ED 072 471

AUTHORTITLE

PUB DATENOTE 13p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the,

Speech Communication Assn. (58th, Chicago, December27-30, 1972)

-: DOCUMENT _RESUME

Smith, Arthur L.Historical and Social Movement: A Search forBoundaries.Dec 72

EDRS PRICE ME-U.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Black Power; Civil Rights--; Communication (ThcAight

Transfer) ; *Interaction Process Analysis ; Mc pilots;Negro Role; *Persuasive . Discourse ; *Rhetoric; *SocialChange; *Sociocultural Patterns

ABSTRACTThis paper IA -a- presentation- -of --what a- _mass movement

pressupposes rhetorically-, as Opposed--to what _a __movement_ is in.- socialor historical terms. The author -outlines: the- functions= of thetOric- inz_az-imoventent, in __order to estabiish_z-how==the_-metaphor_-_.-:op-erateS as theessential rhetorical _---iristruMenti,==-Hestates mas -social i= or

moVeMent_iS-eSsentially:_=_a7±thetbtidl camp-044i,- becauss:1) a- C011ection- of huMA-ns intetSbtlin-l_otders-=to verbalize their= aims,

_ _interact

_creating -the movement; -- through thetOrtc,---symbolsfia-nd_=MetaphorScreated, whiCh-Chatacteriteithe: idecabgidalidirecticin: ofof= a.=_ ----_movement; and __(1);:a- movement= -it,-the :suM==totai---ofriIttadherent-!s

communications activities, internal and externa=l.- =The= authot claimsthat -those -_who Would- -study _--maSS-- mOVettents: _-MUSt=lisOlate-=_and-: _identify _

:6- metaphors: -the ,priric-i-pali_tiet-aphor4 --which constitutes the_:_bS-sis of_- le niov-eme-nt, the, ttaditio-ni_ ofieS,_ which

use-d -in -productiOn_ arguMentsi__-_attaCks,:-.appealS--,_ _etc The twocategories together_ represent_ the -totality___ioa-_thetdrical ___Movement._

Uthot/

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aper esented at theSpeech Communication

sociation Convention,ocouthor, 1972, Chicago

Anyone who attends to the nature of rhetoric in mass move-

ments and endeavors to understand the scholarship surrounding

the- subject sooner or later recognizes that it is an area of

great confusion. The .problem stems Ilot so much from movements.

themselves but from our interpretations of them. This is not to

say t1-At we have not had clear and 'conCise statements about move-

ments. Certainly Leland Griffin s ieminal essay and Herbert

. Simon's more recent discussions of a leaderLcentered theory have

explicatedcertain dimensions of the topic. They have generated

debate and discusion and must be credited with reviving scholarly

owever; =the= c-ondiseness-o

spheres =, ==- that= =is in =doin i=what±thi

_mean _cominunicationis_

what t

ovetentS.

ovement presupposes r etorically as opposed to =what= a movemen

discussion of movements to rhetorical or communication theory.

us it is a purpose of this paper to also outline the functions

metaphor operates as the essential rhetorical. instrument in- con-

"social movement was an uninstitutionalized collectivity that

mobilizes for action to implement a program for reconstitution

of social norms _and-valUes._.2 Already:we-havezoneiiif not two-_--

sources of our difficulty. To discuss a social movement or an

historical movement is to indicate an emphasis which does not

preclude but seriously impairs our rhetorical vision. A -mass

movement is itself a river of communication with diverse tribu-

taries, heading in the same direction. It is therefore no

partictilar "uninstitutionalized collectivity Simons and the

orical in some of its_most conspicuous characteristics.

Similarly one can argue that Griffin' s principal contribution,

one scheme outlining aggressor-defendant rhetoricians, also takes

s away from *the core of =a = movement. It is as if we are carto-

graphers placing rivers, lakes and countries in the proper'

perspective on the map so that 'we can have a beautiful arrangement.Griffin arranges for us; he presents a workabIe_model for lookingat_ an historical movement. When he= suggests that there are threestages to a movement: (1) dissatisfaction; (2) desire for change;ana (3) success or failure,he is anticipating Simons' sociologi-,

cal emph.asis. 3 Thus= Griffin's period of inception, period ofrhetorical crisis,- and period of consummation -ust be considered-as sociological constructs. A mass movement is a rhetorical move-ment.- It does- not follow, however, that a rhetorical movement is

ssz-Movemen

tion to the movemen issolution.

While a movement is dependent upon a collective of people,

4

rhetoric.= Any collective of people will not produce a movement;

rhetoric is the vehicle upon which all aims and purposed ride.

Basically there are three generalizations which should be under-stood in connection with communication and movements.

Generalizations

A movement presupposes that a collective of human beingshave entered into a dynamic fraternity with each other toverbalize their aims. = The movement is_= not-the people apartfrom their rhetoric.

A movement presupposes= the= creation and= production, throughrhetoric, of symbols and metaphors which characterize itsideological direction.

A movement is the"_ =sum= total of the adherents communicative.activity, internal and external._

e - "symbolic manifestations ective are create

ca into existence e s °ken. wor e si ni-

part w effective e externa rhetoric will there

constant search for e Those movements t at have

n its internal use i more often a = periodic restatement o

-_ -the: acceptable- metaphors for group -_cohesiOn;__-this aspedt -of the-

-moyement represents- the -ritual-of -movement- rhetoric._ On -the

other hand, rhetoric directed toward the outside seeks to esta-

blish external relationshipS and= in so doing, to catch the

sociologists, argues for new values and norms. The contention

itself is a rhetorical process.

We are now ready to look at the specific functions of rhetoric

1. _ -The= organizing function2. The sustaining function3. The productive function

airly consisten octrin etoric or more = articular

has already -used-=an

_cation, =mythication and legitimation e essential verba

rhetoric gives rise th the various other dimensions of movement,_

it functions to coordinate, sustain, and produce the thrust

of a movement, it is essential =to a movement. Rhetoric becomes

a productive structuring art. Furthermore, if rhetoric consti-.

tutes, as it does, the essence of a movement it is meaningful as

an understanding of human behavior to identify, analyze and study

movements by their rhetorical indicators. Movements differ not

merely in the origin of their grievances or the composition of

- their -votarists but principally in their rhetorical manifestations.

Two separate mass movements in the lengthy -and lengthening

_black protest_-campaign- il-lustrate -thespiace of -rhetoric as- a

=

-_ -marker- of -mOvements-.::7- What :essentially__ different

-e_ n, rig ts -AnOvement--led:-Apiy_Mar- ti-n-T Lutheri sKing and the back-

=Aftica--smOVetent-s-led by _Marcus - Garvey

:metaphors

Metaphors 'are the primary rhetorical indicators of a move-

lient. A specific metaphor` indicates the movement's treatment of

its opposition, definition of the issues and summary statement of

:its aspirations. Two kinds of metaphors are recognized in mass

movements (1) the= traditional which I call the minor and (2) the

principal metaphor. The latter constitutes the fundament of the

movement. It is the verbal emblem, the identifying badge. Reifi-

cation is the primary basis for treating abstractions as though

they were things. Thus the principal metaphor is dependent upon

reification for its translation as a political or ideological_ -

symbol. For example, to the back-to-Africa movement the expression

e metaphorical - content "concerne

ere_ Africa be-domes an a stra.ction in the minds o

ollowers and then. the substance-o eir longin

lay e elaborated -upon ringing in many minor metaphors such

s e arms of rica", _ ' -'_-the - hear_-t ==of Africa e ebon

f rica. even so, rinci metaphor in case

frica" sustains t e movement. s explains in part how meta -_=

hors= =can= be isolated in or er to establish= separateness- from the

an they seem to say on - the = surface to votarists and opponents

contrasting movements. What this entails is an identification

of the principal mutaphor, either by content analysis or some

form of factor analysis using movement adherents. Once the prin-

cipal metaphor is established, that is, identified in every

instance of usage in speeches by the spokesperson, the researcher

proceeds to isolate the =minor metaphorswhich constitute the

labbring force, the mules of rhetoric. These Metaphors are used

in the production of argument, attacks on the opposition, mythica-

tion appeals and sanctions, and the meting out of justice to the

yward followers. In essence, these two categories of-metaphors

represent the totality of a.rhetorical movement. To be capable

arousing emotions, a_ su stantive pa etorica rocess,

z

that Bishop Henry McNeal Turner of the African Methodist Episcopal

Church sustained a back-to-Africa movement in the 19th century

largely on the use of Afri.ca as metaphor.9 The term 'Africa" re-

presented for him fertile lands, justice, peace, religion, and

civilization. The failure of Turner's movement to gain wide

popular support among blacks, such as was to be achieved by Marcus

Garvey, could be laid on the lack of currency-of his metaphor for

the black masses at that time in history. His campaign did, how-

ever-, prepare the grOundwork -.fori-Garvey`-s- SuCcess; -_i_Garvey ;Was-

also imaginatiVe enough to employ minor=metaphors__which _supported

his principal metaphor. Neither Turner nor his associates appear

o_ movement can -withOU.

Lay be_ translatable_=

expetierice atvey

Adherence to any of the minor metaphor's suggests indirect support

for the principal metaphor, the movement's central driving fo::ce.

Furthermore the minor metaphors share a connectedness as a -part

of the thematic construction. When movement speakers are able

to secure acceptance of the minor metaphors much of their per-

suasive work is done. So even in doing this, that is, in

accOmplishing the acceptance of minor metaphors the leader or

spokesperson is dependent upon the transfer of messages. Accep-

tance and adherence to an idea presupposes the presentang.of that

idea. It is precisely this dimension that is lacked in the pre-

vious works on mass movements. And while it is possible to

examine----.---___ examine asmavement from= -the viewpoint - of= _a:leader_and

is- =crucial to a = full__'rhetori_cal inveatigAtiori- iithat

blacks the vehiCle, the substance, the, essence. Justice, fertility,

equality, and peace constituted thematic appeals which created

"Africa ". as overarching symbol. Metaphors are integral to any

sustained verbal'campaign-, their place in mass movements- must be

studied as the source of a movement's dynamic fraternity.

VI

In conclusion, a search for bounaaries is only frustrating

when we have no clear markers; such is not the case in the rela-

tionship between rhetoric and= mass movements. Of course we have

often paid little attention tolthe varieties of verbal projections

standing squarely before us in our furious haste to get lost in

sociology and history. This essay is not a beginning; it is a

continuation -of= those studies that have placed message, in all

its dimensions, he center of rhetorical study. It is,

attempt to revive interest in' the metaphor as an

essential rhetorical instrument whose place and function in mass

movements s critical to a full understanding. There can be little

doubt that the boundaries of our study are close in to the nature

and-uSe= --prin cipa L rd ,ni nori- :m- etaphott.--

FOOTNOTES1Leland Griffin, "The Rhetoric of Historical Movements," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, Volume XXXVIII, April, 1952; and Herbert Simons,"A Theory of Persuasion for Social Movements," .Quarterly Journalo jipeech, Volume LVI, February 1970.

2Simons, p.-3.

3Ibid.

4Malcalm Sillars, "Rhetoric as Act," Quarterly Journal of Speech:,Volume 50, October 1964, p. 281.

5C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver,'The Mathematical Theory of Communica-tion: Urbana: University of Illinois Press,- 1949, p. 95.

6Arthur L. Smith, Rhetoric of Black Revolution, Boston: Allyn andBacon, 1969;

-7SeeiEdmund Cronon, -Black Moses, Madison: University of Wisconsin--Press, for an-account

%of-MarCusbarvey's_career.- - r rThere aenuMeousaccounts -of-King'Scareer

8Karen Borden,"The Rhetoric of the Philippine Independence Movement,(university of= California, 1972), unpublished dissertation.9Melbourne

Cummings, "The Rhetoricof Bishop Henry McNeal Turner,Leading Advocate in the African Emigration Movement, 1866-1907,"(University of California, 1972), unpublished dissertation.

AUTHOR Smith, Arthur L. .TITLE Historical and Social Movement: A Search for

Boundaries. ,PUB DATE Dec 72

-NOTE 13p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of theSpeech Communication Assn. (58th, Chicago, December27-30, 1972)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$3.29DESCRIPTORS Black Power; Civil Rights; Communication (Thought

Transfer); *Interaction Process Analysis; Metaphors;Negro Role; *Persuasive.Discourse; *Rhetoric; *SocialChange; *Sociocultural Patterns

ABSTRACTThis paper is a presentation of what amass movement

pressupposes rhetorically, as opposed to what a movement is in-socialor historical terms. The = author outlines the= functions of = rhetoric ina movement, in order to establish how-the metaphor operates-as theessential -rhetorical _instrument: He States that - a riassi social or

_istorical movement is essentially a rhetorical campaign, because:1) a collection of humails interact in _= order= to verbalize their-aims,

eating the moveMent; (2)- through rhetoric, symbols and metaphorsre created, which characterize the ideological direction of a

movement- and (3) a- movement is the sum total of its adherent'scommunications activities, internal and external. The author claims

at those who would- study mass movements mus:isolate and identifyhe metaphors: the principal metaphor, which

tconstitutes the basis of

e niovement, and the minor metaphors, the -traditional ones, whiCh.are used in production of arguments, attacks, .appeals, etc. The-two

categories together represent the totality of a rhetorical movement.uthor/RN)

_

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rthur

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HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS:A SEARCH FOR 1 40.1NDARIES

Anyone who attends to the nature of rhetoric in mass move-ments and endeavors to understand the scholarship surrounding,the subject sooner or- -later recognizes that it is an area of

-_great- confusion. The -problem-istems not so much -from: movementsthemselves but from our interpretations of theni. This is not tosay tint we have not had clear and 'concise statements about move-ments. Certainly Leland Griffin's ieminal essay and Herbert

. Simon's more recent discussions of a leader-:centered theory haveexplicatedcertain dimensions of the topic. They have generateddebate and discusaon and must be eredited with reviving scholarly

spheres;_= that i s in doing w at t set ou not helpedus,_. I =mean communicationists) to understand the rhetorical

nature of mass movement have attempted o theyhave been.good; but =they have not added significan our know-

ge of the - transfer_ =of" messages within contexts of massmovements.

t is intended pa er is a presentation of'whatmovement presupposes rhetorically as opposed to w a a movement-is

In Herbert Simons' penetrating article he allowed that a

"social movement was an uninstitutionalized collectivity that

mobilizes for action to implement a program for reconstitution

of social norms and-values. 2 Already we have one if not two =-

sources of our dif i.culty. To discuss a social movement or an

historical movement is to indicate an emphasis which does not

preclude but seriously impairs our rhetorical vision. A mass

movement is itself a river of communication with diverse tribu-

taries, heading in the same direction. It is therefore -no

particular "uninstitutionalized collectivity- as Simons and the

°biologists would have a. in act institu

collectivei-which -stipposedly:milL-stistain_the =2.- eological direc7-=

program for reconstituting social norms and values without recog-

nizing that it is-communication alone that determines mobilization

and reconstitution: There no reason to seek elsewhere for an

and establishes itself as =the essence of a movement.

Similarly one can= argue that Griffin's principal Contribution,

one scheme outlining aggressor-defendant rhetoricians, also takes

us away from 'the core of a movement. It is as if we are carto-graphers placing rivers, lakes and countries in the proper-

perspective on the map so that we can have -a beautiful arrangement.Griffin arranges for us; he presents a .workable_model for lookingat,an historical movement. When he suggests =that =there=are threestages to a movement: (1) dissatisfaction; (2)- desire for change-,and (3) success or failure, he is anticipating Simons' sociologi-cal emphasis. 3 Thus Griffin's period of inception, period ofrhetorical crisis,- and period of consummation must be considered-as sociological constructs. A mass movement is a rhetorical move-ment. It does- not follow, however, that a =rhetorical movement is_massi-movemen

ilization

e= :essence,

lcolm Sillars was correct_when

lish socologi-

as -Si-i t = sociologi-_

rounds are remises o = movement; annon aeaver are _correct o note at communication involves a humanehavior.

5Communication plays a e role from e early rustra-

.

4

r-hetoric.= Any collective of people will not produce a movement;rhetoric is the vehicle upon which all aims and purposes ride.Basically there are three generalizations which should be under-_stood in connection with communication_ and movements.i

Generalizations_

A movement presupposes that =a collective of human beings"have entered into a- dynamic fraternity_ with each other toverbalize their aims. The movement is hot-the people apartfrom their rhetoric.A= movement presupposes- the- creation- and production, throughrhetoric, of symbols and metaphors which characterize itsideological direction.A movement is the sum total =of the adherents' communicative_activity, internal and external.

Lza-imass-J(lovembnt--,i=isli;to,=_=,

atever ective uman eings, ecomes, as__movement` -` ver ba l endeavor an dynamic raternity isrfecte vigor etori e secon instance

Jic manifestations-of collective are .createuced= called into existence oken wor si ni--

vo_tar fists ==ovement etWeen defense =and offense. ecause

eqx..a.cy ransfer o messages within e collectivity determinesart how effective e external r etoric wil ere- is a

constant =search =tor equi=l=ibrium.- lose movements that havehappy balance of interna alk and discussion with =their external

chieve their= internal or external aim in a rhetorical fashion.

the acceptable metaphors for group cohesion; this aspect of the

movement represents the ritual of =movement rhetoric. On the

other hand, rhetoric directed toward the outside seeks to esta-blish external relationshipS and in so doing, to catch the

-_sociologists-,, -argues for -nevu Values -and The-- contention_

itself is =a rhetorical -prodess._

We- are-- now- -ready to -look at- thei- specific- nine tions of rhetoric

in mass movements.

=_1.= The organizing function2. The sustaining == function3. The productive function

In its organizing function rhetoric coordinates and structures

various- elemen persona o ective grievance in

airly `consistent= octrine.= = = Rhetoric, or more articularl

rincipal metaphor, doctrine or

e sustaining influence comes t ecause

rve e _ = fundamental ==union= and soridari e- votaris

roductive function creates the =mood an e necessary atmosphere

or an= attack on= the opposition. =this stage the spokesperson

as already used and is continuing o use vilification, oblecti=f=i--

ation,= m thication and legitimation, essential_ == _the'_- essent=ial= verbal ==

rategies =of the= agitato

if it- functions to coordinate, sustain, and produce the thrust

of a movement, it is essential to a movement. Rhetoric becomes

a productive structuring art. Furthermore if rhetoric consti-

tutes, as it does, the essence of a movement it is meaningful as

an understanding of human behavior to identify, analyze and study

moveme:nts by their rhetorical indicators. Movements differ not

merely in =the origin of their grievances or the composition of

- their -votarists but principally in their rhetorical manifestations.

Two separate mass movements in the lengthy and lengthening

black protest campaign illustrate the Rlace of rhetoric as a

marker of movements.7 What was essentially different between

e civi-1 rights = -imovement--,le d:iby-Martin-Lu ther_ King -and the back-r-ica_mOverrfen-Laod--by-s-Marcus- Garvey-thirty-years before vas.--

e = rhetoric

etoric as

movements that lasted for nearly a decade.: But studying sociology

history alone p.:ovides no explication of t e external and in-

Metaphors are the primary rhetorical indicators of -a move -

ment. A specific metaphor" indicates the movement's treatment of

its oppoSition, definition of the issues and summary statement of

its aspirations. Two kinds of metaphors are recognized in mass

movements (1) the traditional which .I call the minor and (2) the

principal metaphor. The latter= constitutes the fundament -of the

movement. it is the verbal emblem, the identifying badge. Reifi-

cation is the primary basis for treating abstractions as though

they were things. Thus the principal metaphor is dependent upon

reification for its translation as a political or ideological

e metaphors = of a movement, s == which say much more

an they seem to say on e surface to votarists and opponents

contrasting movements. What this entails is an identification

of the principal metaphor, either by content analysis or- some

form Of factor_ analysis= using movement adherents. Once the prin-

cipal metaphor is established, that is, identified. in every

instance of usage in speeches by the spokesperson, the researcher

proceeds to isolate the minor metaphors,which constitute the

labOring force, the mules of rhetoric. These metaphors are used

in the production of argument, attacks on the opposition, mythica-

tion appeals and sanctions, and the meting out of justice to the

wayward followers. In ess-ence, == these two = categories of metaphors

represent the= totality of hetorical movement. To be capable

namit

e- =movement _rot

ilippine-Independence she found that the principal metaphor was

ary bastion, or economics, they were tightly tied to the = coattails

White superiority: Similarly, Melbourne Cummings demonstrated

that Bishop Henry McNeal Turn2r of the African Methodist Episcopal

Church sustained a back-to-Africa movement in the 19th century

largely on the use of Africa as metaphor. 9 The term "Africa" re-

presented for him fertile lands, justice, peace, religion, and

civilization. The failure of Turner's movement to gain wide

popular support among blacks, such as was= -to be achieved by Marcus

Garvey, could be laid on the lack of currency-of his metaphor for

the black masses at that time in history. His campaign did, how-

e:ver, prepare the groundwork ,for-GarVey -Succes.. Garvey was

also imaginative' enough to employ minor metaphors which supported

his principal metaphor. Neither Turner nor his associates appear-

to have possessed the necessary creativity o support their* 1.

a movement -_can= successfu

which- strengthen -the

artifacts_----

created marchin* ands, -cross==-cor

Adherence to any of the minor metaphor's- suggests indirect support

for the principal metaphor, the movement's central driving force.

Furthermore the minor metaphors share a connectedness as a part

of the thematic construction. When movement speakers are able

to secure acceptance of the minor metaphors much of their per-

suasive work is done. So even in doing this, that is,

accOmplishing the acceptance of minor metaphors the leader or

spokesperson is dependent upon_ the transfer of messages. Accep-

tance and adherence to an idea presupposes the presenting. of that

idea. It is precisely this dimension that is lacked in the pre-

vious works on mass movements. And while it is possible to

examine a movement from the viewpoint of a leader and his dilemmas

phenomenon and explains the use of principal metaphors. It should

shadow and the substance. In the back-to-Africa movement, the

ysical continent represented the tenor, the accent, the shadow,

11

blacks the vehicle, the substance, the essence. Justice, fertility,

equality, and peace constituted thematic appeals which created

"Africa"- as overa: Thing symbOl. Metaphors are integral to any

sustained -verbal -campaig place in mass movements must be

studied as the source of a movement's dynamic fraternity.

VI

In conclusion, a search for boundaries is only frustrating

when:we have no clear markers; such is not the case in the-rela-

tionship between rhetoric and mass movements. Of course we have

often paid little attention to-'the varieties of verbal projections

standing squarely before -us-in our furiouS haSte to get lost_in

sociology and history. This essay is not =a- beginning; it =is ==a=

continuation of =those studies that have placed the message, in all

its dimensions, at the center of rhetorical study. It is,

attempt to revive interest in the metaphor as an-_

essential rt.- rical instrument=_whose= place== and function in Mass

=movements is_ _criticali-to understandingr. _There-can be little_

oubt-ii that the---boundaries :Of:our =study_ are -__close= to=---the nature_

and use of principal and-minor metaphors.

FOOTNOTES1Leland Griffin, "The Rhetoric of Historical Movements," QuarterlyJournal of Speech, Volume XXXVIII, April, 1952; and Herbert Simons,"A Theory of Persuasion for Social Movements," Quarterly Journalof Speech, Volume LVI, February 1970.

2Simons, p.-3.

3Ibid.

4Malcalm Sillars, "Rhetoric as Act, Quarterly Journal of Speech,Volume 50, October 1964, p. 281.

C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communica-

6Arthur L. Smith, Rhetoric of Black Revolution, Boston: Allyn andBacon, 1969.

7Seez Edmund Cronon, Black- Moses,- Madison: UniverSity of WisconsinPress, for an_ accounti:of Marcus -Garvey s career._ -__T -_here arehinterou8=',_-iacConntS- of _-King's-

8KarenBorden,"The Rhetoric of the Philippine Independence Movement,"(University of California, 1972), unfrablished dissertation.

9MelbourneCummings, "The Rhetoric of Bishop Henry McNeal Turner,Leading Advocate =in the African Emigration Movement, 1866-1907,"(University of California, 1972), unpublished dissertation.