweaknesses.Iftheexpertissmuggledacrosstheborderintosomehinterlandresistancebaseareaandworksopenlyinsidethesecuritycordonprovidedbythearmedcomponentatthatresistancebase,whataboutthisinfiltrationis“underground?”
4.Whatifthe“foreignagent”isaUSGmilitaryadvisor,sentinbytheUSGtoassessanexistingresistancetodeterminethefeasibilityofUSGsupporttoachievemutuallyagreeduponobjectivesatanoperationallevel.Ifinthiscasethetargetcountrystatesecurityposturewassorestrictivethatitwasnotworththerisktoattemptsendingtheadvisorintoamajorcityortown,butonlyallowedmovement
17
intorelativelyremote,sparselypopulatedareas,whatroleistheundergroundplayinginhisinfiltration?ImagineiftheadvisorwastoinfiltrateoveraruralbordertomeetwiththeaforementionedFarmerJoe.Thesamequestionapplies:“Whatpartofthisoperationis‘underground?’”Asimplebordercrossingcan–atleastsometimes–beasimpletacticaloperation.Movingondiscretepathsknownonlytolocalsandsecuredbylocalsdoesnotusuallyrequirehighly-specializedtechniquesorsleight-of-handmaneuvers.Theskillstosecureavisitoroutofsight,inaremotemeetingplaceisnomoreadvancedthanthestandardskillsofahunterorbootlegger.
Andwhatoftheassessment?InonlyatinyminorityoftimesistheUSGadvisorlikelytobeaffordedtheopportunitytowitnessallthatFarmerJoeknows,iscapableof,andisabletotouch.InanevensmallerpercentageofthattinyminorityoftimeswilltheUSGadvisorpossessthephysicalappearance,languageskillsandculturalbelievabilitytotravelalongalloftheindigenousnetworksthatFarmerJoecreates,controls,interactswith,traverses,intersects,isawareof,isresponsibletoorforwhichpotentialexists.Althoughcertainsegmentsareeasierthanothers–accompanyinganambushparty,cachedetailorselectspecificmeetingswithotherresistancepersonnel,forexample–inpracticallyallcasessuchcomprehensiveaccompaniedtraveloverthewholeofthesenetworksisnotgoingtohappen.WhatdifferencedoesitreallymakethenwhethertheUSGadvisorissecretedintosomemegalopolisbasementwhichhethencannotleave,orwhetherheishiddenoutonsomefarmfromwherehecanonlytravelinlimiteddistancesonasmallportionoftheresistancenet,andthenonlyattimescompletelycontrolledbytheresistanceitself.Howmuchofthisadvisoryactivityis“underground?”
Finally,thisinquirydoesn’tevenaddresstheresistance’soverridingconcernforitsownsecurity.Whatresistanceisgoingtoexposeitsentireoperationtoanoutsider:aforeigner,anAmericanwhofromtheirperspectivelikelycan’tbetrusted?TheinitialcontactbetweenresistancerepresentativesandtheUSGmayhavehappenedmonthsagoinGeneva,andthedetailsofwhatadvisorwouldenterandwhohewouldmeetandwhenandwhereandhowwereallworkedoutinnegotiationsconductedinvariousplaces,sobythetimetheadvisorreceivestheordertoconductthemissionheisfocusedonthatlink-uplikeasurgeonworkingwithinasterilizedfield.Andhelinksupwith…who?Thesecond-in-commandofFarmerJoe’sarmedactionband.
Afteracooling-offperiodwhereheiskeptwaitingtoseeifthereisanyreactiontohispresence–andperhapstogaugetheoutsider’scharacter-hemaythenmeetwithFramerJoe.Overtime–dependentonthevariablesofeachspecificsituation–theadvisorislikelytobepermittedtowitnesssomeofthelocaltacticalactionspreviouslymentioned.Hemaybeaffordedanopportunitytomeetotherleadersandmembersoftheresistanceatcontrolledtimesandplacesoftheresistanceorganization’schoosing.Heshouldattempttooutlinethecapabilitiesoftheresistancetotheextentheistakenintotheirconfidence.Andyet,thelikelihoodofthisadvisortracingthesamepatternoflifecoveredbyJoetheFarmerisunlikelyintheextreme;letalonenetworkshigherupintheresistanceleadership.Whatheisinvitedtoaccompanyandseelocallyandtactically,whatheispermittedtoknowfrominterviewsanddiscussionswithFarmerJoeandothers,theoccasionalobservationofanetworksegmenthereandaspecificresistanceactionthere,isprobablytheextentofhis“infiltration”intoapositionwhere
hecanunderstandtheresistance.Howmuchofthisactivityis“underground?”
5B.--Infiltrationofforeignagitators
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Aforeignagitatorisaveryspecifickindofagent;onethatislikelytobeusedsparinglybecauseobservablerabble-rousingbyforeignersshouldberelativelyeasytospotandsuppress.Evenforeignerswhosharethegoalsofindigenousresistancepopulationmaylackperceivedlegitimacybecauseoftheirforeignness.Giventheincreasedprofileandassociatedrisks,whywouldaresistanceemployaforeignagitator?Iftheintentisthattheagitatorisnottoconductman-in-the-streetagitationhimself,butrathertoteachthemethodsofagitation,thenheisbeinginfiltratedtobeaninstructor,notanagitatorperse.Ifheisbeinginfiltratedforhis“foreignness”thenthatisnotprimarilyafunctionofhisagitationskillsbutthemessagingeffectofhisforeignpresence.
Forexample,imaginealegal,indigenousoppositionpoliticalpartyclandestinelyandcovertlybringsoutsidersintothecountrytofomenttroubleanticipatinganoveractivecrackdownbythestate.Ifmessagedadroitly,suchreactivestaterepressionmightinflamepublicopinionintogreaterupheavalandpoliticalmobilization,whichinturnmightleadtopressuringthestatetomakepolicychangesfavoredbytheoriginalsponsoringparty.Thiswouldrepresentatacticaluseof“foreignagitators”toaffectstrategic(political)change.Iftheprimaryengineofchangeispublicmassaction,andthesparkiseventsthatmustbewitnessedandrespondedto,thenweshouldacknowledgethatonlyspecificpartsofthisphenomenonis“underground;”suchasthesponsorship,ultimatepurposeandsomeofthe
handlers.
ThedefinitionofpropagandafoundinADRP1-02,TermsandMilitarySymbols,07DEC15isas“anyformofadversarycommunication,especiallyofabiasedormisleadingnature,designedtoinfluencetheopinions,emotions,attitudes,orbehaviorofanygroupinordertobenefitthesponsor,eitherdirectlyorindirectly.”[11]Lawyersanddoctrineprofessionalswouldtellyouthatisaverybroaddefinition.
“Adversary”issobroadastoincludeanyentitygreatorsmall,inchoateororganized,andforeignordomestic.“Anyform”includesanyphenomenonwhichcandeliveramessage.“Designedtoinfluencetheopinions,emotions,attitudes,orbehavior”iscomprehensiveofthatwhichcanbeinfluencedinthehumandomain.“Directlyorindirectly”isthetotalpossiblesetofapproachesavailable.Theonlylimitstothemeaningofthetermare“…tobenefitthesponsor…”and“…especiallyofabiasedormisleadingnature.”However,whothesponsorisisunspecified,andifitcanimpactindirectlyandinanyform,thesponsorwilloftenbeunknowable.“Especiallybiased”isaqualifierthatisintheeye-of-the-beholder(ortarget);itdoesnothavetobereasonableorobjectivelyacknowledged.Moreover,“especially”allowsthatitisaspecialtypethatdoesnotexcludewhatisnotespecially“biased;’onceagainitisandcanbeeffectivelyanything.
Whatthenis“underground”aboutthe“infiltrationofforeignpropagandamaterial?”Ifthereaderisthinkingofhandbillsandleaflets,orpre-recordedprogrammingonthumbdrivessmuggledinthismayfit.Butthiswouldappeartobetheexceptionratherthantherule.Whatsensedoesithaveinanageofcybercommunicationswhendigitalcommunicationscrisscrosstheplanet,floodacrossalmostallbordersinwaysdifficultforregimestocontrol,anddeliberatelyandmorenarrowlyfocusedcancrosseventhemostresolutelyclosedborders?IsVoiceofAmerica,RadioMartiandsimilarefforts“infiltrationofforeignpropaganda?”Issatelliteprogrammingbeameddownintoadeniedarea?Iscontentatargetstatemightfindobjectionablebuteasilydownloadedfromtheinternet?Isthe
5C.--Infiltrationofforeignpropagandamaterial
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importationofsuperiororcovetedforeigngoodsinthecourseofnormalinternational–evenlimited–trade?Areforeigncitizensenteringthetargetcountry(forbusiness,tourism,educationalexchanges,rock-and-roll,orotherpurposes)whoarebetterpaid,betterdressed,betterfed,bettereducated,morefreetocome-and-go,etc.thantheindigenouscitizens?
Inkeepingwiththefundamentalazimuthofthisinquiry,themeaningof“infiltration”isnot(only)whatitusedtobe.Itispossiblethattherecouldbesome“infiltratedforeignpropagandamaterial”thatissospecificallytargetedtogaslightaspecificindividualorspoofanaudienceforaveryspecificpurposeandmustbedeliveredinahighlyspecificandcontrivedwaythatitmustbeclandestinelybroughtacrossthe
border.However,theseraritiesarelikelytobetheexceptionswhichchallengetheassumptionthatthisactivityshouldbeprimarily–letaloneexclusively–consideredan“underground”activity.
“Foreignmoney”issimilarto“foreignpropagandamaterials”inmanywayswithregardstowhatitmeansto“infiltrate.”Infiltrationcouldbebagsofbillsairdroppedorsmuggledacrossaborderonthebacksofmulesdestinedforsomeremoteguerrillabase,whereitwillbeusedtomakelocalpurchasesofriceandbeans,fuel,information,medicalsupplies,etc.Thisisaclassicvisionofwhatthistypeofinfiltrationmeans.
However,itcanalsomeanoperatingcapitalofaforeign/multinationalcompanythatchoosestoengageincontractswithlocalentitiespossiblytiedtooppositionpoliticalparties.Itcanbemoneydonatedtothelocal,indigenousbranchesofinternationalreligiousorganizationsearmarkedforspecificconstituenciesincludingthoseunderrepresentedto,orunderserved,neglectedorabusedbythestate;constituenciespreparedbycircumstancetosupportthosewhooffersurvivalandhope.Itcanbemoneyforcriminalenterprisesthatcoincidentallyprovidesusefulmechanismsforanti-governmentcontraband.Itcanbemoneysiphonedfromoverpaymentsmadeforgoodsorservicessourcedinsidethedeniedarea.Alloftheaforementionedcanbedonebydigitaltransfers.
Isthebureaucratorbankofficialhittingthesendbuttonoropeningthereceivedfileamemberofthe“underground.”Oristhisaroutinebusinessactivity,donemostofthetimebetweenopenandlegitimateinstitutionsthathappenmillionsoftimesaday?Theintendedsubversivepurpose(and/orprimarysponsor)ofthefundsmaybehidden.Buthowisthishiddenpurposeessentiallydifferentfrommuchroutinelegalpoliticalorbusinessactivity,orthemultifariousmethodsofillegalorunethicalformsofpoliticalactivitysuchascronyism,parochialpatronage,influencepeddling,graft,embezzlement,etc.?Clandestineactivitiesaretypicalofhumanlife.Tosaythatthisisthe“purviewofan‘underground’”asUndergroundsdoesistoartificiallystovepipereality.[12]
Noris“money”necessarilywhatonemightcasuallyexpect.Theclassicthreefunctionsofmoney–astoreofvalue,aunitofaccountandamediumofexchange–canbesuspendedinthecauseofresistance.Examplesincluderepresentativeformsof“money”suchastradeinguns,drugs,slaves,livestock,fuel,foodorothercommodities.Thehawalasystemusesdelayed,displacedsettlementsbuiltonpersonalnetworksandthehonorsystem.Howisthetrafficofrepresentativeformsofmoneythepurviewofan“underground”iftheyhaveoccurredsincehumaninteractionbegan?Onceagain,the
5D.--Infiltrationofforeignmoney
5E.--Infiltrationofforeignweapons
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clandestinenatureoftheintentismagnifiedtoclassifytheentireovert,flesh-and-bloodenterprise.
Inprobablyallcases,the“infiltration”offoreignweaponswhereinfiltrationconnotes“outsideoflegalstatescrutiny”isillegal,whetheritisforresistance,purelycriminaloranyotherpurpose.Thesameairdropormuleskinnermethodscometomind,asdothesamemerelytacticaltechniquesofsmugglingreferredtoinotherexamples.Asidefromconcealingthetacticaloperationinthemanneranypatrolwouldtosmuggleinandcacheordistributetheweapons,whatis“underground”aboutthisstandard,routine,relativelystraightforwardoperation?
However,whatif“infiltration”is“importation?”Whatiftheweaponsareimportedwithstateknowledge,thatis“legally,”butthefinaldestination,recipient,and/orintendedfull-timeorpart-timeuseishidden?
Infiltrationofweaponsdoesnotequatetotheirimmediateuse,andthisisnotatrivialdistinction.Eachdegreeofefforthasitsownriskprofile.Ifweaponsaretocrossaboundaryandbecachedsomewhereforplannedfutureuse,upuntilsuchtimeastheiruserendersthemunabletobefurtherconcealed–atleastforabrieftimesegment–whatisthedifferencebetweenweaponsandanyotherequipment?Thestakesinvolvedofbeingspotted,interdictedandcaughtwithlethalobjectsiscertainlygraverthanifcaughtwithnon-lethalobjects.Asidefromthat,however,theprocessofinfiltratingweaponsisnomoredifficultorsophisticatedthaninfiltrating“widgets.”
Whatabouttherelativeimportanceofweaponsbytimeandscale?Onepistolorsmallexplosivedeviceinthehandsofaloneassassinwhomanagestokillthehead-of-stateattheoutsetofconflictcanhavestrategiceffects,whereasinfiltratingafreightcarfullofheavyweaponsandmassivedemolitionstoacountrythathasprogressedtoaresistancestageoffullmobilizationandconstantlarge-scaleunit
actionsindirectcombatwithstateforcesmaybeadropinthebucketofresistancelogistics.
Seewidgetsdiscussionabove.Theinfiltrationofobjectsisoftentimesnomoredifficultthanstandardpatrollingproceduresinthehinterland,ormisplacingashipment,mistakentransloadingofcargotothewronghold,falsificationorlossofbillsoflading,orboxesmysteriously“fallingoffofatruck”inthemegalopolis.
Consideration,too,shouldbegiventothespecificnatureoftheequipment.Muchequipmentisdualuse;equipmentusefultoaresistancewouldoftennotbeoutofplaceinanynormalciviliansetting.Intheappropriatecontext,medicalsupplies,cellphones,pre-paiddebitcards,barriermaterials,tools,electricalcable,cameras,radios,computers,binoculars,machineparts,vehicles,etc.,etc.,arepartofthenormalbackgroundofdailylife.Onceagain,whatisclandestineaboutthisisthepurposetowhichtheseitemsmaybeused;itismoreafunctionofahiddenintentionorplanthanitistheinherentnatureoftheitemsorthosewhomayemploythemperse.FarmerJoeisoutintheopenalmostallofthetimesurroundedbyitemsthatcanbeusedintheserviceofresistance.Providedtheitemsareappropriateforandnaturaltothecontextintermsofquality,quantity,origin,newness,etc.,agreat
6.--Recruitmentoflike-mindedindividualsandothers;indoctrinationanduseofthesefororganizationalpurposes
5F.--Infiltrationofforeignequipment
21
dealofthisinfiltrationislesssecretivethanassumed.
Onceagain,althoughtheyarerelated,thesearethreeseparateactivities,andonceagain,thereadershouldavoidtheassumptionthatthesemostlyrequiretechniquesmorespecializedthanstandardpoliticalandorganizationalactivities.
Indoctrinationisacontinuousmatter.Onecouldarguethatthemostimportantindoctrinationisthatwhichoccursattheinitial,mutuallyrecognizedaccessionintoaresistanceorganization.Butindoctrinationforthecommittedresistorisongoing.Asausefulparallelconsiderthefollowingvignette:
AcivilianaskstojointheArmy,theArmyacceptshimandsendshimtobasictrainingforinitialindoctrinationintowhataSoldierisandhowtobecomeone.ThroughoutthatSoldier’sprofessionallifestandardsofdutywillbeconstantlyreinforced(indoctrinated)atprogressivelymoreadvancedlevelsofknowledge,experience,abilityandresponsibility.Thisindoctrinationwillincludestandardsofbehaviorforbothonandoffduty.ThiscontinuousindoctrinationincludesthefundamentalprinciplesjustifyingtheSoldier’sandorganization’sroleinsocietyandtheexpectedlegalandmoralparametersofhowtheSoldierwillexecutehisduties.Theindoctrinationinculcatesanethicofself-lessservicetoalarger,noblecause.Itreinforcessubordinationtoahierarchyofcommand.ThecontinuousindoctrinationseekstoimprovethevalueoftheSoldierindividually,teacheshimhowtoworkasamemberofaunit,howtoworkaccordingtoplanswithmultipleobjectivesimbeddedinlargercontexts,andhowtoadapttochangingcircumstancesintheenvironment.Hisindoctrinationincludeshispersonalresponsibilitytocommitviolenceagainstnamedenemiesandinoculateshimwiththeunderstandingthatthefullrangeofhiscommitmentincludesthepotentialultimatesacrificefor“thecause.”
Doestheabovesketchrequiretrainedcadres,asupportstructureandleadersatmanylevelstosucceed?Absolutely.Buthowmuchoftherealisticsketchaboverequiresclandestineactivityoran“underground?”None,becauseitisconductedintheopeninalawfulmannerandinsupportofthesponsoringindigenousstateitself.Ifthissketchhadanicebergdiagramitwouldbeentirelyabovethewaterlineofthatwhichcanonlybedoneifconcealed.However,assumingthispatterngenerallyappliestotheindoctrinationofabasicresistancemember,itisusefultoaskhowmuchofthisactivityreallyrequiresanundergroundtoperform.Thedegreetowhichclandestineactivityisrequiredisproportionaltotheseverity,omnipresenceandomniscienceofstaterepression.Theseexistonaspectrumand“omnipresence”and“omniscience”aredifficulttoachieveandmaintain;andinmanywaysareactuallymyths.Muchofthetimeandeffort,manyofthemeetingsanddiscussions,manyofthelessonsandtraining,manyoftheaffiliationsandmanyoftherepeatedandguidedrationalesforbehaviorwillbedone–perhapsdiscretely–inplainsight.Rememberagaintheessentiallypoliticalandorganizationalprocessofresistance.
Theaboveexamplediscussesindoctrinationonlyafteraccession.Whatabouttheindoctrinationfoundationwhichmadethecivilianwillingtoberecruitedinthefirstplace?Thisrelatesbacktoandisinseparablefromtheinitialbaseconditionsoftheresistancemodel.Theunderlyingpoliticalandphilosophicalworldviewwhichinformsandshapestheindividualpotentialresistorisnot–atleastinitially–thecreationofaresistance;itspringsfromtheunderlyingsocietyandallthosewhoshapeit.Thereforetheoverwhelmingmajorityofpossibleinfluencesareentirelyoutsideofevenawell-formed
22
andexperiencedresistance.Indoctrinationforaspecificpurposeisapoliticalact;notan“undergroundone”perse.
Considerthereligiousexamplementionedaboveinthe“foreignadvisor”section.Thereligiousorganizationpositsadivineentityutterlyapartfromthe“omniscientandomnipresent”state;oftendirectlyandopenlyatoddswiththatstate.Recruitmentof“like-mindedindividuals”inthiscaseisacausethatlargelysellsitself.Howmuchofthisisnaturalhumanpoliticalactivityandhowmuchcanonlybedonethrough“specializedtechniques”ofan“underground?”
Whatabout“recruitmentofothers”(other-thanlike-minded).Thosewhoare“like-minded”haveamutuallysharedunderstandinglikesimilarvisionsandobjectives.Insomesense,theyareworkingtogetherascomrades;theyco-operate.Therelationshiponehaswiththoseonerecruitsbutarenot“like-minded’–whodonotsharemutualunderstanding–isthatofemployerandemployed.Thelatterareused;theyaresurrogatesforwhatcannotbedonebythesponsor.Itis“recruitment”inthemannerofacorporateheadhunterorgeneralcontractor;acontract.Thisisasubtlebutqualitativelyimportantdifferencewithimplicationsfortrustworthiness,legitimacyandsoon.
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Penetrationcanhaveanuancedimplicationofgettingintosomethingwithprohibitiveboundaries.Nevertheless,theessentialmeaningofthisactivityisnodifferentfromthepreviousinfiltrationofothersegmentsofsociety;“infiltration”moreoftenthannotsimplymeaningto“join.”Onceagain,thenear-totalpreponderanceofthisactivityisstandardpoliticalandorganizationalactivityandhasnothingtodowithan“underground.”Moreover,thelinearphasingofthisactivityisquestionable.Isitnotmorelikelythatthosewithresistanceintentionswillalreadybeapartofnon-securitysegmentsofsocietyfirstasamatterofnormallifeandroutinepoliticalactivity?Later,afterspecificobjectivesaredeterminedwhichrequiremanipulationofspecificgroups,isitnotmorelikelythatmembersofsocietyatlargewhohavebecomeradicalizedwillthenseektogainentryintothesecuritysegmentsofsociety?Aseveryresistancesituationisdifferent,itisprobablybesttonotputtheminanylinearorder,butthisonesurelyseemsmisplaced.
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,so
allthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Thesearetwoseparate,dissimilaractivitieswhichdonotbelonggroupedtogether.
Whatdoesthismean?Canoneestablish“informal”resistanceelements?Doesonestartwith“informal”
elementsandthenonlyuponsomespecifiedthresholdordainthem“formalized?”Does“formalized”meanstructuredinaccordancewithasetorganizationalstructure?Formalizedbymanifesto?Doesthis
7.--Penetrationintoprofessional,social,andpoliticalorganizationsandintoallpartsofsociety
8.--Spreadingsubversiveorganizationsintoallsectorsoflifeinacountry/region
9.--Establishmentofformalizedresistanceelements;appealtoextraterritorialsupportinfrastructure
9A.--Establishmentofformalizedresistanceelements
9B.--Appealtoextraterritorialsupportinfrastructure
23
mean“recognized,”andifsobywhom?Isitinternally-recognizedforstrictlyinternalorganizationalpurposes,orisitmeanttobeexternally-recognized?Doestheresistanceissuepressreleasesannouncingitsarrivalonthepoliticalstage?Doesitadoptspecialcostumesorinsigniaandparadeovertly?Doesitdosobyclaimingresponsibilityforactsobservedbythepublicandreportedinthepress?Isitafunctionofsome“other”announcingtheresistance’sexistence?Ifso,isitthetargetgovernment?Politicalopponents?Thepress?Andforalloftheconsiderationsabove,whyshouldanyofthisbeconsideractivitiesofthe“underground?”
Thishasnothingtodowiththepreviouslylistedactivity.Likesomanyoftheseothersedimentarylayersofactivities,whereithasbeenlayeredintothediagramisnotanaccuratedepictionofwhereitoccursinreality.Moreover,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthisactivityispoliticalandorganizationalandhasnothingtodowithbeinganactivityofthe“underground.”
Partofthevaguenessofbreadthofthisactivityisamatterofscale.Itcanbeanysizeeffortbetweenanyresistancememberoraffiliateinsidethedeniedareawithanyentityoutsideofit.Thisdoesnotequatetosponsorshipandisnotnecessarilyabouttheextraterritorialproviderevenbeingwittingtothepurposeofthecontactinside(refertotheexampleaboveaboutthecriminalorganizationbuyingcellphones).Asamatterofscale,thiswilloccuranywherealongboththetemporalandintensitytimelines;smallernascenteffortsarelikelytohavesmallerrequirementsthanlarger,experienced,wide-spreadconflicts.Itisalsopartiallyafunctionofwhattheappealisfor.“Smaller”doesnotnecessarilymean“lessimportant.”Grantingofinternationalrecognitionand/orlegitimacytoaresistanceeffortinitsearlystagesmightbethedifferencebetweensurvivalorexterminationatthehandsofthestate.Appealsfornon-lethalhumanitarianaidismuchmorelikelytobegranted,andbyapoliticallywiderrangeofsuppliers,thanappealsforweaponsorintervention.
Many–perhapsamajority–oftheseappealswillbemadeaspartofroutinepoliticalandorganizationalprocessesiftheresistancehasanypubliccomponentrepresentationinsideand/oroutsideofthedeniedarea;evenmoresointhefewcaseswheretheremightbealegitimategovernmentinexile.Theoperativewordinthisactivityis“appeal.”Asignificantamountofdiasporaappealstosupportpoliticalcauseselsewhereinsideatroubledstatewillbedoneopenlyatthelocalexpatriatecommunitybars,CSMTreligiousfoci,schoolsandcommunitycenters.Widedissemination,notcarefullywithheldandstovepipedcontrol,ofinformationisoftenanecessity.Whatofthis“underground”activityisuniquely
differentfromroutinepoliticalactivity?
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,soallthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Onceagain:althoughtheyarerelated,thesearethreeseparateactivities;thereadershouldavoidthe
assumptionthatthesemostlyrequiretechniquesmorespecializedthanstandardpoliticalandorganizationalactivities;thesearecontinuousactivities;thisisyetanothersedimentarylayerthatisredundant;andsoallthislayersaysis“expandyourefforts.”
10.--Expansionofcoordinationamongresistancenetworks
11.--Intensificationofpropaganda,increaseindisaffection,psychologicalpreparationforrevolt
24
Thethirdactivitybearssomeadditionalconsideration.Theimplicationsof“psychologicalpreparationforrevolt”variesbyscaleandtimeinsignificantways.Asshownabove,themostimportantpreparationforanyresistancerequiringsignificantpublicparticipationisthebeginningbaseconditionswhicharethepetridishandrawmaterialsforresistancetoemerge.Thesebaseconditionsareafundamentalandinitialsinequanonformassresistanceandarenotdeliberateactivities.Aresistancemanipulatingbroadappealmaythenseektomanipulatebroadopinionbyavarietyoftechniquesabletocoordinatebroadcoalitionsofdissimilardemographics.Manyofthesetechniquesbytheirnaturewillbenotonlyovertbutdeliberatelyobviousbydesign.Theseconditionsvaryfromamorenarrowly-supportedresistancesuchasaninsurgencybasedonanarrowdemographicswheretheresistanceisinterestedinpreparingonlythosewithinthatsamerelevantdemographic.Itmatterswhetherthepreparationinvolvesreachingsomelarge,dramatic,mass-participantculminatingeventorcrisis,orwhetheritonlyseekstopreparesomeelectfeworstrategicvanguard.“Preparation”itselfisavagueterm.Notonlydoestheentireresistanceenterpriseneedtobepreparedformajormilestonesfromastrategicviewpoint,buteachindividualrequirespreparationonapersonalcommitmentlevel.
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,so
allthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Thesearetwoseparate,dissimilaractivitieswhichdonotbelonggroupedtogether.
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,so
allthislayersaysis“expandyourefforts.”SubversionandsabotageareoftenmisunderstoodassomethingveryspecificratherthantheprofoundlybroadconsiderationsallowedbyhowtheyaredefinedinjointandArmydoctrine.[13]ATP3-05.1states:
“Theterms“sabotage”and“subversion”havedistinctmilitarydefinitions,butincommonEnglishusagetheyarefrequentlyusedinterchangeably.Sabotageisdefinedasanactoractswithintenttoinjure,interferewith,orobstructthenationaldefenseofacountrybywillfullyinjuringordestroying,orattemptingtoinjureordestroy,anynationaldefenseorwarmateriel,premises,orutilities,toincludehumanandnaturalresources.Sabotageistechnicallyacomponentofsubversionbecauseitconsistsofactionswhichdocontributetothe‘underminingofthemilitary,economic,psychological,orpoliticalstrengthormoraleofagoverningauthority.’However,subversiongenerallyconnotestheactionsdirectedathumanbeingsandmeanttounderminethesourcesofpoliticalpower,whereassabotagegenerallyconnotesactionsdirectedatphysicalthingsandprocessesandmeanttounderminethesourcesofmaterialpower.Nevertheless,therewillcontinuetobeinstancessuchas“noncooperationwithauthorities”whichareequallyunderstoodasbothsubversionandsabotage.”[14]
12.--Overtandcovertpressuresagainstgovernment:strikes,riots,anddisorders
13.--Sabotageandterrortodemonstrateweaknessofgovernment
13A.--Sabotagetodemonstrateweaknessofgovernment
25
Sabotageisasubsetofsubversion,andsubversionisasubsetofpoliticalactivity.Asresistanceisfundamentallyapoliticalphenomenon,“subversion”and“sabotage”(consideredbroadly)areintegralactivitiesofresistancefromitsorigins.
Terror–likeassassinationand“foreignagitators”–issomethingveryspecific.Thepurposeofterroristoaffecttheobservingaudience(s);apremeditatedcalculationthatgoesbeyondmerekillinganddestruction.Terrorisaformofsubversion.Likesubversion,itcanbeconductedatanypointoftheresistanceeffort.Likeassassination,theobjectiveofterrorismcanbesmallorgrand–alocalofficialfortacticaleffects,orahead-of-stateforgrandstrategiceffects–dependingonthedesiredeffect.Methodsofterrorareasbroadasthebreadthofhumanfears.Smashingaskullwithaclub,beatings,immolation,decapitation,torture,duress,captivity,arbitrariness,upheaval,explosions,arson,uncertainty,disappearances,superstitions,devouring,anarchy,etc.,etc.,arejustsomeofthemethodsofapplyingterror.Butwhateverthemethodandobjective,itisseparatedfrommindlessviolencebybeingpurposeful;apoliticalandoperationalconsideration.IfthereadercanenvisionFarmerJoe’sbandleavingthelocallandlord’sdisemboweledbodyonthevillagecommonstobediscoveredthenextmorningyouwillseethatfundamentally,thishasnothingtodowithbeing“underground.”
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,soallthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,so
allthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,soallthislayersaysis“expandyourefforts.”Totheextentthat“negotiationsbetweentwopoliticalpositions”isrootedinlargercontextsthantheobjectivesofaspecificandstructuredresistanceorganization,thesepoliticalnegotiationsoccurinthebasepoliticalstruggleunderlying,pre-datingandspawningtheresistance.Onceagain,thisisfundamentallyapoliticalactfirst,andonlyafunctionofthederivative‘specific-and-structured-resistancesecond.”Toassertthesenegotiationsonlyhappenapproximatelyaroundsomearbitraryovert/clandestinedividinglineisunsupportable.
Thissedimentarylayerisredundant.Thisishappeningfromtheverybeginningofresistanceactivity,so
14.--Increasedundergroundactivitiestodemonstratestrengthofrevolutionaryorganization
15.--Intensesappingofmoraleofgovernment,administration,police,andmilitary
16.--Negotiationswithgovernmentrepresentatives
17.--Increasedpoliticalviolence,terror,andsabotage
18.--Shadowgovernanceactivities
13B.--Terrortodemonstrateweaknessofgovernment
26
allthislayerdoessaysis“expandyourefforts.”
Thisisthepointatwhichitisclaimedthatthereexistsadistinctdividinglinebetweentheprecedingactivitieslabeled“clandestine”andthesubsequentactivitieslabeled“overt.”Thereaderhasalreadyseenthatthisisnotanaccuratemodelofreality.TheSOROmodelalsocategorizesactivitiesintogrossfunctionalareasthatdonotaccuratelymodelrealityineitheractorcapabilitiesortemporallinearsequence.
Thatsomeshadowgovernanceactivitiesaredoneovertlyandsomearedoneinaclandestinemannerorwithclandestineaspectsisnotinquestion.Noristhefactitalsodoeslow-visibilityandpossiblycovertactivitiesaswell.Whatdoesnotcomportwithrealityisthegraphicrepresentationwhichsuggeststhattheseshadowgovernmentactivitiesaresomehowatthelatetemporalstageatopmultiplesedimentarylayersofsupposedclandestine-onlyprogresstowardaculmination.Infact,likepracticallyallotheractivitiespreviouslyconsidered,theactivitiesofshadowgovernanceoccurthroughoutthecourseoftheentireeffort;atleastforresistanceeffortscharacterizedbyanyconstituencythatcouldbeprovidedfor.Therefore,thepositionoftheshadowgovernanceactivitiesjustbelowandjustabovetheovert-clandestine“waterline”isamischaracterization.Notonlyisthisbadinitself,itreinforcesthemisperceptionthatshadowgovernancehasmoretodowithkeyleadershipratherthanorganizationalsustainmentofresistanceconstituencies.
(“clandestine”)-----------------------------------------------------
(“overt”)
Seeabove.
Thesearetwoseparatesubjects.Theminor/majorandmilitary/paramilitarydualitiescanbeconsidered
togetherforallofthe“armedcomponent”activitiesinthelayersbelow.Asmentionedatthebeginningofthispaper,therehasbeenaneedindoctrineandconceptstopaintabroaderandmorevariegatedspectrumofarmed,violentorparamilitaryactionsbeyondthetraditionalcomponentlabeled“guerrillawarfare.”Guerrillawarfareisasrelevantintheoryandpracticefordoctrineandconceptualdiscourseasiteverhasbeen.Itis,however,notenough.
WhentheHumanFactorsintroduced“armedcomponent”itcouldhavebeentheopportunitytoconsiderabroadercontextwhichincludedalloftheideasrelevantto“armed,violentorparamilitary”andguerrillawarfare,andresistanceuseoftraditionalmilitaryoperationsandanythingelse.UnfortunatelyHumanFactorsdivided“armedcomponent”into“military”actions–characterizedbyregular,standingstate-likemilitaryorganizations–and“paramilitary”actionscharacterizedbyirregularorganizationandtactics.
19.--Shadowgovernanceactivities
20.--Minormilitaryandparamilitaryactions
27
Whilethisaddstothevarietyof“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivities”itwasneverthelessamissedopportunity.Therearestilltwocriticalproblemswiththebreakdown;itmissesallthetechniquesofbasicpoliticalviolenceobservableinanyresistancethatresortsto–orburstsinto–violenceanditexilessuchactivitiesunderthisbluntcategorizationintoacontrived“overt”sideofthe“watermark.”
Whenresistancedevelops,bywhateverpaths,toapointwherestandingsemi-permanentorpermanentparamilitaryormilitarystructuresexistovertlyandtakethefieldindirectcombatagainststateforcesthereisobviouslyan“armedcomponent”operatingovertly.Therearemanyhistoricalandmodernexamples.However,mostresistancesthroughouthistorydonotsucceed.Manymayconductvariouskindsofparamilitaryactivitiesrelyingonthecharacteristicsofguerrillatactics;survivalisparamount,attackwithoutnoticewheretheenemyisweakandwithdrawquickly,pitchedbattlewithstateforcesusuallymeansannihilation,etc.Mostdonoteventuallyprogresstoapointwheretheycanopenlydefyastatewithguerrillaforcessignificantenoughtodefeatstateforcesinpitchedcombatonopenbattlefields;letaloneprogressingtosuchstrengthastoconductmajorcombatoperationsagainstnationalarmieswithresistancefieldarmiesasnearpeers.Thepatternofthegreatcommunistrevolutionsofthe20thcenturyinRussia,ChinaandVietnamwhichdevelopedsucharmiesaretheexceptionratherthantherule.Moreover,inthesecasestheobjectivewasunconditionalvictory;totalwar,regimechange–an“unconventionalwarfareobjective”of“overthrow.”Morelimitedobjectives–“unconventionalwarfare”to“coerce”ordisrupt”–doesn’tevenrequirethispatternofprogressingtostandingforcesandusuallydoesnot.
Assumingagivenresistanceiscommittedtousingthem,theoverwhelmingmajorityof“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivities”characteristicofresistancearewovenintothestrandsofaresistanceenterprisefromthealpha-to-omega.Whenanascentresistancemovement–barelylargeenoughtoyetbenoticedbythelocalpolice–strong-armsarivalnascentpoliticalbandwithbatsandrazors…Isthatnot“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivities?”Whataboutthemurderofaclaimanttoresistanceleadershipwhenthatorganizationhasnotevengrownpastthepub,caféorunionhalllevel?Whataboutthenearfatalbeatingofaprofessorwithopposingpoliticalviews?Thetorchingofanewsroomwhichpublishedanti-radicaleditorials?Thesprayingofapolicecaptain’shousewithbullets?Theintimidationofthecommissioner’skidsontheirwaytoschool?Atwhatpointcanonereasonablyestablishaso-called“thresholdofviolence;”onesideofwhichis“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivities”-freeandtheothersidewhereitisclearlypresent?Thestateandstate-supportingsocietyitselfmaybeunaware,uncoordinatedorirresoluteenoughitselftomake(andacton)suchadistinctionthoughititselfisthetargetoftheactivities.
Considerotherexamplesofthisquestion.IfeveryreaderconcursthatMustaphaisamemberoftheso-called“underground,”andMustaphaisorderedbytheleadershiptoslitthethroatofaninformant–tocommitpoliticalmurder–isthatnot“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivity?”Whythenwouldweartificiallyconceiveof“armedcomponent”asaseparateentityratherthanprimarilyasafunction(inthiscaseofthe“underground”)?IfeveryreaderagreesthatRaoulisamemberoftheso-called“auxiliary,”andhisjobroutinelyallowshimaccesstothefuelcellsofafactorywhichheonedayignitescausingdestructionandterror,isthatnot“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivity?”Whythenwouldweartificiallyconceiveof“armedcomponent”asaseparateentityratherthanprimarilyasafunction(inthiscaseofthe“auxiliary”)?IfeveryreaderconcursthatSeanisamemberoftheso-called“publiccomponent,”andheistaskedtoorganizepopulardemonstrationsinsupportofagivenpoliticalposition,andthesedemonstrationsgobeyondmereworkstoppages,strikes,sit-insandtraffic
28
interdictiontoincludevoterintimidation,scuffleswithcounter-protestors,resistingandpunchingandthrowingrocksatthepolice,rioting,arson,vandalism,looting,mobassaultsandsoon,isthatnot“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivity?”Whythenwouldweartificiallyconceiveof“armedcomponent”asaseparateentityratherthanprimarilyasafunction(inthiscaseofthe“publiccomponent”)?
Andaswehavepreviouslyseenatlength,FramerJoecrossesallofthesecategories;herepresentsablendofallofthesefunctions–whichincludeatcertainspecifictimes–theroleofassassin,demolitionistandsmallarmedunitleader.Andyetitwouldbeaprofoundmischaracterizationofrealitytopretendthatthismemberoftheguerrilla/armedforceissomehownothingbuttheorganization’s“muscle.”
TheSOROmodel,withitsseparationoffunctionsbycomponentwiththe“armedcomponent”atthetopofthepyramidisinaccurate.Intermsof“armed,violentorparamilitaryactivities”thefigureifanythingshouldbeturnedupside-downtoconveythetruththatsuchactivitiesarepart-and-parceloftheentireeffortfromstart(ornearstart)tofinish.
Seeabove.
Seeabove.
Seeabove.
Seeabove.
Seeabove.
Thesameobjectionofclaimingmostofresistanceis“clandestine”andsomehow“fenced-off”tothe“underground”(and“auxiliary”)isconsistentherebutinreverse.Internationalstrategic
21.--Large-scalemilitaryandparamilitaryactions
22.--Internationalstrategiccommunications
23.--Negotiatedsettlement
20A.--Minormilitaryactions
20B.--Minorparamilitaryactions
21A.--Large-scalemilitaryactions
21B.--Large-scaleparamilitaryactions
29
communicationsisalegitimateactivityofapubliccomponent,butdoesnotbelongsolelytothiscomponent.Itisafunctionwieldedasnecessarybyanyoneatanytimewithintheresistancelifespanfromwhatevervantagepointor“component.”Iftheleaderofanascentresistance–thoughhemaybeclandestinelycallingorwritingfromapub,café,unionhall,dormitory,orprisoncell–makescontactwithforeignerswhocanprovidehimorhismovementpoliticalsupport,press,legitimacy,money,supplies,weapons,converts,etc.isthisnot“internationalstrategiccommunications?”Howisthisanexampleofa“publiccomponent”-specificactivity?Isasmugglingnetworkthatroutinelycrossesaninternationalbordertoprovidethelifebloodresourceskeepingastrugglingresistancealivenot“internationalstrategiccommunications?”Suchcommunicationsshouldnotdenoteofficialdeputationstotheconsulateorpoliticalcommitteemeetings;theyareasbroadaspropagandawasdescribedbutinreverse.Theyareanyforeignconnectionsthathavestrategicimpactonorfortheresistance;regardlessofwhattimeduringtheeffortoffromwhat“component”theycorrespond.
TheSOROmodelpresentsaresistancemodelculminatinginanegotiatedsettlement.ThisisconsistentwiththethesisofHumanFactorsthatthisendstateisthemostlikelyofmodernoutcomes.Theaccuracyofthatthesisaside,therearemanyothermodelsofhowaresistancemightculminateotherthanbynegotiatedsettlement.ToonlyshowtheSOROmodelasislimitsthereader’sconceptualoptionsandskewshisunderstanding.Othermodelsareneeded.
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Figures3“SOROPyramidDeconstructed”and4“Legend”(below)areagraphicrepresentationoftheline-by-line,subject-by-subjectanalysisconductedabove.Itshowstheredundancies,inaccuracies,andartificialitiesobservedinthenarrativediscussion.Themodelislimitedandinadequatetoinformandeducateresistanceprofessionals.Theresistanceprofessionalcommunityshouldcraftalternativesforfuturedoctrineandeducation.
30
Figure3-SOROPyramidDeconstructed
Figure4–Legend-SOROPyramidDeconstructed
31
Figure5“AnAlternateGraphicModelofResistanceBasedonResistance-as-a-Whole(ForOverthrow)”(below)isnotthesolutiontoanalternateSOROmodel;itisoneexampleofwhatarecommendedalternatemightlooklike.Itsprimaryfunctionistobereviewed,discussed,critiquedandimprovedon–alongwithmanyotherrecommendedalternativeexamplesfromtheforce–enroutetoacommunity-wide,honestly-challengedandopenly-affirmedbettersolutiontoinformdoctrineandpolicy.Examplesshouldincludethemajorideasthatcomprehensivelybutsuccinctlycharacterizethefundamentalsofresistance.
Thisexampleincludesthefollowingmajorconceptualcomponents(andassertions):(1)theresistanceisaproductofthebasecontextualconditionsofsociety,nottheotherwayaround;(2)politicalactivitiesarethefoundationallineofeffortforresistance,followedcloselyinimportancebyorganizationalactivities,operationalactivitiesandthensupportactivities;(3)theactivitiesofresistancecannotbestackedinsomelinearfashionandsetorderbecausemostoftheactivitiescananddooccuratanytimethroughouttheresistanceeffortslifespan;(4)thereisadifferenceinhowthemodelsmightlookbasedonthedesiredendstate(coerce,disrupt,overthrow…orsomethingelse);(5)becausemostresistancesarenottheproductsinitiatedbyexternalfactors,andmostareunlikelytobecriticallyenabledbyexternalfactors,thefocusshouldbeprimarilyontheresistanceitself,andonlysecondarilyonexternalfactors;(6)modelsshouldcapturesomerelationshipbetweentheintensityandbreadthofresistanceactivitiesrelatedtotime.
Figure5–AnAlternateGraphicModelofResistanceBasedonResistance-as-a-Whole(ForOverthrow)
Figure6“MultipleAlternateGraphicModelsofResistance–Coerce,Disrupt&Overthrow”(below)showsarangeofmodelvarietiesthatwillbenecessarytocapturethemajorvariablesofresistance;atleastfromtheperspectiveofUWdoctrine.TheclassicSOROmodelrepresentsaspecificendstatethat
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doesnotreflectthemanyotherpossiblemajorpermutations.Representativeexamplesofwhatwillbeneededareshownforoverthrow,followedbymodelsforcoerce/disrupt.
Figure6–MultipleAlternateGraphicModelsofResistance–Coerce,Disrupt&Overthrow
CONCLUSIONS
Theclassic,deservedly-honoredgraphic–asusefulasithasbeenandremainstobasicinstructiononthenatureofresistanceandinsurgency–needscriticalreviewandupdatingorreplacement.
Itisasafeassumptionthatmostsuccessfulenterprisescouldbecharacterizedbyaprogressionfromastartpointtoaconclusion.Fordecades,however,ithasbeentoouncriticallyacceptedthatthelinearorganizationfromthebottomoftheSOROmodeltowardsthetopendstatereflectsagenerallinearreality.Basedonadeeperunderstandingofresistancenowthanthecommunityhadin1963,weknowthisisbothgenerallyuntrueandtoo-narrowlyspecific.
Ashasbeenobserved,manyoftheitemslocatedinsomesedimentarylayerarerepeatedinotherlayers;theonlydifferencebeingqualifyingexpansionofsomeprimaryactivity.Thereforesuccessivehorizontallayersstackedinaverticalpileareamisrepresentationofarealitythatshouldlookmorelikeacontinuumofactivity.
Moreover,alargemajorityoftheseactivities–atleastfortheparticipantsindigenoustothetargetcountry’sarea–can/willbedoneatanypointalongsucharesistancecontinuum.Toassert,forexample,thatallorevenmostsmallmilitaryorparamilitaryactivitiesonlyexistabovethe“waterline”of“overtness”issimplynottrue.
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Correspondingly,ithasbeenlong-assertedandwidely-proselytizedthateverythingbelowthe“waterline”isaclandestineactivityorrequiresclandestineactivityforsuccess.Thisisdemonstrablyuntrueandexaggerated.Inrealityalloftheseactivitiescanhavesomemixofovertness,low-visibility,andclandestineaspects.Shoulditbedeemedpoliticallyoroperationallyimportantordesiredthatthesponsorofactivitiesremainhidden,anyoneofthesesameactivitiescouldalsohaveacovertaspect.
Theclassicmodeldividesthevastmajorityoftheseactivitiesinto“underground”activities,withonlyrelativelyminorrolesaccordedtothe“armed”and“public”componentsintheconductofresistance.Thisdivisionisbasedonanassertedblanketclandestinenatureoftheactivitiesbelowthewaterline.Thisdeconstructioncritiquehasshownthatthesegrosscategorizationsareinvalid.Itismuchmoreaccuratetosaythatmostactivitiesintheclassicmodelarenotclandestineactivitiesatall,thatmostactivitieswillactuallyhaveamixofovert,low-visibility,clandestineandcovertaspects,andonlyarelativefewwillbecompletelyclandestine.Fewerstillwillbecovert.
Theundergroundisstillveryimportanttoresistance;especiallywherestaterepressionisextreme.However,theassumptionsthattheundergroundplaysthecentral,foundationalactorinestablishingresistanceandthatitplaysthisroleasafunctionoftheoverwhelming“clandestinity”ofthemanyactivitiesinvolvedarebothshowntoberelativelydiminishedinimportancecomparedtotheclassicSOROmodel.Instead,anenormousamountofearlyfoundationalactivityuponwhicharesistanceisformedisactuallypoliticaldiscourseanddecisionsandpoliticalorganizing.Theunknowableubiquityof“clandestineactivities”inherenttostandardpoliticalactivityandindeedhumanlifeitselfdoesnotautomaticallymakeitthe“purview”of“undergrounds”intheclassicsenseoforganized,illegal,violentresistance.
Nordoestheuniverseofhumaninteractionthatmaybecategorizedlooselyas“clandestine”motives,agendasoreffectsequatetothepresence,deliberateapplicationorrequirementfortheresistanceitselftoconductsensitiveactivities.Discretion,misdirection,lying,concealment,understatement,flattery,seduction,subversion,intimidation,bribery,legitimacy,charisma,allegiance,etc.,etc.arehumanpoliticalattributescentraltopoliticaloppositionup-to-and-includingarmedviolentrebellionandbeyond.Onlyinspecificsituationsandspecificresistancelines-of-effortdotheseresistanceactivitiesrequirewhatwemightcall“sensitiveactivities,”andwhowemaydeemqualifiedtouseit.Indigenousresistancewillcarryonandmeetitsdestinywithoutyou.Or,itmayexperienceamodifieddestinywithyourparticipationandinputs.Mostofthatparticipationandmostofthoseinputsalsodon’tequatetothepresence,deliberateapplicationorrequirementforexternalparticipantstoconductsensitiveactivitieseither.Theresistanceprofessionalcommunity’sandUSG’sinabilityorpreferencenottodistinguishbetweenthetwolevelsofactivity–toconfusetheprimarypoliticalactivitiesforabagofproceduresandtechniques-hasandwillcontinuetohaveconsequencesinhowtheUSGidentifiesproblemsandhopestocraftsolutions.Inshort:
--Theresistanceprofessionalcommunityhasover-emphasizedtheuniquenessofoperating“clandestinely”outofallreasonableproportiontotheoveralloperation.
--Thisoveremphasisonthecentralityofclandestineactivityversusclandestineintent,and“clandestine”versus“overt”and“low-visibility”hasfosteredanatmospherewhichradicallyoveremphasizesthesupposedroleofadistinct,separate“underground”component.
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--Overemphasisonthedistinctnessof“undergrounds”fostersDOTMLPFoveremphasisonspecializingtounderstandthatspecious“distinctness.”
--BeyondmilitaryDOTMLPFconcerns,thewhole-of-governmentresistanceprofessionalenterprisehasoverspecializedinmilitarytermsthatwhichisutterlytypicalofandfundamentaltobasic,routine,averagenormalhumanpoliticalinteractionsincetimeimmemorial.
--Thosewhowouldunderstandresistancemustunderstanditspoliticalandorganizationalnaturefirst,followedbyoperationalandsupportconsiderations.
--TheclassicSOROmodelisinaccurate,andhasplayedaseminalroleinmischaracterizingthephenomenonofresistanceasawholebyoveremphasizingtheroleofthe“underground”component.
ItfurtherfollowsthatDOTMLPFdecisionsbasedonsuchfallaciousassumptionswillbemadeonanuncertainfoundation.The“pyramid”isanimportantandevocativeiconrichwithinsightandresistanceprofessionalcommunityculturalmeaningforallwhoseektoteachandbetterunderstandthephenomenonof“resistance.”Counterintuitively,however,theSORO“pyramid”isaricketystructureuponwhichtobaseTO&Eorpolicydecisions.Anew,moreaccurateandhonestconceptualresistancestructuremodelisnecessary.TheSOROmodelisflawedandtheresistanceprofessionalcommunityneedsabetter,morerealisticmodeltounderstandthephenomenonofresistance.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.SeniorleadersanywherewithastakeintheaccuracyoftheclassicSOROmodelshouldconvenesymposia,seminars,workshops,wargames,etc.topromotecriticalbutconstructivethinkingonfindingbettermodelsofresistanceasseenthroughthepoliticalandorganizationlenses.
2.Modelsofresistancethatemphasizethepoliticalandorganizationalfoundationofresistanceshouldnotbefundamentallydominatedbymilitaryapproaches.ThereforethestudyleadshouldexistoutsideofDODanditsaffiliates,andshouldbeunconnectedtotheDODcontractsystem.
3.Modelsofresistancethatemphasizeapolitically-centricapproachindeliberatecontrasttoan“underground”andsensitiveactivities-centricapproachtoresistanceshouldnotbeultimatelyadjudicatedbythosewithavestedinterestinthecurrentSOROmodelanditsconclusions.
CHALLENGETOTHESOFCOMMUNITYANDKINDREDS
Theintentofthisarticlehasbeenthreefold.One,tomakeobservations,providesomeclarityofconcepts,toasksomeprovocativequestionsandtoforwardsomerecommendedanalyticallensesandmodelsforreconsideringtheclassicSOROpyramid.Thisauthordoesnothave,nordoesthisarticlepresumetoprovide,alloftheanswers.However,itisappropriatetooccasionallyrevisitourmostseminalclassicsandrethinkthem,andthisarticlewillhaveservedpartofitsfunctionifitspursotherstodothat.Two,theneedtoquestionisbasedontheneedtochallengetheall-too-pervasiveandfashionableattitudethatUWandSTR–oratleastthatwhichisquintessentialtoUWandSTR–isessentiallysensitiveactivitiesratherthanthelargercontextofpoliticalrelationshipsandrealitiesthatcomprisethewarp-and-woofofhumanendeavor;includingresistancewarfareandUW.Thethirdexplicitpurposeofthisarticleistosolicitmeaningfulsubstantivefeedbackfromthecommunity;feedbackthatwillcontributetotheimprovementofUWandresistanceprofessionalrelateddoctrinetokeepitenduringlyrelevantandmoreaccuratelyapplicabletothe21stcentury.Youthereadercanbea
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partofthateffortbystartingaconversationorsendingcommentstothelinksprovided(below).WhethersucheffortsultimatelyaremoreinthenatureofThomasKuhn’sTheStructureofScientificRevolutions[15],orDonQuixotetiltingatwindmills[16],willbelargelyafunctionofyourconsideredfeedback.
REFERENCES
[1]USASOC,UndergroundsinInsurgent,Revolutionary,andResistanceWarfare,2ndEd.,26March2012,Fig.10-1,pg.172.[2]USASOC,HumanFactorsConsiderationsofUndergroundsinInsurgencies,2ndEd.,26March2012,Fig.1-1,pg.45.[3]Undergrounds,pg.v.[4]ibid.,pp.v-vii.[5]ibid.,pg.vi.[6]ibid.,pg.vi.[7]ibid.,pg.vii.[8]ibid.,pg.vii.[9]Clausewitz,Carlvon.,OnWar,PrincetonUniversityPress;1stedition2008[10]ADRP1-02,TermsandMilitarySymbols,02February2015,pg.1-47.TheverbatimArmydefinitionforinfiltrationis:“Aformofmaneuverinwhichanattackingforceconductsundetectedmovementthroughorintoanareaoccupiedbyenemyforcestooccupyapositionofadvantageintheenemyrearwhileexposingonlysmallelementstoenemydefensivefires.”(FM3-90-1)[11]ibidpg.1-74.[12]Undergrounds,pg.171.[13]ADRP1-02,pg.1-86;JP1-02,DepartmentofDefenseDictionaryofMilitaryandAssociatedTerms,8November2010(AsAmendedThrough15February2016),pp.209,228.[14]ATP3-05.1,UnconventionalWarfare,C125November2015pg.3-14,para.3-69.[15]Kuhn,ThomasS.,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions,UniversityofChicagoPress;3rdEd.1996[16]Cervantes,Miguelde.,DonQuixote,PenguinClassics,Rev.Ed.2003
JeffreyHaslerisa28-yearveteranofArmySpecialForcesandiscurrentlyadoctrinewriterandanalystinSpecialForcesDoctrine,USAJFKSWCSFortBraggNC.HeisagraduateofIndianaUniversity,BloomingtonIndiana;theDefenseLanguageInstitute(MandarinChinese)andtheNavalPostgraduateSchool,MontereyCalifornia;andhasstudiedattheBeijingInstituteforEconomicManagementCadre,BeijingPRC.Commentsandsuggestionsonthisarticle’ssubjectaresolicited:[email protected]/(910)396-9362/DSN236-9362
