Costa Rica: Coastal Conservation - WorldStrides...Costa Rica: Coastal Conservation Sometimes those...

Costa Rica: Coastal Conservation

DISCOVERY JOURNAL

AcknowledgmentsThis Discovery Journal features activities developed by the WorldStrides staff in surveying the best available science curricula offered by educational and scientific organizations throughout the nation. We wish to acknowledge the many individuals who assisted us with this effort.

Special thanks to the Course Leader team for their guidance, encouragement, and use of program materials. They have provided us with enthusiastic support and offers to “test drive” our activity plans.

IN CASE OF EMERGENCYIf you have lost contact with your group or need assistance for a medical condition, injury, or any other emergency, please call a staff member immediately at the toll-free number listed below.

In Costa Rica call 2508-5000This number should be used for emergencies only. When you call, please be prepared to give your name, the number you are calling from, your location, your group name or teacher’s name, and the reason for the call. The person you speak with will give you further instructions.©WorldStrides 06/16 KMBD0093 P1368

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Introduction

My Name

My Program Leader’s Name

My Course Leader’s Name

Dates of My WorldStrides Program

My Hotel

My Customer / Traveler ID#

Trip ID#

My WorldStrides Coastal Conservation Discovery Journal

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Introduction

Lessons & Activity Journal

Discovery for Credit ..............................................vTake a LEAP with Us! ...........................................viUsing Your Discovery Journal ............................viiLet’s Get Social ...................................................viiiSymbols in Your Discovery Journal ...................viiiAdventure Photography ......................................ix

¡Bienvenido!¡Bienvenido a Costa Rica!.................................... 1Costa Rican Culture & Spanish Language ........... 3‘Foodmile’ Calculations ....................................... 4Costa Rican Flag ................................................... 6Geology of Central America ................................ 7San José: Understanding the Urban Organism

and Population Dynamics ............................. 8

Environmental ScienceEarth’s Many Layers ........................................... 10Hydrologic Cycle ................................................ 12Nitrogen Cycle ................................................... 13Carbon Cycle ...................................................... 14Why Does all this Matter? ................................ 15Here’s a Hot Career Idea for You… .................... 16

Environmental HistoryA Scientist’s Perspective .................................... 18

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Table of Contents

The BiosphereUnderstanding the Inland Ecosystems ............. 21Exploring the Coastal Tropical Rainforests ....... 21Rainforest Reconsidered.................................... 23Create Your Own Creature ................................ 24The Coastal Ecology of Costa Rica ................... 25A Civic Environmentalist’s Vacation.................. 26Coastal Plant Identification ............................... 27

The HydrosphereCosta Rica’s Rivers and Estuaries ..................... 29Hydrology Studies in a

Freshwater Ecosystem ................................ 30Water Quality: Data Collection ......................... 32Bad Fisherman or Just Bad Luck ....................... 33Understanding the Costs of Destroying Our

Wetlands and Estuaries .............................. 34The Real World: Monoculture

and Biodiversity in Costa Rica ..................... 36Soil Condition Tables ......................................... 37Evaluating the Estuarine Environment ............. 38Costa Rica’s Climate ........................................... 40Tropical Climates ............................................... 41Leave-No-Trace Tourism .................................... 42A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt ........................... 42Going Beyond: Sea Turtles ................................ 45Birding 101 ....................................................... 47Butterflies........................................................... 49Butterfly Life Cycle ............................................. 50

PoasPoas: King of Air and Land ................................ 52Anatomy of the Spheres .................................... 53Types of Volcanoes ............................................ 54Volcano Trivia .................................................... 55

Pollution and ConservationCosta Rica’s Environmental Problems .............. 57Population Dynamics ........................................ 58Leave-No-Trace Tourism .................................... 60Can I Drink the Water? ...................................... 62World Conservation Organizations .................. 63Rich and Famous:

Civic Environmentalist Icons ....................... 67Craft an Eco-JAM! ............................................. 69Further on Down the River ............................... 70

Bonus Pages!Remembering Your Conservation

Adventure in Costa Rica .............................. 72Conclusion: Leaving on a Jet Plane .................. 73Glossary.............................................................. 75Unit Conversion Chart ....................................... 78Expert Check List ............................................... 79Notes .................................................................. 81

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Introduction

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Introduction

Discovery for CreditYour WorldStrides journey is going to be a fun, amazing educational experience. You will see and do many new things, and we believe you should definitely get credit for everything you’re going to learn! That’s why WorldStrides offers a special Discovery for Credit option with each of our programs. Your entire trip is built around an accredited WorldStrides program that gives you the opportunity to earn high school or even college credit by completing post-trip online coursework.

What is Discovery for Credit?Discovery for Credit is comprised of online activities offered together with your travel program. All content has been specially developed by the WorldStrides education team to help you take the valuable lessons you learn while traveling and incorporate them into your ongoing education.

How does it work?To access Discovery for Credit, go to worldstrides.com and follow the academic credit links to create a student account using your Trip ID and Customer Account Number. Once you are logged in, you can access our Discovery for Credit Dashboard to enroll in courses and preview the online assignments that go with them. After travel, you’ll use your trip experiences to complete the assignments in your course. If you have any questions while you work, our WorldStrides Online Instructors are standing by to help! Need help logging in? Contact Customer Support at 800-468-5899.

High School Credit Details

— No additional cost.

— Deadline for completing coursework is six months from the return date of travel.

— Upon successful completion of coursework, WorldStrides will mail you your transcript.

College Credit Details — Discounted tuition rate

based on the number of credits you wish to earn.

— Deadline for completing coursework is six months from the return date of travel.

— You can request an official transcript via the partner university.

*To best facilitate the transfer of credit earned, WorldStrides recommends that students and parents inquire about their high school’s transfer credit policy, in case additional paperwork is requested prior to beginning coursework. Our Director of Curriculum & Academics encourages students to submit their WorldStrides transcripts in addition to their main high school transcript as part of their college applications. Having an extra transcript is a great way to showcase the learning you’ve done outside of your regular school program.

For more information, visit worldstrides.com

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Sometimes those classroom walls can be confining. Reading books and looking at pictures is not the same as firsthand, upfront and personal experience. That’s where WorldStrides comes in…

When you begin your WorldStrides program, you are embarking on a whole new educational journey. Your trip’s Course Leader can’t wait to bring your destination to life with WorldStrides’ unique educational philosophy, LEAP—Learning through Exploration and Active Participation. LEAP isn’t a lesson plan, it’s a way of being that embodies a hands-on, exploratory approach to travel and learning.

Not LEAPLEAP

Take a LEAP with Us!With the LEAP Approach, Your Course Leader Will:

— Turn up the volume and connect with you. Your Course Leader wants to talk WITH you...not AT you!

— Spark curiosity with active instruction that engages you through hands-on experience.

— Tailor your experience because this trip is about you! You are a key ingredient. It will reflect your interests and be as unique as you are!

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Introduction

You are probably familiar with the Scientific Method from your science classes. The Scientific Method includes several major steps:

A OITC NAsk A Question Collect Info Test It Out Investigate Offer A Solution Next Steps

Taking Action

1. Ask a question 2. Conduct research

3. Form a hypothesis 4. Perform an experiment

5. Analyze your results 6. Develop a conclusion

During your WorldStrides program, the ACTION steps will take you beyond the Scientific Method to transform you into a conservation activist! ACTION steps are more than just basic scientific questioning. They encourage you to evaluate the ways you interact with the natural world and develop a plan for improving it.

Using Your Discovery JournalGeneral AdviceTo make the best use of your Discovery Journal on your WorldStrides program:

— Personalize your journal! This is your research, thoughts, and observations. They are unique to you and reflect your individual perspective.

— Write with as much detail as possible! There is plenty of space throughout the journal to take notes or sketch. If you run out of space, use the notes section at the end of the journal.

— Be prepared! Bring your Discovery Journal with you for every activity in the field. Your program will have planned and spontaneous opportunities to use your Discovery Journal.

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Costa Rica: Waves and Waterfalls Discovery Journal

Let’s Get SocialShare your travel photos and videos and favorite memories with us! Here are some tips on safely sharing your photos with us:

— Tag us! We are listed as @WorldStrides on Instagram and Twitter!

— Use the hashtags #BestTripEver and #WorldStrides so we can find your shots—we share our favorites on our own social media channels!

— Hashtag and tag the places you’re visiting, too! Are you in Costa Rica? Use #WorldStrides and #CostaRica.

— Share your photos and favorite memories with your friends.

— Be smart about what you share. Don’t post personal information or details about hotel accommodations. Also, don’t engage in conversation with people you don’t know on social media. Have fun and share your photos, but be smart!

Symbols in Your Discovery JournalCareer CornerEver thought about being a veterinarian? What about a marine biologist? Throughout your journey, you’ll find people who pursue some exciting career paths. Career Corner highlights a few of these interesting occupations so you can take a closer look behind the scenes.

Action Figures: Throughout your trip, you’ll meet people who practice a variety of exciting careers. Whether it’s a profession that you’ve never heard of or one you’ve dreamed of pursuing, you can read more about these unique jobs in the career section. You may even be inspired to learn more about these careers when you return home.

Write It Down!There is so much to take in while on your travel

program! The sites, sounds, and smells are sure to inspire you during your trip. Use the available spaces to write down what excites you, scares you, makes you happy, stumps you, or maybe you just want to remember something for when you return—write it down!

LEAPLearning Through Exploration & Active Participation

It would be difficult to cover the entirety of your destination in a few days, but we can try! These adventures will take you off the beaten path and onto the road to discovery. Learn your way by interacting with the people and animals, eating the food, mapping your route, and much more!

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Introduction

Adventure PhotographyAs you float down the river, use an underwater camera to document your journey. Be creative with the pictures you take. Try to create a narrative with your pictures that will help you document the experience. Before you gear up to go, check out these photography tips:

Use flash outdoorsIt seems like a flash would be the last thing you need on a bright day but the sun can cast harsh shadows and your flash will fill in the shadows. When taking pictures of people on sunny days, turn your flash on. You may have a choice of fill-flash mode or full-flash mode. Both are good on a sunny day.

Move in closeA common mistake is being too far away from your subject. Get close! Your goal is to fill the picture area with the subject you are photographing. Up close, you can reveal more about your subject. If you can, don’t rely on the zoom to move in. You’ll get a better, sharper photo if you physically move closer to your subject rather than zooming in.

Find a simple background to use A simple background shows off the subject you are photographing. When you look through the

camera viewfinder, find an area surrounding your subject that is not complicated. Make sure no poles grow from the head of your subject and that your subject isn’t sharing the spotlight with something else.

Move it from the middleThe middle of your picture is not always the best place for your subject. Bring your picture to life by simply moving your subject away from the middle of your picture. Imagine a tick-tack-toe grid in your viewfinder (see the image below). Now place your important subject at one of the intersections of lines. You’ll need to lock the focus if you have an auto-focus camera because most of them focus on whatever is in the center of the viewfinder.

BE READY! It’s the worst feeling in the world to have something happening when you’re not ready, your camera is in your bag, turned off, or set to the wrong settings. Usually you know if you are planning on shooting photos at an event. Have a practice drill for getting your camera out quickly. Settings need to change when the lighting does. Take a few practice shots with your settings adjusted before the action happens.

How to be an Adventure Photographer

It’s all about telling a story, and having a front row seat to the ACTION! Taking a great picture requires technique and getting close. Use a hip pack or shoulder strap so your camera is accessible. But remember, no photo is worth risking your safety!

With digital cameras, keep in mind saltwater is more corrosive than freshwater; you’ll need to carefully clean your camera every day. It’s a good idea to keep your camera sealed in a plastic bag.

Use the reflections of the sun to your creative advantage with water, particularly when calm water comes between you and the brightest part of the sky during sunrise and sunset. Look for natural frames like mountains or arches formed by trees.

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¡Bienvenido!

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¡Bienvenido!

¡Bienvenido a Costa Rica!Traveling to Costa Rica will open your eyes to a new culture. What is culture? Culture refers to local behaviors and norms. It is all about what people expect and accept. For example, you probably do not do the same things, speak the same way, or dress in the same clothing at a sporting event as you do in the classroom, at a fancy restaurant, or at the beach. Each of those locations has a certain culture in the same way that different countries have different cultures.

Relax, be open-minded, stay curious, and pay attention to the land, people, language, food, spirit, and pure life of Costa Rica.

What’s the buzz?We hear words such as Ecosystems, Tropical Rainforests, Biodiversity, and Adaptation—what does all this mean?

In 1947, biologist L.H. Holdridge introduced a system of classifying vegetation types, or “zones,” according to a matrix based on combinations of temperature, rainfall, and seasonality. Each zone has a distinctive natural vegetation and ecosystem. Costa Rica has 12 such zones, ranging from tidal mangrove swamps to the high mountains. Its most prominent zone is the tropical rainforest.

What is a tropical rainforest? While covering less than six percent of Earth’s surface, rainforests are home to more than 50 percent of the world’s plant and animal species. A tropical rainforest gets more than 60 inches (1.5 meters) of rain per year, although some regularly get more than 200 inches (five meters)! The average temperature in a tropical rainforest remains between 68 and 82 degrees Fahrenheit (20 and 28 degrees Celsius). Tropical rainforests are some of the world’s most important natural resources, filled with biological treasures.

A typical four-square-mile (10.36-square-kilometer) section can contain over 1,500 species of flowering plants, 750 species of trees, 125 species of birds, 100 species of reptiles, 60 species of amphibians, and 150 species of butterflies. Many species have not even been discovered by scientists yet. It will take scientists years to classify and name all of the recently discovered insects. Plants holding secrets to new medicines are still being found in the rainforests. One example is the periwinkle plant which is now used to treat many forms of childhood leukemia. Who knows what will be found next? Your

interest in the rainforest now could lead you to an important scientific discovery in the future!

Biodiversity and adaptationBiodiversity is the total complexity of all life—the variety of plants, animals, and other living things—that exists in a particular region, such as the tropical rainforest. Adaptation is a characteristic of an animal or plant that allows it to survive in its environment. Adaptations help protect, defend, and camouflage an animal as it eats, sleeps, and lives. Animals have adapted over many generations to survive well in the habitat where they live.

Threats to the rainforest and biodiversityToo much of the world’s tropical rainforests have already been destroyed because of burning, logging, cattle ranching, dam building, and poor farming practices. Many international organizations and companies are finding ways for the people of the rainforest to safely harvest its bounty, instead of destroying it for logging or converting it to infertile farmland. If people work together, we can find many ways to use the rainforest without destroying it.

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¡Bienvenido!

As you journey across the Costa Rican landscape, you will find yourself immersed in learning about the culture, history, and language of others. You will learn through direct experience and find many opportunities to practice learning the Spanish language.

Spanish TranslationsWhat’s your name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¿Cómo se llama usted?

Hello! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Hola!

Good Morning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buenos días

Good Afternoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Buenas tardes

Good Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buenas noches

How much is it?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .¿Cuánto cuesta?

How much is it worth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ¿Cuánto vale?

I like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Me gusta

My pleasure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mucho gusto

You like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Le gusta

Where is...? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .¿Dónde está...?

Help! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ayuda!

where. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . dónde

what . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . qué

when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cuándo

how much . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cuánto

how . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .cómo

which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cuál or cuáles

why . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .por qué

breakfast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . el desayuno

lunch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . el almuerzo

dinner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . la cena

cabin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . la cabina

What have you learned?Pura Vida (pure living) is a favorite phrase of Costa

Ricans. It is an exuberant greeting and exultation of their joy of living. What other words or phrases have you learned throughout your travels?

Costa Rican Culture & Spanish Language

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When we calculate the cost of a meal, we often do not take into consideration the ecological costs associated with the production of a particular commodity. One such measure we should explore when assessing the ecological costs of our consumptive behavior is the distance a product must travel in order to reach a group of consumers. Where food is consumed close to its point of production, the ecological costs associated with the consumption of that product will be minimal (e.g. an apple picked in a suburban garden and eaten immediately). However, where food is brought from a distant part of the world, the amount of energy used may be very large, possibly greater than that needed to produce it.

It would be virtually impossible to calculate exactly the amount of energy used to transport a

given item of food from the farm, fishery, or factory where it was produced to its point of consumption. The concept of foodmiles, however, may be used as an alternative unit of measurement to provide an illustration, but without extreme claims to accuracy. (The term foodkilometer is strictly more appropriate, but is rather clumsy.)

An orange with a mass of 150g from Spain, consumed in London could be worth 150 x 1,2000 or 180,000 units.

Foodmile Value The mass of a food item (g) x distance transported (km).

Food Item Mass (g) Source Distance Km Foodmile Units

Pineapple juice 200 Queensland 4,000 800,000

Cereal 200 New South Wales 3,000 180,000

Kiwifruit (portion) 50 New Zealand 5,000 250,000

Slice of Toast 50 Western Australia 150 7,500

Marmalade 5 Home-made 0 Negligible

Coffee 10 Papua New Guinea 4,000 40,000

TOTAL 1,277,500

‘Foodmile’ Calculations

Foodmile calculation for a light breakfast consumed in Perth:

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¡Bienvenido!

Food Item Mass (g) Source Distance (km) Foodmile Units

TOTAL

OK, now let’s take a look at your breakfast. Execute the calculations necessary to determine how many foodmiles are expended to make your breakfast.

‘Foodmile’ Calculations continued

0What can you determine from your findings?

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The flag of Costa Rica was designed in 1848 after the ideals of the French Revolution—freedom, equality, and brotherhood. Specifically, the colors of the Costa Rican flag represent different aspects of Costa Rica: The color blue represents the sky, opportunities at reach, intellectual thinking, perseverance, infinite, eternity, and ideals of the religious and spiritual desires. The color white symbolizes clear thinking, happiness, wisdom, power and beauty of the sky, initiative to search for new endeavors, and

peace. The color red represents the warmth of the Costa Rican people, their love of life, their blood shed for freedom, and their generosity. In addition to the bands of blue, white, and red, you will see Costa Rica’s Coat of Arms. This coat of arms depicts a green land mass flanked by the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean on either side. Three large volcanoes represent the three mountain ranges which traverse the country. The two vessels depict Costa Rica’s maritime history, and the rising sun has connotations for a newly founded republic, as the

nation was when the coat of arms was first adopted. The seven stars are the seven states which make up the Central American republic, and the coffee beans are the source of the country’s commerce prior to the rise of the banana.

Your Turn: Take a moment to think about the ideals that mean the most to you. Now draw your personal flag. Describe the flag’s shapes and colors by what ideals they represent. 0

Costa Rican Flag

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¡Bienvenido!

Geology of Central AmericaGeologically, Central America is relatively young, having formed 5 million years ago. The zone convergence between the Cocos Plate and the Caribbean plate gave rise to a volcanic chain that borders the pacific, extending from Guatemala to Panama. Sixty-eight volcanoes are included within this chain—3 are active in Guatemala, 3 in El Salvador, more than 15 in Nicaragua, and 4 in Costa Rica.

The four principal geological faults are…Motagua, the highlands of the Pacific, the Nicaragua Depression and the Chagres River Basin. The convergence of the tectonic plates has resulted in a region of sharp topography with varied landforms from plains near sea-level to peaks rising over 4000m, which tend to incur more rainfall on the Pacific slope. Hillsides and highlands comprise 77% of Central America.

Costa Rica is home to a great number of volcanoes. As part of the Circum-Pacific Ring of Fire, over 200 volcanic centers have been recognized in the country, but only about 20 of them are truly recognizable as such. From these twenty, only a few have had eruptive activity in the past 400 years, even though the rest have a certain level of activity. Research these volcanoes and circle those that have eruptive activity! Have fun!

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San José: Understanding the Urban Organism and Population Dynamics

You’ve just arrived in the urban core of Costa Rica, San José. Walk outside and take in the atmosphere of a new city. Use your five senses to describe the urban environment. Do you find it dirty? Smelly? Loud? Does it seem crowded? How does it compare to your hometown? Write down some initial

thoughts about San José.

When you arrive in San José, you might be surprised by the hustle and bustle of the city. San José is the capital of Costa Rica at 3,800 feet above sea level (wow, that’s high!), and is the largest city in the country with a metro population of roughly 1.6 million people (roughly a third of the entire Costa Rican population), up from just 70,000 people in the 1940s—an incredible increase! Many Ticos (the name

given to native Costa Ricans) migrated from the countryside into San José in the latter-half of the 20th century looking for better jobs. Recently, the massive influx of people into the city has created considerable problems for the metropolis. To understand how population increases affect human viability in a cosmopolitan setting, we must discuss some of the basics of population dynamics.

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Environmental Science


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How environmental scientists look at the worldThe Earth is composed of four main spheres: lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Probably the most important sphere which separates Earth from other known planets is the atmosphere. It is the key to the development of life. It is made up of a mixture of gases that combine to allow life to exist. In the lower atmosphere, nitrogen accounts for about 75% of the gases followed by oxygen at about 20%. The other gases are found in trace amounts. The hydrosphere is the ever-changing total water cycle that is part of the closed environment. It includes Earth’s most notable feature from space—oceans. The Earth’s surface is mainly water, and oceans make up about 97% of Earth’s water. Not only does the hydrosphere consist of the visible water but also the water found in different states throughout the water cycle. A sub-category of the hydrosphere would be the cryosphere that includes all of Earth’s frozen water.

The crust and top part of the mantle are known as the lithosphere. This layer is the coolest of Earth’s land layers and insulates the active mantle layers below. All living things are found

in the biosphere, which includes all three spheres. The main elements that are the roots to all living things in the biosphere are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The sphere interactions are not only numerous but also diverse.

What is an ecosystem?Ecosystems are complex communities of plant and animal life linked together by energy and nutrient flows that interact with each other and their environment. Coral reefs, deserts, mangroves, and wetlands are all examples of ecosystems. Every member of an ecosystem has a specific purpose or niche. The relationships between the ecological niches make up an ecosystem.

When new species are introduced and competition for a niche takes place, the ecological balance is upset. A new balance must be created for the natural system to be successful. The same occurs when a species is eliminated. It is up to other species to adapt or die.

As we saw in the first section of the journal, Earth is made up of a diverse array of ecosystems that are all interconnected. We might describe the world ecosystem as our global ecology—that is a global environment consisting of

Earth’s Many Layers

The four spheres Atmosphere

Biosphere

Hydrosphere

Lithosphere

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many different ecosystems that are all interconnected.

What exactly is a biosphere?An environmental biosphere consists of all the organisms and non-living materials found in a particular area. The organisms interact with one another as well as with the non-living components of the environment.

To understand the inter-connectedness of organisms, it is necessary to study ecosystems, or biological communities interacting with one another and their environment. Ecosystems have many components that can be broken into two major categories, biotic and abiotic. The biotic or living parts of an ecosystem include species, populations,

and biological communities. The abiotic influences are non-living, such as temperature, light, soil, and water.

Organisms within biospheres can be classified into two different categories: producers, or autotrophs, which make their own food, as green plants do; and consumers, or heterotrophs, which cannot make their own food and must eat producers or other consumers. Consumers can be further divided into herbivores, which eat plants; carnivores, which eat animals; omnivores, which eat both plants and animals; and detrivores, which feed off dead and decaying organisms.

The sequence of who eats whom in an ecosystem is called a food chain. All ecosystems have complex feeding networks, made up of many different food chains. This feeding network is called a food web.

Scientists assign every organism in a biosphere to a feeding level, or trophic level, depending on whether it is a producer or consumer and on which type of consumer it is. The producer is on the first trophic level; the primary consumer is on the second trophic level; the secondary consumer is on the third trophic level; the tertiary consumer is on the fourth trophic level; and the quaternary consumer, if present in a food chain, would occupy the fifth trophic level.

The AnthroposphereHumans, like all other life forms, depend on the unique relationships between the biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and lithosphere. We need air to breathe, water to drink, and land to grow the food we eat. But the balance between people and place is fragile. When humans interact with the natural environment, there are always consequences. Some of these are intended; some are not. Some consequences are positive and beneficial; some are negative and costly.

Solar Energy

Secondary Consumers

Tertiary Consumers

Primary Consumers

Producers

Energy flowing through the system

Heat energy lost from the System

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Ground-water discharge

Hydrologic CycleAs you look out across the ocean, you might want to think about another type of system that shapes the coastal ecology of Costa Rica: the hydrologic cycle (coming from the latin “hydro” meaning water). We can use the diagram below to structure our conversation about how the hydrologic cycle works. We can think of water as being constantly in motion; it is either flowing in waterways above the planet’s crust, traveling to the atmosphere, or falling from the

sky as snow, rain, sleet, and hail. Let’s outline each transitional stage of the hydrologic cycle and introduce some terms that will be useful when discussing hydrology as it pertains to a particular ecosystem.

Some hydrologic termsOceans and lakes, evaporation, condensation, atmosphere, volcanic steam, precipitation (rain, snow, ice, etc.), infiltration, stream and river flow, and groundwater storage.

The Hydrologic Cycle

Water storage in the atmosphere

Water storage in ice

and snowPrecipitation

Snowmelt runoff to streams

SpringFreshwater

storage

Streamflow

Surface runoff

Evapotranspiration Evaporation

Water storage in oceans

Condensation

Evaporation

Sublimation

Infiltration

Ground-water storage

Desublimation

Fog drip

Dew

Vents and Volcanoes

Seepage

Plant Uptake

Flora and Fauna

Volcanic Steam

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Ground-water discharge

Nitrogen CycleWater is not the only resource vital to life; living organisms also require nitrogen. Nitrogen is one of the essential elements in amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. Thus, it is critical animals secure enough nitrogen in order to sustain appropriate amino acid levels. Believe it or not, Earth’s atmosphere is made up of roughly 78% nitrogen. Animals, however, are unable to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and must rely on the nitrogen cycle in order to secure appropriate quantities.

It might be helpful to refer to the diagram below to get a handle on how the nitrogen cycle works. Oddly enough, bacteria are essential to the proper functioning of this cycle. Nitrogen fixating bacteria—or bacteria that can combine atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen—can convert nitrogen into a usable ammonia compound that can be taken up by plants. Other bacteria, known as nitrifying bacteria, convert ammonia into usable nitrate

compounds that can also be taken up by plants.

Herbivorous animals acquire nitrogen by consuming vegetation, and carnivorous (meat-eating) and omnivorous (both meat- and plant-eating) animals, in turn, acquire nitrogen by eating herbivorous creatures. The cycle comes full circle when animals and plants die, returning nitrogen to the soil. The cycle is complete when denitrifying bacteria in the soil return nitrogen to the atmosphere.

The Nitrogen Cycle

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Carbon CycleSimilar to the nitrogen cycle, the carbon cycle involves the transfer of carbon atoms between the biosphere, hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. Humans, like all living organisms, use carbon atoms for a variety of biochemical processes. It’s useful to reflect on how the carbon in your body might have been in the ocean days earlier or up in the atmosphere. In a very real sense, carbon atoms link you to the natural environment that surrounds you via the carbon cycle.

Now, let’s investigate this cycle further. The process is quite complex, so let’s narrow our focus a bit, looking specifically at how plants contribute to the cycle. Plants utilize carbon dioxide as a primer for photosynthesis and thus absorb considerable amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Plants store carbon in the form of sugars known as carbohydrates (when you hear someone talk about a low-carb diet, they are talking about a diet that is low in carbohydrates).

These stores of energy can later be utilized to help a plant grow via the process of respiration in which carbohydrates are broken down and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. When plants die, they deposit carbon into the soil, which can, after centuries and centuries turn into fossil fuels.

The burning of fossil fuels contributes to the cycling of carbon in our globe. Via combustion, humans are able to power vehicles, provide

The Carbon Cycle

15


electricity to homes, and run factories. Unfortunately, humans’ increased combustion of fossil fuels has also led to huge increases in atmospheric carbon concentrations. As we will see later, carbon dioxide molecules in the atmosphere can act to deflect ultraviolet radiation that otherwise would escape through Earth’s atmosphere. This effect is known as the greenhouse gas effect (you’ll learn more on this later in this journal).

Out in the ocean, carbon is also cycled between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere through a process known as diffusion. Aquatic vegetation contribute to the carbon cycle in the same way that terrestrial plants do. Fish and other herbivorous sea creatures consume aquatic vegetation and thus acquire carbohydrates that are essential for metabolic processes. Like plants, aquatic animals and land creatures give off carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration.

When oceanic flora and fauna die and decompose, carbon is stored in the ocean floor.

Areas of the biosphere, hydrosphere, or atmosphere that take in more carbon than they release are known as carbon sinks (places where carbon is dumped). The problem with making our atmosphere into a carbon sink (because of the combustion of fossil fuels) is quite disturbing. We will discuss this issue later. For now, let’s focus on Costa Rica.

Why Does All This Matter? Understanding the ins-and-outs of the hydrological cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle once again reinforces the idea that abiotic (that is, non-living) resources travel long distances, changing physical properties and affecting living organisms in diverse environments. We may very well think that cutting down a small sector of tropical rainforest will have only localized consequences, but the reality is that such actions affect a much larger ecosystem.

OK, now that we have sketched a broad outline of what environmental science is all about, let’s turn our focus specifically to the ecology of Costa Rica. We’ll touch on its unique environmental history, and then take a deeper look at the inland and coastal biosphere. Plus, we’ll dive into the hydrosphere before going underground in Poas, the volcano. Our last stop will be the topics of pollution and conservation. Now it’s time to get our hands dirty and get out into the field.

16


Would you ever pursue a career as a volcanologist or glaciologist? As you travel through Costa

Rica, make notes here about your thoughts on those careers.

Here’s a Hot (and Cold) Career Idea for You…VolcanologistThese specialized geologists study formation, activity, temperature, and explosions of volcanoes. They spend a great deal of their time outdoors and in the field, living on the edge (literally), drawing samples from Earth’s volcanic cauldrons.

GlaciologistIf you’re concerned about global warming and want to know more about the consequences of the greenhouse gas effect (more on this later), you might want to consider a career as a glaciologist. These geologists study the formation, movement, and makeup of current glaciers. Working in the frigid ice boxes of the world, glaciologists have recently become quite popular, offering disturbing scientific evidence linking global climate change to glacial melting.

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17

Environmental History


18


A Scientist’s PerspectiveHave you ever stopped to think about how environmental forces shape history? We cannot understand the history of a nation like Costa Rica without acknowledging the ways in which environmental factors—wind patterns, disease, agricultural metamorphoses, and ecotourism—influenced the trajectory of Costa Rica’s development.

So let’s start from the beginning and catalog the ways in which man shaped the natural environment of Costa Rica and how nature shaped man.

From the onset, we must remember Mother Nature held the key to the success of the early European colonial expeditions in the New World. It was not until mariners sailing in the Atlantic discovered the circular pattern of the Atlantic trade winds in the fifteenth century that trans-Atlantic voyages could even be contemplated. When sailors discovered they could travel far to the west using the southern trade winds that blew westward, and that they could return easily on the northern trade winds that blew eastward, adventurous explorers began to plan for extended journeys into the unexplored western waters of the Atlantic.

When these first explorers arrived in the New World at the end of the fifteenth century, they were not alone. While it may be easy to think of Central America in the pre-Columbian era as a natural utopia untouched by man, the reality is that civilizations called the region home for thousands of years before European settlement. Nonetheless, the 16th century marked the beginning of dramatic transformations in the region’s ecology, when Europeans—with Columbus and the Spanish leading the way in 1492—began to scout out colonial territories like Costa Rica (1502). The Spanish were in search of gold, and when Columbus saw the native peoples bedecked in gold jewelry, he dubbed the newfound colony “Costa Rica” meaning “Rich Coast.”

Unfortunately for the Spanish, few explorers were able to locate vast stores of golden ore. Nonetheless, efforts to colonize the region continued. You may ask, how could a handful of explorers from Europe overwhelm the local tribes of Costa Rica? Certainly, advanced technology gave Europeans an upper hand, but particular environmental advantages also helped the Spanish gain an edge on the native peoples. The Spanish brought with them deadly diseases

such as smallpox, diseases to which the native people were not immune. These diseases decimated native tribes, making it easier for Europeans to colonize the region. Thus, as Alfred Crosby illustrates in his work Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900, diseases like smallpox were perhaps the most effective weapons European colonizers

Gold Bird Pendant Worn by Costa Rican Natives When Columbus

Arrived in the 16th Century (now on display at the Metropolitan (Met) Museum of Art in New York City

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benefited from in their conquest of the Americas.

For roughly three centuries, Costa Rica remained somewhat of a disappointment for colonists looking to strike it rich in the new world, but in 1808, a dramatic transformation of the colonial ecology made Costa Rica one of the more attractive colonial acquisitions of the Spanish Empire. In that year, colonists began to clear land in order to cultivate coffee. Costa Rica was the first Central American country to develop a coffee industry, and certainly the environmental conditions were a key factor in its development. The combination of

a highlands region and a chain of volcanoes created terrain in which the coffee plant could thrive.

Costa Rica is composed of a number of volcanic chains, starting in the northwest part of the country and crossing to the southeastern region. As a result of the volcanic activity, the soil in these areas is rich in organic materials which benefit the growing coffee plant. The volcanic soil’s composition encourages the roots of the plant to distribute evenly, invigorating growth by promoting retention of moisture and facilitating proper oxygenation. In addition, the plant thrives in the shade of

the country’s dense forests and favorable altitude. A moderate to high altitude is important to maturing coffee plants. Most Costa Rican coffee is grown 1,300 feet (396 meters) to 5,700 feet (1,737 meters) above sea level.

Not only did coffee crops change the economic fortunes of many colonists, it also brought dramatic changes to the natural environment of the colony. Interested in growing monocrop plantations (large farms devoted solely to coffee cultivation), early coffee growers cut down tropical forests, destroying native biota in an attempt to maximize profits from coffee cultivation.

Costa Rican Coffee Plantation

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The Biosphere

21

The Biosphere

The Biosphere

Understanding the Inland EcosystemsWhile you’re fishing for trout on the Savegre River, take a look downstream. Ask yourself, where does this winding watercourse lead? The answer? To the Pacific Ocean! The stream you’re wading in meanders through the Savegre Valley down to the coast where it dumps into the Pacific Ocean just south of Manuel Antonio (a town you’ll visit later). While we won’t have a chance to float downstream and follow the river, we might want to think about the river as we discuss the different ecosystems that Costa Rica has to offer. If we were to travel down river towards the coast, we would journey through a variety of diverse habitats. We would start in a tropical forest marked by freshwater streams and dense jungle and eventually end up in an estuary (a waterway where a freshwater stream meets saltwater). So let’s do just that; let’s head downstream and explore the diverse ecosystems of Costa Rica.

Exploring the Coastal Tropical RainforestsTowards the coast, you’ll find a slightly different tropical rainforest in Corcovado National Park. Let’s take a moment to talk about what a tropical rainforest actually is. The name conjures up images of Tarzan, venomous serpents, and towering hardwoods. In truth, you will find the tropical rainforest ecosystem to be quite exotic. As you can see from the map on the next page, there are very few tropical rainforests left in the world (tropical rainforests cover less than 2% of the Earth’s surface), yet they contain roughly half of the world’s flora and fauna. It’s not everyday that you get to walk through a rainforest, so savor the moment and take in the amazing beauty that surrounds you.

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Exploring continued

It takes millions of years for a tropical rainforest to reach maturity. Perhaps what’s most amazing about the tropical rainforests is the remarkable biodiversity they support. Across the globe, rainforests provide healthy habitats for roughly half of the world’s animal species. Wow!

When we think about what the costs are associated with cutting down the rainforests, we must keep in mind that many of the world’s medicines come from the rainforest. Somewhere in the ballpark of 120 pharmaceutical products come from rainforests. Amazing! Doctors and scientists believe that the cures to thousands of ailments remain to be discovered within tropical rainforests. If we destroy these precious environments, we may

very well be eliminating life-saving medicines that could save lives.

The Costa Rican government has done a great deal to protect the nation’s forest, recognizing the importance of ecotourism. In 1995, it pushed through a bold initiative to protect 21% percent of the nation’s land and has since established a series of national parks and wildlife preserves.

Still, considerable damage has already been done. Costa Rica has the highest rate of deforestation in Central America, largely because of land-clearing operations associated with coffee and banana cultivation. There’s hope for the future, however, especially as the government becomes more involved in protecting the nation’s natural environment.

23

The Biosphere

Catalog your thoughts.

Ok, so you have spent a whole day searching the rainforest and you’re wondering what the big deal is? Well, let’s take a moment to reflect on the issue of endangered species and ask what are the

consequences of extinction. Considering what we now know about ecosystems and the idea that, in our global ecology, all organisms are tied to one another, why is it so important that species

not become extinct? What do you think about a particular species becoming extinct, how does it make you feel?

Rainforest Reconsidered

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Exploring continued

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Create Your Own CreatureIn the space below, draw up your own Costa Rican creature. The idea is to come up with a creature that exhibits certain

evolutionary peculiarities—traits that are particularly advantageous for a given creature in a given habitat. Later, explain how natural

selection has helped to ensure the survival of your creature.

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The Biosphere

Beach and Inshore Features

High tide

Step

RidgeRunnel

Trough

Low tide

Longshore bar

Shelf Inshore

You

Foreshore

Swash zone

Backshore

Dunes

BermBeach face

The Coastal Ecology of Costa Rica IntroductionCosta Rica offers a wide range of habitats. The coastal areas can be particularly rich habitats for many species. In fact, many areas are protected by the national government. Formed roughly 50 million years ago when tectonic plates shifted below the ocean floor, certain areas are breeding grounds for avians and other terrestrial creatures. In many places, SCUBA diving offshore is fantastic, featuring volcanic walls and coral reefs. Keep your eyes open for sea turtles, manatees and white-tip sharks (yikes!).

A beach is an accumulation (a pile) of unconsolidated (loose) sediment that is located at the intersection

of the land and the sea. Beaches are continuously changing and are affected by many processes such as winds, tides, and waves. To form a beach, a supply of sediment and a place for the sediment to accumulate are needed. See above for an illustration of the terms used to describe beach areas.

VegetationDifferent types of vegetation grow along the beach. Where vegetation grows depends on how well it can

survive in the harsh environment of the beach. Stability of the surface, amount of fresh water, amount of salt spray, competition among vegetation types, etc., will affect if and what types of vegetation can grow. Vegetation along the back of the beach is important in stabilizing dunes.

Be sure to respect signs and notices in natural areas. We all want to be sure that wildlife homes are not disturbed!

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A Civic Environmentalist’s VacationDespite what one may think, beaches are not barren deserts devoid of living organisms. As we have seen in the section on beach vegetation, a variety of plants have adapted to the beach ecology and call the dry, sandy landscapes home. Many animals—crabs,

avians, and other sea creatures—also inhabit Costa Rican beaches.

Beaches are also popular vacation spots for humans, and have thus, unfortunately, become polluted environments as people have left behind a lot of trash.

Even if you’re on vacation, you should always think of yourself as a civic environmentalist looking for ways to help protect the natural environments you visit. This afternoon, comb the beach with a friend and spend some time picking up trash that you find.

Describe what you find on the beach and how those things might be dangerous to coastal organisms.

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The Biosphere

Coastal Plant IdentificationPlant AdaptationAs you walk along the beach, take a look at the plants that inhabit the beach environment. These plants look very different from the plants that live in your front yard, in a forest, and along a river bank. The plants must adapt to specific physical and geological characteristics of the beach environment. Because beach conditions are often extreme, the adaptations that allow plants to survive here are very unique.

Salt sprayWind carries salt from the ocean over the beach, which may kill exposed tips of plants; beach plants have adapted by (1) developing waxy, leathery leaves that resist salt damage, and (2) developing hairy leaves, which also resists the salt spray.

High waves and overwash

Extremely high waves caused by storms may uproot and wash away plants; beach plants have adapted by developing extensive rhizome (horizontal root) systems that prevent them from washing away.

Intense sunlight and wind

Sunlight from above, the sunlight reflected from the sand, and constant winds can cause plants to dehydrate; some adaptations include (1) inrolling their leaves during the day, which decreases the surface area struck by sunlight, (2) developing waxy leaves that retain moisture, and (3) developing succulent stems that store water.

High winds

Winds also have the effect of burying plants, exposing their roots to the air, and breaking and flattening standing plants; beach plants have adapted by (1) developing extensive rhizome systems that continue to grow, even if the plant is buried, (2) developing leaves that are flattened against the ground and trap sand, and (3) developing flexible stems and leaves that can withstand high winds.

Coarse sandSand drains quickly, leaving little supply of freshwater for the plants; some adaptations include (1) developing waxy leaves that retain water, (2) developing succulent stems that retain water, and (3) developing hairy leaves that retain water.

Physical and geological conditions that plants must adapt:

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The Hydrosphere

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The Hydrosphere

Costa Rica’s Rivers and Estuaries The Study of Fish!

Some waters are excellent trout streams. While there are many factors that make a stream a viable habitat for freshwater fish, the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of the water is perhaps the most important. Freshwater with excellent oxygen concentrations provide particularly salubrious environments for freshwater trout and other aquatic life forms. Temperature is also important. Fish are inactive when the water temperature rises above a certain level (or when it is too cold). These facts should not be surprising. Fish are, in some ways, just like you. When they’re hot and lacking oxygen, they seek a cool place to rest and “catch their breath.”

Today, you’ll have the opportunity to use the tools of an environmental scientist to determine whether water conditions are in your favor—to determine, in other words, whether you can blame your bad fishing on environmental factors that were out of your hands. So let’s begin by discussing some of the basics of hydrological testing. Two rivers that are fun to explore in Costa Rica are the Savegre and the Tárcoles Rivers.

Water Quality Analysis

Rivers are an important source of water for human settlement. They are used for different purposes like irrigation, drinking water, and recreation. However, more and more rivers and streams are being polluted by humans on a daily basis. Costa Rica is no exception.

Different analyses have to be performed in order to get a total picture of the condition of a river. The physical and habitat surveys give an idea of the primary conditions of the river.

Chemical surveys Chemical surveys tell us about water quality at a particular moment; however, they won’t detect pollution events that happened a few days before. But, we can rely on the aquatic macro-invertebrates as biological indicators of the events in the recent past.

Macro-invertebrates Macro-invertebrate community structure is important to determine the history of the river. A river with high diversity indicates a healthy ecosystem, whereas a high abundance of certain species of macro-invertebrates can be due to pollution resistance.

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Hydrology Studies in a Freshwater Ecosystem Hydrology tests are usually done with basic field testing kits like the ones we will be using. These tests measure concentrations of various elements in the water. During our

program, you will perform tests to determine basic indicators of water quality. The eight tests charted below are: Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, Hydrogen Sulfides

(H2S), Temperature (air and water), Turbidity, Nitrates (NO2) (NO3), Phosphate (PO4), and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Test Description Range of values

Dissolved Oxygen(DO)

All living things depend on oxygen to survive. In a water environment, molecules of oxygen gas dissolve in the water. This is called dissolved oxygen (DO). In air, 20 out of every 100 molecules are oxygen. In water, only one to five molecules out of every million molecules are oxygen. This is why dissolved oxygen is measured in parts per million (ppm). Water temperature and altitude influence how much oxygen water can hold. In general, warmer water cannot hold as much oxygen as colder water. Similarly, at higher altitudes water cannot hold as much oxygen as water at lower altitudes.

Cold water holds more than warm water.

Lower hardness (salinity) enables higher dissolved oxygen levels.

Fish die in lower than 4 ppm.

pH

pH is an indicator of the acid content of water. The pH scale ranges from 1 (acid) to 14 (alkaline or basic) with 7 as neutral. The scale is logarithmic, so a change of one pH unit means a tenfold change in acid or alkaline concentration. For instance, a change from 7 to 6 represents a solution 10 times more acidic; a change from 7 to 5 is 100 times more acidic, and so on. The pH of a body of water has a strong influence on what can live in it. Immature forms of salamanders, frogs, and other aquatic life are particularly sensitive to low pH.

Between 5.6 and 8.5 for aquatic organisms.

6.5-8.5 (EPA recommendation)

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulfide can be present in ground water containing sulfur under anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions. It is also the product of a bacterial reaction in the presence of sulfate. Hydrogen sulfide gives water a “rotten egg” taste and odor and is often more noticeable in hot water than cold water.

The acceptable level of hydrogen sulfide is 0.05 mg/l or less.

Water Temperature (°C)

Water temperature is the temperature of a body of water and can vary greatly according to altitude, time of day, season, depth of water, and many other variables. Water temperature is important because it plays a key role in chemical, biological, and physical interactions within a body of water. The temperature of the water determines what aquatic plants and animals may be present since all species have natural limits of tolerance to upper and lower temperatures.

(n/a)

Continues >

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The Hydrosphere

Test Description Range of values

Turbidity

Turbidity is the measurement of water clarity. How clear the water is at the site will depend on the amount of soil particles suspended in the water and on the amount of algae growth at the site. Turbidity may change with the seasons and with changes in plant growth rates, in response to precipitation runoff, or for other reasons. The clarity of the water determines how much light can penetrate. Since plants require light, transparency becomes an important measurement in determining the productivity of the water.

Current EPA regulations require turbidity in drinking water not to exceed 5 NTU.

The ability of salmonids to find and capture food is impaired at turbidities in the range of 25-70 NTU.

EPA studies indicate fish growth is reduced and gill tissue is damaged after five to ten days of exposure to water with a turbidity of 25 NTU.

During a flood event, turbidities can jump to 100 NTU or more than 1,000 NTU.

Nitrates (NO2) and (NO3)

Nitrogen is one of the three major nutrients needed by plants. Most plants cannot use nitrogen in its molecular form (N2). In aquatic ecosystems, blue-green algae are able to convert (N2) into ammonia and nitrate (NO3), which can then be used by plants. Animals eat these plants to obtain nitrogen that they need to form proteins. When plants and animals die, bacteria break down protein molecules as part of the decomposition process. Different bacteria produce different nitrogen compounds, such as nitrates (NO2) and (NO3), and ammonia. The cycle begins again. Typically, nitrogen levels in natural waters are low (below 1.0 ppm nitrate nitrogen). Nitrate levels are measured in milligrams per liter nitrate nitrogen.

(NO3) 0.050-0.100 ppm for animals <.10 ppm (EPA recommendation)

(NO2) 0-10 ppm (range) <1 ppm (ideal)

Phosphate (PO4)

The nutrient phosphorous comes from natural sources such as phosphate-containing rocks and from anthropogenic (human) sources such as fertilizers, pesticides, detergents, and industrial compounds.

Levels over 0.03 ppm contribute to higher plant growth.

The acceptable range is 0.05 - 0.1 ppm.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, tasteless, odorless, noncombustible gas that is soluble in water.

1,000-5,000 ppm

Outdoor air concentration ranges from 300-400 ppm.

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/l)

pH

Hydrogen Sulfides (H2S) (mg/l)

H2O Temperature (°C)

Turbidity (NTU)

Nitrate (NO3) (mg/l)

Phosphate (PO4) (mg/l)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (mg/l)

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Water Quality: Data CollectionDate:___|___|______ Site #2 _____________

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The Hydrosphere

Now that you’ve learned some of the technical skills behind water analysis testing, let’s find out whether environmental conditions were working against you today.

Professional fishermen assert that DO concentrations must be above 6.5 mg/L for trout to be active. They also maintain that the optimal water temperature for trout fishing is between 58-62

degrees Fahrenheit. Optimal pH for most organisms is between 6.2 to 8 and CO2 concentrations can range from 300-400 ppm. Of course, determining the turbidity of a stream is particularly important because the more turbid the water is, the less easily fish will be attracted to particular lures (streams usually range from 1 NTU to 50 NTU; drinking water must be between .5 NTU and 1.0 NTU).

While some other measures below may have less of an effect on freshwater trout activeness, keep in mind most freshwater streams have a nitrate level between .1 to 4 mg/L, with streams registering levels above 1 mg/L considered polluted. As for phosphates, levels above .1 mg/L are considered to be high. Test the water and determine whether conditions were optimal for fishing today.

Bad Fisherman or Just Bad Luck

When you have time (during your program or at home), think about the water you have experienced. Apply your new knowledge, and make notes about your assessment of the water quality in each location. 0

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It is impossible to overstate the ecological importance of estuaries and wetlands. They serve very practical functions. Besides providing essential habitat for an enormous array of animals, the dense marshlands surrounding estuarine waterways are capable of absorbing large amounts of water. Thus, wetlands serve to abate floods, absorbing excess water and preventing upland areas from being inundated with water. Wetlands also serve to filter freshwater streams of detritus, debris, and even sewage and other pollutants, thus ensuring

the purity of water that enters marine waterways.

The theme of this journal is all living organisms are connected to one another. We may think we live in closed systems, and that we are unaffected by environmental degradation taking place downstream of us, but the reality is the destruction of wetlands and estuaries can have far-reaching effects on people and other living organisms that do not live in the marshlands. The exercise below is designed to get us to think about what those costs are.

Understanding the Costs of Destroying Our Wetlands and Estuaries

A Point-of-View Exercise

Tiger Wood’s rival, Don-Care “Bout-Da” Environment, is hoping to drain one of Costa Rica’s estuaries in order to construct a new golf course. He claims that there is no good reason why he should not be able to do this, but he is facing considerable pressure from a variety of people who believe that the environmental repercussions associated with the project will negatively impact their lives. On the following page, take on the personality of the following people opposed to Mr. Environment’s project. Outline the reasons why these people would be opposed to the project. Be sure to be specific and identify the very real problems these individuals would face.

35

The Hydrosphere

Assume the role below, and state your case for or against the new golf course.

A homeowner approximately 10 miles upland of the estuary/wetlands:

A birdwatcher:

A marine fisherman:

A beach-resort owner:

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What’s the deal with palm oil? The global expansion of the palm oil industry represents one of the largest upheavals in agricultural history—one that most people in the United States know nothing about. And yet palm oil is now everywhere in the U.S.—in the food, the cosmetics, and someday soon maybe even in gas tanks. A high demand for agricultural products such as palm oil leads agricultural interests to supply as much and as quickly possible.

Palms and other crops such as bananas, teak, and pineapple are often cultivated in tropical regions through a practice called ‘monoculture,’ or the growing of one single crop in a given area. In order to grow for a maximum yield and turn a high profit, farmers clear cut forest areas with the goal of using every bit of available land.

What’s the problem with this approach? Monoculture practices have severely damaged biodiversity and environmental health in places like Costa Rica. Removing lush forests and replacing them with planted crops reduces available habitat for the unique flora and fauna that thrive in such environments.

Pesticides used to protect the crops from infestations have also damaged the soil and water quality of these sensitive areas.

While agriculture still represents a huge threat to the remaining natural areas on the planet, many farmers are working to preserve remaining natural areas. It’s one of the first countries to offer federal incentives that compensate farmers for leaving part of their land out of production.

Costa Rican farmers who balance their crop production with maintaining natural spaces show biodiversity can coexist with food production. Farmers are making increasing commitments to forest preservation and biodiversity while keeping up with the demand for farming. Researchers are measuring the helpful roles of small animals like bats, birds and bees to take care of insects, thereby reducing the need for harmful pesticides.

The Real World: Monoculture and Biodiversity in Costa Rica

Scan this code to learn more about monoculture and efforts toward forest preservation in Costa Rica.

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The Hydrosphere

Condition

Topsoil color

Dark (dark gray, brown, black)

Moderately dark (brown, yellow brown)

Light (pale brown, yellow)

Amount of organic material High Medium Low

Erosion factor Low Medium High

Aeration High Medium Low

Available Nitrogen High Medium Low

Fertility High Medium Low

Topsoil (A Horizon)

Subsurface soil color Condition

Dull gray (if in low rainfall soils, 0-2 inches of rain) Water-logged soils, poor aeration

Yellow, red-brown, black (if in forest soils) Well-drained soils

Mottled gray (if in humid soils) Somewhat poorly to poorly-drained soils

Topsoil (B Horizon)

Particle size Feel Air Space Water availability

Clay (.002mm) Sticky Few, tiny Slow movement of water; may result in low availability

Silt (.002 - .05 mm) Smooth Many, small Good

Sand 9.05 - 2.0 mm) Gritty Many, large Low

Common Soil Textures

Texture Water-holding capacity Looseness of soil

Sandy Poor Good

Loamy Good to excellent Good

Clayey High–too tight for plant use Poor

Topsoil (B Horizon)

Soil Condition Tables

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Evaluating the Estuarine EnvironmentLet’s get our hands dirty, literally, and find out whether the estuarine biosphere and hydrosphere you visited today offers a healthy habitat for living creatures. Complete the following field examination.

Water Site DescriptionMoving water n Stream n River n Other: __________________ Approx. width (ft): ____________

Standing water n Pond n Lake n Reservoir n Bay n Ditch n Other: __________________

Is the bottom visible? n Yes n No If yes, describe the bottom: ___________________________________

River bank description n Sand bars or gravel bars n Man-made structures n Pools (streams only) n Riffle areas (streams only) n Fallen logs/branches in water n Other: ___________________ n Boulders or stones around and in the water

Erosion evidence n Bare soil/No plants n Cuts, ditches, or steep banks where soil is being washed away n Exposed plant roots n Trees, shrubs, or grasses preserved

Human influences n Dams n Litter n Swimming n Boating n Drainage pipes n Trails/bridges n Other: __________________

Describe the habitats in shallow areas near the water’s edge n Vegetation n Boulders n Gravel n Rocks n Logs n Other: __________________

Additional aquatic organisms observed n Fish n Birds n Amphibians n Other: ___________________________________

Precipitation in last 24 hours? n Yes n No

Weather conditions n Sunny n Overcast n Partly cloudy n Rainy

Air temperature: ________ Wind direction: ________ Relative humidity: ___________

Soil color: n Light brown n Yellow/orange n Green/gray n Light gray n Dark gray

Soil texture: n Mostly clay n Mostly sand n Mixtures of clay and sand

Soil moisture: n Soggy n Moist n Dry

39

The Hydrosphere

After conducting your field test, what can you say about the health of the estuarine ecosystem you studied?0

40


Costa Rica’s ClimateSomething to consider: What is the relationship between altitude and humidity? What is the relationship between sea level and temperature?

Based on what you know about altitude, make a hypothesis about its relationship to humidity.

Based on what you know about sea level, make a hypothesis about its relationship to temperature.

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The Hydrosphere

Did You Know?U.S. cities that best match Costa Rica’s differing climate attributes:

— Average temperature (76°) – Florida Keys, FL

— Highest average rainfall (18ft) – Hakalau, HI

— Lowest average rainfall (4ft) – Jackson Springs, NC, or Griffin, IN

— Average highest elevation (2000m) – Clingmans Dome, TN

— Elevation to San José (1170m) – White Butte, ND

Costa Rica is a tropical country situated fairly close to the equator. In the mountains, above 2000 meters, you will experience cooler temperatures than inland. The average annual temperature lies between 71 and 81 degrees Fahrenheit. The coolest months are from November through January, and the warmest from March through May. The capital of San José, where over a third of the population lives, stands at about 1170 meters altitude, and has a mean annual temperature of 69 degrees Fahrenheit.

The nation’s climate is classified into two major seasons: rainy

and dry. Dry season runs from January through May and the rainy season from May to December. Rainfall patterns vary greatly across geographical areas. Some locations receive over 18 feet of precipitation per year, while others receive under 4 feet. The topography of the country also has a great influence on the weather patterns of a given locality. As a result, the timing of the dry and rainy seasons varies a bit on each slope of the mountain ranges that run from the north-west to the south-east and divide the nation into a Caribbean slope and a Pacific slope.

Tropical Climates

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A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt

The concept of leave-no-trace tourism should apply even underwater. Coral reefs are actually living organisms, so when humans decide to take “artifacts” from these habitats, they are often uprooting a living organism from its native environment. Some coral species are sensitive to oils on human skin, and thus suffer damage when touched by divers. When you swim around a beautiful coral sanctuary, let your eyes wander, but leave the marine life alone. Your conservationist efforts will help ensure that Costa Rica’s coastline remains an ecological wonder for years to come.

Leave-No-Trace Tourism

The biodiversity of marine ecology is quite impressive. Partner up with a buddy, keep a sharp eye out, and try to spot the following aquatic creatures on your snorkeling expedition. Each marine creature listed below has a specific point value associated with it (indicated in parentheses). The team with the highest point total will be declared the winner. DIVE IN!

Manta ray (5)

Horseeye jacks (3)

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43

The Hydrosphere

A Snorkeling Scavenger Hunt

King angelfish (4)

Barracuda (7)

Puffer fish (3)

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Goat fish (3)

Jellyfish (3)

Other (2) – Provide a sketch

Sketch

45

The Hydrosphere

Going Beyond: Sea TurtlesSome of the locations you may explore may be part of a sanctuary for marine life that includes 110 terrestrial hectares and over one million marine square miles. The coastal sanctuary also includes Central America’s largest coral reef on the Pacific Coast (13 km in length). As we have seen, these coral reefs provide vibrant habitats for a variety of marine animals, so your aquatic adventure should be full of beautiful fish and amazing sea creatures. Keep your eyes open for a rare glimpse of a humpback whale, as the park serves as a breeding ground for the species.

Another aquatic animal that we have not discussed in detail that spends a great deal of time on the shores of Costa Rica during its breeding season (September and October) is the sea turtle. Costa Rica is home to two specific types of sea turtles: the Olive Ridley and the hawksbill. The World Conservation Union has listed the hawksbill turtle as a critically endangered species. Olive Ridley sea turtle populations are healthier than hawksbill sea turtles, but nonetheless, breeding colonies on the Pacific Coast of Mexico are classified as endangered, and all other colonies are labeled threatened.

Hawksbill and Olive Ridley breeding habits are fascinating. Pregnant sea turtles trek onto shore when it is dark (usually in September and October), burying their eggs in the sand. They then head back into the ocean. It usually takes 45 to 75 days for the eggs to hatch. If you are lucky enough to be on the beach when newborn sea turtles emerge from their nests, you’ll have the opportunity to witness the migration of dozens of baby sea turtles struggling to make it down the beach and to sea. Research centers associated with the park organize nighttime watches for visiting marine biologists and wildlife enthusiasts interested in observing this amazing phenomenon.

As we discuss the various types of anthropogenic environmental disturbances humans have inflicted on Costa Rica’s natural environment, one often overlooked is light pollution. Sea turtles only come to shore when it is dark, mainly to avoid certain predators that might attack them or dig up their eggs and eat them. As resort hotels and beachfront villas become more and more common on the coast, the amount of light emanating from the beach increases, deterring some sea turtles from coming to shore. For Pictured above: Hawksbill Sea Turtle, and

an Olive Ridley coming ashore to lay eggs

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this reason, conservationists have worked to place restrictions on coastal development projects, hoping to ensure that sea turtles’ breeding grounds are protected.

A diminishing breeding habitat is not the only hardship threatening the viability of sea turtle populations on the Pacific Coast of Costa Rica. They face many predators at sea. Certain human

activities also threaten their environment. Namely; net fishing. Sea turtles often are inadvertently caught in fishing nets. In addition, many sea turtles die from eating plastic bags, mistaking human trash for jellyfish.

Sea turtles are perhaps the oldest living species on Earth today, yet they are on the verge of extinction (scientists suggest that

sea turtles roamed the seas over 110 million years ago). It’s up to us to ensure that these wonderful creatures survive.

The Ballena Marine Lab sponsors a series of research expeditions in the park, including field studies of dolphins and whales. The current hope is that the park will be extended southward to Corcovado National Park.

Going Beyond: Sea Turtles continued

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The Hydrosphere

Birding 101 Birding is the technique of observing birds. It is an activity you can take part in almost anywhere outdoors. There are many characteristics to look for when attempting to identify birds. The first things you should examine are a bird’s size and shape. It would be valuable to be familiar with the typical bird silhouettes and the telltale parts of a bird such as the bill, wings, and tail. Consider the four different bird silhouettes shown below. List 3 similarities and 3 differences you noticed regarding the size and shape.

The markings on a bird are also a good way to identify different species and types of birds. You would be looking specifically for markings on the head, wings and tail of the bird. Common marks on the head include eyebrow stripes, crown stripes, eyerings, and

whisker marks. When observing the wings and tail, the absence or inclusion of markings such as wingbars (stripes) and wing patches (spots of color) can be a distinguishing characteristic.

As you become more advanced, you can study the songs and calls of species which will add to your birding technique. One technique that is commonly overlooked, which at times can be most important, is the habitat where you are observing the species. Perhaps you want to study birds for a research project. The act of studying birds is called ornithology. In your journal, be sure to record the species that you have seen throughout your trip.

As you learn the art of birding, fill in the charts below and on the following page.

Similarities:1.

2.

3.

Differences:1.

2.

3.

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Scientific name English name Plumage Resident/Migrant Feet type Beak type

____________ ____________ ____________

____________ ____________ ____________

Bird Foot ChallengeConsider each image of bird feet types in the table below. Then take a look at the list of functions for feet. When you figure it out, match the function with the foot type pictured.

— Perching — Swimming — Climbing — Seizing prey — Swimming/walking — Walking

Beak TypesBeaks are made of keratin, a tough protein that makes up hooves, horns, antlers, and fingernails. The upper part is called the maxillary rostrum and the lower part is the mandibular rostrum. Bird’s nostrils, called nares, are at the junction between the beak and the head. Beaks are constantly worn down by climbing, feeding, grooming, and regular activity.

Sightings Chart

Regulating Temperature Probing Catching insects

Cracking seeds Tearing meat Drilling holes

Birding 101 continued

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The Hydrosphere

Butterflies are of the order Lepidoptera and characteristically have slender bodies, knobbed antennae, and four broad, usually colorful, wings. The word Lepidoptera comes from the Greek words “lepis” meaning scale and “pteron” meaning wing. Their wings are made of hardened membrane, strengthened by veins and covered by tiny scales, each a single color. The intricate designs are produced by thousands of scales, arrayed in complex patterns, and overlapping one another like shingles on a roof.

Parts to identify:— forewing — hindwing — antenna — eye — proboscis — legs — head — thorax — abdomen — scales

antenna

eye

proboscis

legs

hindwing

forewing

ButterfliesInsect Anatomy

— All insects have certain identifying features that scientists use to classify them.

— All insects have three body parts: a head, a thorax, and an abdomen.

— Insects have exoskeletons (the skeleton on the outside that can be shed and regrown as the insect grows in size).

— Generally, insects have three pairs of legs attached to the thorax. Spiders have four pairs of legs and are not insects.

— Most insects have two or more pairs of eyes (compound eyes) located on their head, which allows them to see ultraviolet waves, which humans cannot see.

— Insects have antennae, which are used for smelling and analyzing odors and tastes.

Butterfly Characteristics — Butterflies sip nectar and

other liquids using a spiral proboscis, located on their head, like a straw.

— Quite unusually, they use their feet to taste!

— Butterflies have two upper forewings and two lower hindwings all located on the thorax, along with six legs.

— Their wings are made up of many tiny scales, and wings are symmetrical: each side looks exactly the same.

— Butterflies have two antennae with clubs located at the ends.

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EggsButterflies will lay 200-500 eggs on leaves and stems of host plant. Caterpillars hatch from the eggs in about five days.

CaterpillarSome caterpillars may eat as much as 25,000 times their body weight. Since they grow so fast they molt up to five times in a few weeks.

Chrysalis (pupa)The caterpillar will shed its skin for the last time and become a pupa. Inside the chrysalis the pupa is reorganizing cells to become an adult.

AdultThe adult butterfly will emerge in a few weeks and look for a mate. After mating, the females will lay eggs. In most cases butterflies live for only two weeks.

Butterfly Life Cycle

Egg Larva (caterpillar)The egg hatches into a tiny

larva (caterpillar)

Larva (caterpillar)The caterpillar eats and

grows a tremendous amount

The caterpillar attaches itself to a twig and forms a

hard outer shell.

Pupa (chrysalis)Inside the pupa, the caterpillar changes

into a butterfly. Pupas are often camouflaged to hide from predators.

A fully-grown adult butterfly emerges from

the chrysalis.

Adult ButterflyAdults live for only a short time. They cannot eat, they

only drink through their straw-like spiral proboscis. They will fly, mate, and reproduce.

The adult female lays an egg that was fertilized

by the male.

Butterfly Factoids

Metamorphosis of a Butterfly

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Poas

Poas

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Introduction to landThe Earth’s surface is made up of tectonic plates which are in continuous motion. Some of these plates separate, allowing new material to come up from the mantle. Some collide at subduction zones, where one plate plunges beneath the other, returning material to the mantle. In Central America, we see the Cocos Plate colliding beneath the Caribbean Plate.

AtmosphereThe atmosphere contains all the air in Earth’s system. It

extends from less than one meter below the planet’s surface to more than 10,000 kilometers above the planet’s surface. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of the biosphere from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. It also traps heat. When the air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the planet. The result can be as simple as a breeze or as complex as a tornado.

s Volcano

s Plate Boundaryss

ss

ss

s

ss

ss

s

ss

s

s

ss

s

ss

sss

s

s

s

s

ss

ss

The Earth is Active!As you are reading this:

— Volcanoes are erupting

— Earthquakes are shaking

— Mountains are being pushed up and are being ground down

— Rivers are carrying sand and mud and laying them down

All the time huge slabs of the surface are moving—about as fast as your fingernails grow.

Poas: King of Air and Land

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Poas

Anatomy of the Spheres

The Earth’s life-support systems:

— Atmosphere

— Biosphere

— Hydrosphere

— Lithosphere

Natural Hazards: Volcanic eruptions

Upswellingmagma

Magma conduit

Magmareservoir

Central vent

Extinct volcanoes

Crust

Core

Mantle

Vegetation and animals

Soil

Rock

Biosphere

Crust

Crust(soil and rock)

Biosphere(living and dead

organisms)

Lithosphere(crust, top of upper mantle)

Hydrosphere(water)

Atmosphere(air)

Atmosphere

Solid lithosphere

Partially moltenasthenosphere

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Stratovolcano

CompositionStratovolcanoes comprise the largest percentage (about 60%) of the Earth’s individual volcanoes. Most are characterized by eruptions of andesite and dacite lavas that are cooler and more viscous than basalt.

Eruption typePlinian; explosive eruptions; generate large eruptive columns powered by expanding gas

Found in Costa Rica?n Yes n No

Shield Volcano

CompositionShield volcanoes are almost exclusively basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted.

Eruption typeHawaiian; very calm eruptions; highly fluid with low gas content


Scoria Cone

CompositionThe cinder and scoria volcano, also called ash and cinder, is the most basic type of volcano. Usually under 1,000 feet with a round crater at its summit, the cinder, or scoria, is the result of gas-charged lava cooling during an eruption.

Eruption typeStrombolian; pasty lava


Types of Volcanoes

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Poas

Volcano Trivia — Volcanic eruptions can affect climate because:

n They are tall mountain peaks n They recycle water vapor to make clouds n They heat the atmosphere n None of these

— Magma is: n The reason volcanoes form n The source of all igneous rocks n Melted rock n All of the above

— Magma extruded at low temperatures tends to be: n Very dry n Very fluid n Very viscous n Very unwelcome at a party

— Which of the following eruptions was the largest? n Agung, Indonesia (1960) n Tambora, Indonesia (1815) n Krakatau, Indonesia (1883) n Yellowstone, Wyoming (640,000 years ago)

— A typical example of a shield volcano is: n Mt. Pinatubo n Mt. Rainier n Hawaii n Mt. St. Helens

— The most common type of volcano in the “Ring of Fire” is: n A volcanic fissure n A cinder cone n A shield volcano n A composite volcano

— Which planet is not known to have volcanoes? n Saturn n Mars n Earth n Venus

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Pollution and Conservation

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Costa Rica’s Environmental Problems Whether you’re an environmental scientist or just a tourist, you should do a little research on pollution in the country you are going to visit. Is the air in the city OK to breath? How about the city water? Can I drink it? Let’s take a look at pollution in Costa Rica, both to gain a better

understanding of environmental science and to ensure that we have a safe and healthy traveling experience abroad.

Ecological footprintIn order to get started, we need to introduce the concept of an ecological footprint. Do you ever

think about what happens when you throw away a plastic bottle? What happens to the trash you throw away each week? Where does wastewater from your house flow? This section is about answering these questions and understanding one’s impact on the environment.

World average:

2.2hectares

Biggest footprint:United States

9.6hectares

Smallest footprint:Bangladesh

0.5hectares

Average Canadian footprint:

8.6hectares per person, the third highest in the world

55%Natural forest: 4.7 hectaresTrees needed to absorb greenhouse gases produced when fossil fuels are burned to drive cars, heat and cool homes, transport goods and import exotic foods

16%Forest: 1.4 hectares Trees for timber used and paper products3%

Pasture: 0.3 hectaresGrazing land for meat and dairy products

19%Crops: 1.6 hectaresFarmland for feed and crops

5%Built up: 0.4 hectaresLand paved for housing, factories, roads

2%Water: 0.2 hectaresArea of sea to produce seafood

Ecological Footprint – a measure of human impact on the Earth

The footprint equals the Earth’s cost to sustain one person. It’s measured in hectares and represents the land area needed to provide resources and absorb waste and greenhouse gases produced by an individual.

Measure your footprintScan this code and read about how to find your own ecological footprint.

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Population DynamicsAccording to the Population Institute, an international nonprofit organization dedicated to world population studies, it was not until 1830 that the world population reached 1 billion people, but in less than two centuries, the world population has increased by more than 6 times the 1830 figure, and in 2008, the world population was approximately 6.6 billion people. Can our Earth sustain this kind of dramatic population growth? What kinds of natural resources are most jeopardized by rapid population growth? These are the types of questions that environmental scholars interested in population dynamics ask.

Change In Population Births Deaths ___________________ = ___________________ – ___________________ Population Population Population Rate of Change of Population Crude Birth Rate (CBR) Crude Death Rate (CDR)

Mathusian equationPerhaps the greatest scholar to deal with issues pertaining to population and sustainability was Thomas Malthus who wrote Essay on Population in 1798. Malthus provided a demographic model in order to calculate population change (see below). Let’s offer an example of how we might use this equation. If there are 60 births per 1000 people in a city in a given year and 30 deaths per 1000 people in a given year, the population will increase by 30 per thousand, or 3%. According to Malthus’ calculations, the natural rate of population change is 2%. Malthus believed that population would increase at a rate that exceeded the rate at which food could be produced, and that two types of checks controlled

population growth. The first of these he termed positive checks, that is famine, natural disasters, war, and catastrophic events which would limit humans’ ability to sustain population growth. The second he termed preventive checks, or decisions about birth control, etc., which societies could adopt in order to control growth.

Thomas Malthus

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Other population calculationsOne of the problems with Malthusian thinking is that it does not take into account innovative advancements in technology. So how do environmental scientists discuss the ecological costs of population growth and technological change? One useful equation that can be used to determine the impacts of population growth on the global environment is listed below.

Impact of any human group on the environment = Number of people X Average person’s consumption of resources X Environmental disruptiveness of the technologies that provide the goods that people consume.

As you can see, when population is high, even a small amount of technological disruptiveness can greatly increase the impacts on the environment. For example, two cities both with populations of 300,000 people have vastly different impacts on the environment if urbanites primary mode of transportation in one city is automobiles, while in the other residents typically ride bikes. Still, increased technology is not always a bad thing. Innovative engineering may allow for a way to create cheap and efficient energy, reducing the use of fossil fuels and limiting pollution.

OK, enough equations for the moment! Let’s see how we might

apply the concepts discussed here to real life situations.

While Costa Rica may not suffer from overpopulation (current population: app. 4.1M), other polities have struggled to deal with population issues. Mexico City population was over 9 million in 2012, with the greater metropolitan area over 20 million people. China faces serious population issues with a population that reached 1.4 billion in 2013. The Chinese government has attempted to abate population growth by imposing certain restrictions on how many kids a family can have (this might be called a preventive check in Malthusian terms).

Pretend you are the leader of a third world country facing overpopulation. What would you do in order to ensure sustainability? What are the cultural considerations that would drive your decision? What are the political implications of intervening?0

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Leave-No-Trace TourismAny form of tourism will have impacts on the visited region. Increased tourists to an area may result in more pollution and disturbance to the protected region. However, if done correctly, tourism can provide huge economic benefits to the local communities. With economic benefits and pride, local communities are more likely to change their ways and start to conserve regions and live sustainably for the benefit of all. During our expedition what are some things we can do to limit our impact on this region and partake in green tourism?

— When buying souvenirs, consider not accepting the plastic bag

— Reuse your personal water bottle to reduce the amount of bottles consumed

— Recycle

— Do not pick flowers

— Do not feed the wildlife

— Order fish from restaurants that use ocean-friendly techniques to obtain their menu items

— Do not buy souvenirs that support illegal fishing or collecting of species (such as shells)

— Throw trash in appropriate receptacles

You may see things throughout the trip that are not eco-friendly. What are they and what are alternative solutions? Fill in the chart on the following page throughout your trip.

List some ideas on how else to leave no trace:

0

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Experiences that were NOT green

... and their alternate solutions. Experiences that were green.

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Can I Drink the Water?Understanding sewerage systems and waterworksAccording to a report put out in 2005, roughly 99% of all Costa Ricans living in urban areas are connected to public water systems, but only 70% have access to potable (suitable for drinking) water. Nonetheless, Costa Rican officials encourage tourists to drink from the tap, arguing that the water is just fine for drinking. Let’s find out more about how Ticos get their water and decide for ourselves whether we should drink the water or not.

For years, the major metropolitan centers in the heart of Costa Rica (Cartago, Alajuela, Herrida, and San José) tapped surrounding springs and aquifers to slake the thirst of city residents. The water

supply for this area, known as the Gran Area Metropolitana, still comes from some of these groundwater sources, but new reservoirs have helped to increase the area’s water supply.

The most troubling problem concerning drinking water in Costa Rican towns is not so much where the water is coming from but that the water can become easily contaminated, as few cities have developed effective sewage systems. Amazingly, roughly 96% of all wastewater in the country is funneled into watercourses without being treated. According to one scholar writing in 1993, approximately 60% of Costa Rican urbanites were not connected to adequate sanitation facilities at the end of the last century.

Water quality assessmentUse the skills learned for testing water quality and apply them to tap water from the hotel. Remember, these tests can’t tell us everything (we will not test for viruses, for example), but we can gain valuable information from our field tests.

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The IUCN Red List

World Conservation Organizations

Check out the IUCN website, www.iucn.org for the latest red listed species

How to get involved in civic environmentalismThroughout this journal we’ve talked broadly about conservation and the ways we can adjust our life habits to help keep our Earth clean and beautiful. Now let’s talk about some of the major world organizations—many of which are active in Costa Rica—that have remained at the forefront of civic environmentalism. As you peruse the organizations below, consider which one might best fit your interests and talents, and research ways to get involved.

The Red ListThe International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) puts out a red list of threatened species every year, providing statistical data about animals that are suffering from loss of habitat, over-hunting, or other major problems. The IUCN assesses the conservation status of species throughout the world. You may be familiar with the IUCN Red List. It is a system designed to determine the relative risk of a species extinction. The categories recognized by the IUCN are Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable.

Currently, the IUCN has listed the Costa Rican Atelopus Varius, a

harlequin toad, on their critically endangered list. The Union believes that the major issue is loss of habitat caused by drought (harlequin toads are amphibious, like most toads, and thus require a wet habitat). It is estimated that the Atelopus Varius population has declined by roughly 80% over the last three generations.

Another of Costa Rica’s endangered species is the humpback whale. Perhaps one of the most well-loved sea creatures of the Pacific Ocean, the humpback whale is a gigantic mammal, often weighing in at over 30 tons

(at full maturity, they can reach a length of 40 feet). Like all whales, humpbacks belong to the Cetacean family: marine mammals that have hair, breath air, and nurse their young. To break it down even more, humpback whales are also members of the baleen family, which means they are whales that run food through huge filters in their jaw (as opposed to toothed whales that have teeth and, thus, chew their prey). A humpback can eat 9,000 pounds of food in a day! They roam from Hawaii (where they breed) to Alaska, cruising up and down the Pacific Coast of Central and North America.

Status Definition

EXTINCT Last remaining individual of the species has died

EXTINCT IN THE WILD Only survives in captivity, reintroduced populations, or outside its native habitat

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED

Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild

ENDANGERED Faces a very high risk of extinction in the wild

VULNERABLE Faces a high risk of extinction in the wild

NEAR THREATENED Does not face a high risk of extinction, but is likely to be threatened in the near future

LEAST CONCERN Species is thriving, widespread, and abundant

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Between the 19th and 20th centuries, commercial whalers decimated humpback populations, killing off by the mid-1900s roughly 90% of the worldwide population, all in an avaricious pursuit to secure boatloads of the whale’s valuable blubber (used to create flammable oil). Conservation efforts, however, have helped to revitalize the species, and humpback numbers are currently estimated to be around 20,000 across the globe.

Today, humpback whales are on the rise because of the concerted efforts of conservationists who worked hard to end the destructive whaling industry that targeted humpback whales. In 1966, the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium (stop order) on the whaling of humpbacks.

Today the biggest concerns are actually less focused on whalers and more on preserving the oceanic habitats of these marvelous creatures. Organizations like the Whale Conservation Institute and the American Cetacean Society continue to work hard to preserve the oceanic habitat of humpback whales.

Despite conservationists’ efforts, however, Japan recently lifted its ban on hunting humpback whales despite the fact that the IUCN still lists the species as vulnerable on its endangered list. Many international bodies condemned these actions as despicable and dangerous. Whale meat in Japan sells for top-dollar in local markets, sometimes bringing in over $100 a pound.

Humpback Whale

Atelopus Varius

Trichechus Manatus Latirostris

Conservation Organizations cont.

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The World Wildlife Fund (WWF)Founded in 1961, the WWF is the largest privately-funded international environmental organization in the world. Its declared mission is to “stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature, by conserving the world’s biological diversity, ensuring that the use of renewable resources is sustainable, [and] promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption.” Wow, no small feat! A nonprofit organization supported by over 5 million activists worldwide, the WWF has considerable resources that smaller non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and nonprofit organizations cannot marshal. The organization has affiliates in over 30 countries.

In its over 45-year-old history, the WWF has been responsible for

a number of major conservation hallmarks. In 1990, the organization helped bring about the cessation of the international ivory trade—a global industry that had decimated elephant populations throughout Africa and elsewhere. In that same year, they also secured a moratorium (stop of activity) on commercial whaling.

Greenpeace In 1971, a group of environmental activists set out on a journey from Vancouver to protest U.S. testing of nuclear weapons in Alaska. This cohort formed Greenpeace. From that date to today, Greenpeace has grown into one of the most important environmental groups in the world. Like the WWF, Greenpeace relies on environmental supporters like you. They receive no money from the federal government, nor do they solicit donations from corporations.

Greenpeace is particularly interested in reaching out to the next generation of environmental activists, and as such has created a Greenpeace Student Network. The GSN is a youth-based branch of the organization designed to get young people involved

in environmental protection programs. Most recently, the network has executed a series of effective campus campaigns to boycott paper products produced by Kimberley-Clark, a corporation known for its clear-cutting operations. Clear-cutting is when a timber company cuts down vast acreage of land, rather than by selectively cutting down trees in ways that ensure the sustainability of the harvesting fields.

The Sierra ClubIn his book, The Yosemite (1921), John Muir, perhaps America’s

most renowned conservationist, exclaimed, “Everybody needs beauty as well as bread, places to play in and pray in, where nature may heal and give strength to body and soul alike.” Muir’s words speak to the mission of the Sierra Club. Founded in 1892 by John Muir and a cohort of western environmentalists opposed to a plan to reduce the size of Yosemite National Park in California, the Sierra Club was the first conservationist organization established in the United States for the express purposes

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of preserving the country’s wondrous natural spaces.

Originally an organization focused on the American West, it quickly spread across the nation. Today, in an effort to bring more people into the organization, the Sierra Club sponsors local outings across the country. You can visit the Sierra Club website when you get back to the states and link up with a trip near your home community (sierraclub.org).

The Earthwatch InstituteFounded in the same year as Greenpeace, Earthwatch has a slightly different message than the other world organizations we have discussed. Their primary focus is to link volunteer researchers with naturalists and conservationists working in the field. The Institute has two programs operating in Costa Rica currently, one focused on studying sustainable coffee cultivation just south of the Monteverde cloud forest. The other program focuses on leatherback turtles’ breeding grounds on the western coast of Costa Rica.

Active Conservationist Activity:How do you convince people the Atelopus Varius (pg. 64) needs to be saved? It’s not always easy to make people realize the importance of a small animal that seems to have very little impact on their everyday lives. Your job today is to become an active civic environmentalist and create a poster that teaches the public of your conservation effort. Get started saving a species!

Campaign criteria: — Natural history information

about one of Costa Rica’s endangered species (where it lives, what it eats, when it is active, etc.)

— Why is the species in trouble

— What are people doing to help this species

— What this species looks like (draw it)

— Where your species lives (range map)

Note: The posters should be designed to help attract attention and share information in a creative easy-to-read way.

Conservation Organizations continued

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DMBThe Dave Matthews Band has become a fixture of the American music scene in the past three decades, beginning as an obscure band in Charlottesville, Virginia and transforming into an international megaband. Despite their worldwide rise to fame, the members of DMB have maintained strong humanitarian and environmentalist convictions. The popularity of DMB has translated into powerful philanthropic success for the environment; since 1999 the band has donated more than $8.5 million to charities via their Bama Works Fund, which supports projects that address environmental protection among its efforts. The Bama Green Project is the environmental arm of their philanthropic work, and is an on-going collaboration between the band and the environmental non-profit organization Reverb to ‘green’ their tours and reach out to their millions of fans to encourage widespread change.

While on tour, DMB participates in an ever-expanding greening program by eating locally, reducing waste, running on biodiesel, and hosting over 1,700 environmental groups across

the country in the Bama Green Eco-Village to spread awareness to their fanbase. They’ve had the help of thousands of volunteers in collecting fan carbon offset donations, and hundreds of thousands of fans have participated in their carpooling program. Additionally, Dave Matthews is an official supporter of The Wilderness Society, which is dedicated to preserving America’s wilderness through action and public education.

The band has retroactively neutralized the carbon footprint of their entire touring career, offsetting a total of 101,320 tons of CO2.

Ben & Jerry’sThe famous Vermont-based ice cream company has become a leader among corporations looking for creative ways to help protect the environment. Ben and Jerry’s supports a number of key initiatives including GMO labeling and environmental preservation to name a few. Their commitment to operating sustainably powers their mission for ‘Climate Justice.’ The company serves as a model for businesses working both for profit and environmental protection.

Rich and Famous: Civic Environmentalist Icons

Scan this code to learn more about Ben and Jerry’s push for Climate Justice!

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Leonardo DiCaprioLeonardo DiCaprio stands among the most influential civic environmentalists in Hollywood, helping to promote environmental preservation. Established in 1998, his foundation set forth with a mission to protect the world’s last wild places. He and his foundation work to implement solutions that help restore balance to threatened ecosystems, ensuring the long-term health and well-being of all Earth’s inhabitants. His efforts bring attention and needed funding to four focus areas—protecting biodiversity, oceans conservation, wildlands conservation, and climate change. DiCaprio enacts change through grantmaking, public campaigns, and media initiatives. His social media platforms serve to spread

the word to millions of followers around the world. Many other celebrities are following in his footsteps and using their influence to support the environment.

André Benjamin (André 3000)While the hip-hop industry is perhaps best known for harsh lyrics and bling-studded rappers, many hip-hop artists have become activists in the crusade to save the planet. André Benjamin of the Atlanta-based duo Outkast is one such crusader. Known for his flamboyant dress and bizarre lyrical style, Benjamin is also a dedicated vegan (does not eat meat or products produced by animals, such as milk). He also writes songs that speak directly to humans’ devastating effects on the environment.

Who is your favorite eco-minded celebrity? Why?

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Craft an Eco-JAM! Touring Costa Rica can be a truly breathtaking experience. When Dave Matthews crafted his smash hit “Don’t Drink the Water” he was camping up near Lake Superior

and was moved to write a song about Americans’ lack of respect for sacred lands. Now you have a chance to craft a tune that speaks to your experience in Costa Rica.

Put down some lyrics that you think will help increase awareness about environmental issues in Costa Rica that concern you.0

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Time to get muddy!Good environmental scientists get down and dirty. So let’s jump into the muddy marshland and describe what the decomposing slosh feels like. Don’t be afraid. You know, some people pay top dollar to have their face covered in similar stuff! Describe how the muck makes your skin feel. What does it smell like? Describe the experience below.

Let’s not forget that many of the inland rivers and streams we visited earlier (including the Savegre) ultimately make their way to the coast. Where these rivers flow into the ocean is called an estuary. An estuary is the given name for an ecosystem where freshwater streams and saltwater bodies merge. They are nutrient-rich zones where an incredibly diverse array of animals and plants make their home. Estuaries go by many names. They can be lagoons, bays, inlets, or sounds.

Estuaries serve as sanctuaries for a plethora of living organisms. Many animals, especially birds, use estuaries as breeding grounds, nurseries in which to bring up their young. One reason for this is that estuaries are incredibly nutrient-

rich. Environmental scientists have discovered that estuaries generate four to ten times as much organic material compared to a corn field…wow, that’s a lot of biota!

Upstream of estuaries we find another type of ecosystem: wetlands. Wetlands are essentially ecosystems inundated with water (think swamps, bogs, marshes) that support fauna that can grow year-round in saturated conditions. You might have heard wetlands referred to as marshland. Unique vegetation grows in wetlands, including mangroves. These bushy plants provide protective habitats for numerous creatures and generate large amounts of sulfur which helps make the wetlands particularly efficient sites of organic decomposition.

Further on Down the RiverUnderstanding the Estuarine Ecology of Dominical

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Remembering Your Conservation Adventure in Costa RicaTouring Costa Rica can be a truly breathtaking experience. You’ve seen and tried new things and have had once-in-a-lifetime experiences that will leave you with memories you will treasure. Put down some thoughts here about the high points of your trip. What will be your take-away lessons learned from your time in Costa Rica?

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Conclusion: Leaving on a Jet PlaneYou’ve learned a great deal about the ecology of Costa Rica; now it’s time to return home. But as you sit and wait for your plane to arrive at the airport, let’s take a moment to widen the aperture of our investigative lens, and return once again to a global perspective.

Costa Rica’s ecotourism industry brings in billions in revenue each year, with roughly 1 million American travelers visiting Costa Rica each year. Wow, that’s a lot of tourists! Most of those travelers fly on commercial jets to get there.

OK, so what are the ecological costs associated with all these

flights? Fuel is a large piece of the puzzle. According to a corporate fact sheet on Boeing aircraft, a 747-400 traveling 3,500 miles will carry 126,000 pounds of fuel and consume its supply at a rate of roughly 5 gallons per mile.

Now let’s do some calculations. A Boeing 747-400 can seat roughly 300 passengers at full capacity. So, let’s assume that the flight is half full (seating 150 people). For a flight from Washington, D.C., to San José, Costa Rica—which totals a distance of approximately 2,040 miles—fuel consumption per passenger for the flight is roughly 68 gallons (2,040 miles x 5

gallons/mile ÷ 150 passengers = 68 gallons/passenger).

That’s a lot of fuel per person when you consider the ecological costs of burning that fuel. Most commercial jets use Jet A fuel, which is made up of hydrocarbons and which gives off greenhouses gases when burned. It has been estimated that commercial jet emissions make-up roughly 2% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions.

Greenhouse gas emissions are not the only negative repercussion of commercial flights. We must consider other factors, like noise pollution. While it may seem a bit

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silly to consider noise pollution an environmental problem, the fact of the matter is that noise pollution can reshape the wildlife composition of particular habitats. Animals, for example, that used to call the woodlands around the San José airport home may have migrated once the booming and swooshing of commercial flights became unbearable.

And what about those strange patterns in the sky left by planes? If you’ve ever looked up at a commercial airliner on a clear day, you know about this phenomenon. It looks like the plane has left a white puffy cloud in the sky. Well, in fact, it has. Commercial jet engines give off water vapors that, at certain altitudes, turn immediately to ice crystals (thus the cloud-like streams). These cloud-like formations are technically called contrails. Some experts believe that these seemingly innocuous contrails actually contribute significantly to global warming. And you thought fuel and noise were the only problems with commercial air travel!

Wow. So there are some ecological costs to flying, driving, taking a cruise, etc. Have you ever thought about these impacts? What about the broader public? Do you think

people realize the impact that modern transportation systems have on the health of the planet?

It’s clear that there is a real need for people to become aware of the environmental costs associated with daily life activities. But to know the truth is not enough. We have to act on what we know. We can begin to make a difference with small local decisions that ultimately affect the health of our global community today.

So what should you do? Refuse to travel by plane? Of course not! Traveling is vital in increasing education and understanding around the globe. Use what you’ve learned and travel with a new appreciation for the natural environment and what it means to lend a hand toward meaningful conservation. Know that there is more to consider about the cost of living than dollars and cents. Realize that the power to change the future is in your hands. Maybe you’ll help revolutionize the way we travel and its effects on the planet. Think about it!

As an eco-conscious civic environmentalist, return home as an ambassador for a new cause. The Earth’s awe-inspiring natural environments will thank you!

Leaving continued

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AcidAny substance that has a pH level below 7, or that has more free hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl (OH-) ions.

AcidityA measure of the number of free hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that can chemically react with other substances.

AdaptationThe modification, over time, of the structure, function, or behavior of an organism, which enables it to be better suited to its environment.

AtmosphereThe layer of gases surrounding Earth; composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen.

BackwatersAreas of water to the side of a main stream channel usually formed by flooding.

BacteriaMicroscopic unicellular organisms, typically spherical, rod-like, or spiral and threadlike in shape, and often clumped into colonies. Some bacteria cause disease, while others perform essential recycling roles; for example, by decomposing organic matter into a form available for reuse by plants.

Basic (alkaline)Basic solutions contain high concentrations of hydroxyl ions (OH-).

BenthicPertaining to the bottom (bed) of a body of water.

Biochemical Oxygen DemandA measure of the quantity of dissolved oxygen, in milligrams per liter, necessary for decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms, such as bacteria.

BiodiversityA measure of the distinct characteristics, qualities, or elements of plant and animal life in a defined area; a measure of biological differences.

BiomassThe amount of living matter (as in a unit area or volume of habitat).

Carbon CycleThe combined processes by which carbon, as a component of various compounds, cycles between its major reservoirs: the atmosphere, oceans, living organisms, and solid Earth. The processes include photosynthesis, decomposition, respiration, sedimentation, lithification, burial, uplift, erosion, and volcanism.

Community The whole of the plant and animal population inhabiting a given area.

Condensation The process by which a vapor becomes a liquid; the opposite of evaporation.

Decomposition The decay of organic matter through the digestive processes of microorganisms, macro-invertebrates, and scavengers.

Detection LimitThe lowest point at which a particular piece of sampling equipment can accurately assess chemical concentrations.

Dichotomous KeyA tool for identifying objects, such as macro-invertebrates through a series of “yes or no” questions to the observer.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)Oxygen dissolved in water and available for living organisms to use for respiration.

EcosystemA community of living organisms and their interrelated physical and chemical environment; also, a land area within a climate.

Glossary

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Emergent TreesTrees that extend beyond the canopy.

EutrophicA condition in which the standing water is enriched with plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, resulting in large amounts of plant and algae production. As the plants and algae die and sink to the bottom, organic sediment is created which removes oxygen as it decays.

EvapotranspirationThe loss of water from the soil through both evaporation and transpiration from plants.

HabitatThe environment occupied by individuals of a particular species, population, or community.

HotspotA fixed point on the Earth’s surface defined by long-lived volcanism.

HydrophilicWater-loving.

IndicatorA gauge of water pollution: not a legal criteria but rather a sign that there may be a problem. When an indicator level is exceeded, further studies are done.

PhotosynthesisThe chemical reaction in plants that utilizes light energy from the sun to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars. This reaction is facilitated by chlorophyll.

Plate TectonicsThe theory and study of plate formation, movement, interaction, and destruction; the attempt to explain seismicity, volcanism, mountain-building, and paleomagnetic evidence in terms of plate motions.

Point Source PollutionRefers to pollution resulting from discharges into receiving waters from any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance such as a pipe, ditch, or sewer.

Radiocarbon DatingA dating method used to quantitatively measure the age of organic matter (such as bone, shell, or wood). The method can be applied to materials formed within the last 50,000 years or so.

Richter ScaleAn exponential scale ranging from 1 to 9 that measures the amount of energy released during an earthquake.

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RiffleA shallow area in a stream where water flows swiftly over gravel and rock.

Ring of FireThe name of the extensive area of volcanic and seismic activity that roughly coincides with the borders of the Pacific Ocean.

Riparian ZoneThe vegetative area on each bank of a body of water that receives flood waters (i.e., Riparian forest).

SedimentSolid material that originates mostly from disintegrated rocks and is transported by, suspended in, or deposited from water; it includes chemical and biochemical precipitates and decomposed organic material such as humus. The quantity, characteristics, and occurrence of sediment in streams are influenced by the quantity and intensity of precipitation.

SeismologyThe study of earthquakes and the mechanical properties of the Earth.

Taxonomic KeyA quick reference guide used to identify organisms. They are available in varying degrees of complexity and detail.

Tectonic PlateOne of several large, mobile pieces of the Earth’s lithosphere adjoining other plates along zones of seismic activity.

VolcanoA vent or fissure in the Earth’s surface through which molten lava, ash, and gases are ejected. It is also the name for the structure, usually conical, formed by the materials ejected from the vent or fissure.

Water CycleThe paths water takes through its various states—vapor, liquid, and solid—as it moves throughout Earth’s systems (oceans, atmosphere, ground water, streams, etc.). Also known as the hydrologic cycle.

Water QualityThe chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water with respect to its suitability for a particular use.

WatershedThe land area from which surface runoff drains into a stream channel, lake, reservoir, or other body of water; also called a drainage basin.

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The following conversion chart may be helpful as you work through the activities in your Discovery Journal.

If you know Multiply by To getTo get Divide by If you know

Lengthinches (in) 2.5 centimeters (cm)feet (ft) 30.0 centimeters (cm)yards (yd) 0.9 meters (m)miles (mi) 1.6 kilometers (km)

Areasquare inches (in²) 6.5 square centimeterssquare feet (ft²) 0.093 square meters (m²)square yards (yd²) 0.84 square meters (m²)square mile (mi²) 640.0 acres (acre)acre (acre) 43,560 square feet (ft²)acre (acre) 4,047 square meters (m²)acre (acre) 0.405 hectares (ha)

Volumefluid ounces (fl oz) 30.0 milliliters (ml)cups (c) 0.24 liters (l)pints (pt) 0.47 liters (l)quarts (qt) 0.95 liters (l)gallon (gal) 0.134 cubic feet (ft³)gallon (gal) 3.79 liters (l)cubic feet (ft³) 0.03 cubic meters (m³)cubic feet (ft³) 28.32 liters (l)

Flowcubic feet per second (cfs) 0.03 cubic meters per sec (m³/s)cubic feet per second (cfs) 448.8 gallons per minute (gpm)cubic feet per second (cfs) 646,320 gallons per day (gpd)

Temperaturedegrees Celsius (C°) (9/5 x °C) + 32 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 5/9 x (°F – 32) degrees Celsius (°C)

Unit Conversion Chart

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Bonus Pages!

MammalsEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name Check!

Mantled howler monkey Mono congo alouatta palliataSpider monkey Mono araña ateles geoffroyiWhite-faced capuchin monkey Mono cara blanca cebus capucinusWhite-nosed coati Pizote nasua naricaThree-toed sloth Perezoso de tres dedos bradypus variegatusTwo-toed sloth Perezoso de dos dedos choloepus hoffmanniVariegated squirrel Ardilla, chiza sciurus variegatoidesWhite-tailed deer Venado cola blanca odocoileus virginianusCollared anteater Tamandua, oso hormiguero tamandua mexicanaAgouti Guatusa dasyprocta punctataNine-banded armadillo Armadillo, cusuco dasypus novemcinctusCommon opossum Zorro pelón didelphis marsupialisLong-nosed bat Murciélago de nariz larga rhynchonycteris naso

ReptilesEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name Check!

Green iguana Iguana verde iguana iguanaJesus Christ lizard Lagartija jesucristo basiliscus sp.Whip-tailed lizard Chisbala ameiva festivaCtentosaur Garrobo ctentosaura similisSpectacled caiman Caimán caiman crocodilusOrange-eared slider Tortuga resbaladora trachemys scripta venustaBoa constrictor Boa; béquer boa constrictorFer-de-lance viper Terciopelo bothrops asperCoral snake Coralillo, corál micrurus nigrocinetusEyelash viper Bocaracä, oropel bothriechis schlegelii

AmphibiansEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name Check!

Blue jeans poison-dart frog Ranita roja venenosa dendrobates pumilioBlack and green poison-dart frog Ranita verde venenosa dendrobates auratusCane toad Sapo gigante; sapo marino bufo marinusRed-eyed tree frog Rana calzonuda agalychnis callidryas

InsectsEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name Check!

Bullet ant Hormiga bala paraponera clavataLeafcutter ant Zompopas atta cephalotesArmy ant Hormiga arriera eciton burchelliHercules beetle Cornizuelo dynastes herculesGolden orb spider Araña de oro nephila clavipes

Expert Check List

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BirdsEnglish name Common Spanish name Scientific name Check!

Montezuma oropendola Oropendola psarocolius montezumaGreat-tailed grackle Zanate quiscalus mexicanusGroove-billed ani Tijo, zopilotillo crotophaga sulcirostrisTurkey vulture Zopilote cabeza roja cathartes auraBlack vulture Zopilote negro coragyps atratusCattle egret Garza ganadera bubulcus ibisSnowy egret Garza de las nieves egretta thulaGreat egret Garza real casmerodius albusGreat blue heron Garzón azul ardea herodiasLittle blue heron Garceta azul egretta caeruleaGreen heron Garceta verde butorides virescensTiger heron Garza tigre tigrisoma sp.Neotropic cormorant Cormorán phalacrocorax brasilianusAnhinga Aninga, pato aguja anhinga anhingaSunbittern Pájaro sol eurypyga heliasTropical kingbird Tirano tropical tyrannus melancholicusGreat kiskadee Pecho amarillo pitangus sulphuratusSocial flycatcher Mosquero cejiblanco myiozetetes similisHouse wren Soterrey cucarachero troglodytes aedonSquirrel cuckoo Cuco ardilla piaya cayanaChesnut-mandibled toucan Quioro, tucán ramphastos swainsoniiKeel-billed toucan Curré, tucán ramphastos sulfuratusEmerald toucanet Tucancillo verde aulacorhynchus prasinusBlack-faced grosbeak Picogrueso carinegro caryothraustes poliogasterClay-colored robin Yigüirro turdus grayiCrested guan Pava crestada penelope purpurascensRinged kingfisher Martín pescador collarejo ceryle torquataAmazon kingfisher Martín pescador amazónico chloroceryle amazonaGreen kingfisher Martín pescador verde chloroceryle americanaRufous motmot Bobo, momoto baryphthengus martiiTurquoise-browed motmot Momoto cejiceleste eumomota superciliosaWhite-tipped dove Paloma coliblanca leptotila verreauxiRuddy ground-dove Tortolita rojiza columbina talpacotiRed-billed pigeon Paloma morada columba flavirostrisNeotropical swallow-tailed kite Gavilán tijereta elanoides forficatusOsprey Águila pescadora pandion haliaetusWhite-throated magpie-jay Urraca calocitta formosaNorthern jacana Gallito de agua, jacana jacana spinosaSpotted sandpiper Alzacolita actitis maculariaRufous-tailed hummingbird Colibrí rabirufo amazilia tzacatlViolet sabrewing Colibrí ala de sable campylopterus hemileucurusBlue-gray tanager Viudita thraupis episcopusPasserini´s tanager Sargento ramphocelus passerinii

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