Cost-Benefit Analysis: The Details How can economics help determine the optimal size of a project or...
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Cost-Benefit Analysis: The Details
How can economics help determine the optimal size of a project or extent of a regulation?
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A few examples
What should be the CO concentration standard in tailpipe emissions?
How large should the Channel Islands marine reserve be?
Can we measure loss to recreationists of the Forest Adventure Pass?
Add another lane to Hwy 101? Close Mission Canyon to cyclists? What habitat to buy to protect endangered
species (e.g., Least Bell’s Vireo – bird)
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CBA: main principle
Quantify all costs and benefits in a common measure (usually $) Note that we have ways of quantifying non-market,
even non-use values. Common metric need not be $ -- e.g., health- health
analysis, with health as metric E.g., consider a regulation that saves lives Benefits directly measured in terms of lives saved Costs indirect: costs increase deaths since lower
incomes lead to higher mortality ($13 million in extra costs results in 1 statistical death)
• E.g., Compare risks in lower and higher income countries Compare projects based on net effects on health.
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When to do CBA?
Need to compare reg’s to achieve externally defined social goals – CEA
Need to set a level of a reg, balancing pluses and minues: CBA
Need to decide on a project with multiple goals that cannot be reduced to a single metric: multi-goal analysis
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Example – issue is how big
Project size, Q. Benefits = B(Q)Costs = C(Q)
Maximize Net Benefits, B(Q)-C(Q) Ignore issue for time being of how to
quantify B(Q) and C(Q)
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TB(Q)
TC(Q)
Q
$
Q
$Q*
TB(Q)-TC(Q)
One view ofthis problem:Maximize TB-TC
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TB(Q)
TC(Q)
Q
$
QMB(Q)
MC(Q)
$
Q* is whereTB-TC is maximized.Also where MB=MC.
Q*
xC
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Discrete sized projects
If deciding between projects A, B, CPick one with highest net benefits (TB-TC),
provided net benefits > 0. May have values that are difficult to
quantify.Quantify values you can, then compare
projects along as few dimensions as possible (“multi-criteria analysis”); examine tradeoffs between alternatives.
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Big Questions
How to measure/conceptualize benefits?
How to measure/conceptualize costs? How to treat costs and benefits that
occur at different points in time? How to deal with distributional issues? How to deal with risk?
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Question #1: Conceptualizing Benefits
Suppose a river is dead, what is the value of reducing pollution by one unit?
What is the value of increasing visual range by a unit in the West?
How do we value the extra units of electricity?
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Basic measure of value is willingness-to-pay
Demand curve is marginal willingness to pay
Quantity of water
MWTP First units very valuable
Last units less valuable
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Consumers Surplus (CS)
D(x)
x
$
q
p
CS(q)
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How are benefits calculated?
Demand, D(x), measures MB.Consumers Surplus is the total benefit
to consumers minus their cost.
q
pqdxxDqCS0
)()(
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Example – gross value of water from new dam (excluding costs)
Acre-feet of water
Price
Demand for water
New dam
. . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . .. .
. . . . . . .
Add’l Value
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What about nonmarket goods?
Air quality
Price
Suppose there were a market:
Demand for air quality
BUT, NO MARKET: price similar to MWTP
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Environmental goods
Demand for env goods just as real as demand for market goods – just harder to measure
Demand is a measure of intensity of preferences
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Costs are simpler
Some units are cheap to produce “Marginal” units are most expensive Costs consist of
Fixed costsMarginal costs
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Marginal costs plus fixed costs add up to total costs
Quantity
MC
First units cheapest
Last units pricey
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Costs come in different flavors:Private, external and social
In principle, need to capture all costs and benefits.
Social costs may exceed private costs.
Difference is the “external cost” – the monetized cost of the externality.
$/gal
GallonsOf Gasoline
MPC
Q0
P0
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Social vs. Private Costs
In principle, need to capture all costs and benefits.
Social costs may exceed private costs.
Difference is the “external cost” – the monetized cost of the externality.
$/gal
GallonsOf Gasoline
MPCMEC
Q0
P0
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Social vs. Private Costs
In principle, need to capture all costs and benefits.
Social costs may exceed private costs.
Difference is the “external cost” – the monetized cost of the externality.
$/gal
GallonsOf Gasoline
MSC
MPCMEC
Q*
P*
Q0
P0
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Producer Surplus (PS)
x
$
p
q
PS(q)
MC(x)
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How are costs calculated?
Supply, S(x), is same thing as MC.Producer Surplus is the total revenue
to producers minus their cost.
q
dxxSpqqPS0
)()(
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Put it together
Q
P
. . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Surplus
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Where is CS+PS maximized?
Demand, D(x)
Supply, S(x)
q1 q*
p
x
$CS
PS
Tension: Too little producedAt too high price. CS low, PS high
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Suppose goods supplied in fixed amount
Land
Price Supply of land
Producer surplus (goes to land owners)
Consumer surplus
Demand for land
MarketPrice
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If captured all costs & benefits
Then we want to maximize CS + PS which would occur where Supply = Demand.
Challenge is to capture all costs and benefits to accurately measure MC & MB.
NoteSurplus Max equals CS+PS maximum
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First Theorem of Welfare Economics
In a competitive marketSurplus is maximized at a market equilibrium
ImplicationsCan rely on market if we are sure of
competitive market
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Example: Add a dam
Q Water
P:rice
Supply of water increases; price falls.What happens to PS? CS?
XXXXXXXXXXXX $$$$$##################
PS: Before: # and X After: X and $
CS: ??
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Implicit Assumptions: Distribution
Distributional consequences ignored Put in dam: some win, some lose Benefits cancel losses OK if compensation occurs
Compensation Principle Dam is good idea if winners can compensate
losers If there is enough surplus, dam is a good idea BUT, compensation need not occur
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Implicit Assumptions: Income
Restaurant meals
Price
Y=$30,000 per year
Y=$50,000 per year
Demand and thus surplus depend on income distribution
Therefore: Change in income distribution will change results of CBATO USE CBA, MUST BELIEVE INCOME DISTRIBUTION IS OK
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Implicit Assumptions: Completeness
What happens with difficult to monetize benefits?E.g., clear view of Santa Cruz Islands
Difficult to monetize benefits often omitted
Results in bias against environmental benefits
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Implicit Assumptions: Other
Moral and political dimensions omittedShould we do a cost-benefit analysis
on executing someone who has committed a crime?
Are there other issues when lives are at stake?
Are intergenerational issues adequately treated by CBA?
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Ten Steps to doing and using a CBA
1. Decide whose benefits and costs count 2. Select the portfolio of alternative projects 3. Catalog potential physical impacts and determine how they are
measured 4. Predict quantitative physical impacts over life of project 5. Monetize (or other metric) all impacts 6. Discount for time to find present values 7. Sum: add up all benefits and costs 8. Perform sensitivity analysis 9. Choose alternative with largest social benefits 10. Make policy recommendation, using CBA only as part of guidance 11. Identify limitations specific to your analysis