Modern History

Core: World War I 1914-1919

Penina Su

War on the Western Front

The reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front

The Schlieffen Plan

G. military mobilisation plans (1905) if there was war against F. and R. simultaneously. o Felt dangerously encircled by 1914 – ‘war on two fronts’

‘Paris will fall in six weeks and then let’s go and defeat Russia.’o F. army could be defeated much more quickly.

Smaller in both land and army size. Quick to mobilise due to a more advanced economy and better railway

network.o R. army would take a long time to defeat.

Enormous in both land and army size. Longer to mobilise due to a more backward economy and limited railway

system. Invasion proceeds through northeast Belgium and southern Netherlands (ideal terrain) with

great speed, swing towards the west of Paris and then capture Paris – hammer swing. Meanwhile G. positions in the east holding off a possible F. attack – hinge.

o G. advance must be rapid + quick (before F. mobilisation)o Danger – would almost certainly involve war with Britain (Treaty of London 1839)o Modifications by Moltke

G. troops would not move through the Netherlands (trade between G. and the Netherlands would continue through the war.)

Restricted to a narrow area & bottleneck likely to form at Liege. Weakened hammer swing to strengthen the hinge.

More difficult to reach the west of Paris

Failure of the Schlieffen Plan Delay at Liege

o Allowed the Belgians and the French time to mobilise. Moltke lost his nerve.

o Diverted more troops away from the hammer-swing to the hinge.o Sent troops to the Eastern Front.

Unexpectedly strong resistance by the Belgians. o Slowed down G. advance.o Allowed the BEP to cross the Channel to get into position.

Moltke ordered his forces to swing round to the east of Paris. o Exposed the right flank of the G. force.

Plan Seventeen French military strategic plan implemented by Joffre

o Centred on the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine

Based on a series of false assumptionso British had not been informed of Plan Seventeen; no prior cooperation with the

British.o Relied upon rapid Russian moves in the easto Approached warfare from an old-fashioned standpoint.

Offensive warfare which was foiled by the development of deadly defensive weapons.

o Left Franco-Belgium border virtually undefended.

The Battle of the Marne (September 1914)

As Moltke realised his hammer swing could not make it to the west of Paris, he ordered his troops to move east of the French capital.

o Kluck’s First Army was vulnerable as its right flank was exposed.o When Kluck retreated when he realised the danger, he created a gap between his

army and von Bulow’s. B. and F. troops prepared to move into this gap and encircle Kluck’s army.

Faced in this situation, High Command ordered a general retreat from the River Marne to the River Aisne.

o They dug in (1st example of trench warfare)o Still maintained belief in rapid end of the war. o Failure of the Schlieffen Plan.

Saved France from defeat & halted G. advance. Ensured the establishment of the trench system.

The Race to the Sea (September – November 1914)

Both series attempted a series of outflanking movements (race to the sea). o To get around the back of the enemy’s forces. o Gain control of the Channel ports.

Did not achieve the breakthrough. As each outflanking action failed, troops dug into positions. Came to the end in October – November 1914 with the First Battle of Ypres.

o Technical British victory as the Germans had been denied the French Channel ports. o Marked the creation of the Western Front.

Line of trenches that stretched from the English Channel to the Swiss frontier.

The Reasons for the Development of the Stalemate

The Schlieffen Plan Too much reliance on the speed of movement.

o Unexpectedly strong resistance by F. and B. o G. assumption that Russian troops would attack in 8+ weekso ‘War by timetable’ unrealistic

Commanders were not prepared to commit themselves fully to the Plan. o Weakened hammer swing + exposed flank Battle of the Marne ended

Schlieffen Plan. Invasion of Belgium involvement of the British. Failure to win ‘race to the sea’ lines of communication between F. and B. remained open. Plan of the defensive strategy G. army was not prepared for.

Plan Seventeen Underestimated force of G. army & assumed that they would not launch attack through

Belgium. Failure to coordinate effectively w/ British & Belgians attempted offensive was too weak

and disjointed to be effective. Too much attention was paid to the doctrine of the offensive. Level of officer training was poor. Belgium and British maintained only small professional armies.

Tactical and Strategic Problems The education and training of the generals had them convinced that simple strategies and

moral fortitude would overcome any obstacles. Nature of modern battlefield made attack more likely to fail.

o Morale could overcome the advantages of defensive fire. o Underestimated the ability of machine guns and defensive artillery. o Abandoned tactics of movement because they believe mass armies lacked the ability

to work. ‘Dishonourable’ way to fight.

Movement when off-rail was slow and hindered. Commanders were incapable of successfully pursuing an offensive. There was serious conflict between French and his subordinate generals. Von Moltke was unsuitable for the pressures of command and his replacement, von

Falkenhayn, believed in a longer period of defence while preparing for a great offensive (at least one year would be required to accumulate the necessary resources.)

Problems in Communication High Commands of both sides were situated many kilometres behind the fighting.

o Delay between 24 and 48 hours was not uncommon (messages out-of-date). Reactions and orders commander gave were often vague. Front-line officers had difficulties interpreting these orders resulting in

confusion. Problems of communication between the BEP and the French. Delay and confusion on the battlefield.

o Almost impossible for infantry and artillery to maintain telephone communications. Could not improvise according to situation.

The nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers.

Nature of trench warfare

Attrition Warfare All the great offensives on the Western Front proved to be shocking failures – result was that

war became one of attrition.o Wearing down the enemy to a state of exhaustion.

The armies moved no more than a few kilometres either way.o Trenches were dug deeper and strengthened.o Protected in front by several kilometres of barbed wire and supported behind by

lines of reserve. Nearly impossible to attack such defences successfully. Attempts cost the lives of millions of men.

Battles had two stages.1. Huge artillery bombardment with the intention of destroying the enemy’s dugouts,

barbed-wire and machine gun posts.2. Then, in great waves, the infantry would cross no-man’s land between the lines of

trenches, to attack the enemy. Method seldom had much success.

o It could not be done secretly (too many logistics) and the enemy had plenty of warning.

o Trenches were too deep for the men to be killed by shellfire. o Shells turned no-man’s land into a swamp.

Soldiers moved slowly and became easy targets for the machine-gunners. Soldiers also had to carry 60 pound packs.

o The machine gun would hold off hundreds of attacking infantry.o Artillery attacks often threw barbed wire up in the air. It then fell in a tangled mess

that was sometimes almost impossible to get through.

The Trenches As the front stabilised at the end of 1914 and into 1915, they were seen as temporary.

o Meant to house the mean before the big offensive of the knockout blow. Took on an air of permanency and were strengthened.

o As a general rule, G. Trenches were stronger and solid as the British maintained a firm belief in the cult of the offensive.

More elaborate, better built and maintained. Offered deep protection during bombardments. Had the pick of better ground – the high ground.

Features of the trenches;o 7-8 feet deep and 6-7 feet wide.

Front-line trench where troops positioned themselves for launching an attack on the enemy, or awaited an attack.

o Supported by observation posts and machine-gun nests.

Reserve trenches reinforcements would wait to be called up to the front line. Connecting the two was a series of communications trenches. No-man’s land varied in length; could be 8-10 kilometres wide but in other places it could be

as narrow as 50 metres. o Full of deep crates (artillery) and muddy.

The Weaponry of World War I

Dominated by rapid technological advancements. o Existing weapons were made to operate more quickly, accurately and effectively. o New weapons were also introduced.

Weaponry of World War IThe Rifle

- By 1914, it became absolutely deadly; could shoot accurately and quickly to up to 1000m. The Machine Gun

- Excellent defensive weapon; key on the Western Front. Artillery

- Prime purpose: soften up enemy trenches and attack heavily fortified positions. - Tactics increased in sophistication as the war progressed (‘Creeping barrage’ etc.)

Aircraft- Proved very useful for reconnaissance of enemy positions. - By 1916, aerial dogfights became common as the flimsily built planes tried to maintain air

supremacy. Gas

- Prime purpose: clear the trenches, thus allowing attacking troops to advance and take the enemy position.

- Could have horrific effects on the men at the front; gradually defence against gas developedThe Tank

- Arguably the key technological development. - Its increasingly effective use was important factors in the Allied victory. - Took several years to achieve its potential and to be accepted by wartime commanders; by

1917, Allied commanders were beginning to understand the potentials of the tank.

Life in the Trenches

Initially very popular (nationalistic and patriotic fervour) The media betrayed little of the horror and squalor of the war

o Carefully doctored pieces of propaganda aimed to show the noble Tommy. However, lives in the trenches ranged from moments of utter fear and terror to weeks of

utter boredom. The commanders rarely ventured anywhere near the front.

o Remained ignorant of the true nature of war. o Savoured the delights of vintage French wine and cuisine. o Increased distant between commanders and private and increased the resentment

felt by the men at the front.

Mud Men in the trenches never became used to the mud.

o Affected their whole existence

Sickness and disease Trenches were muddy and full of water. Led to ‘trench foot’ painful swelling of the feet caused by constant immersion in wanter.

o Led to gangrene, which led to amputation. Water also soon developed into a putrid concoction of human and military detritus.

o At the height of the battle, men had no choice but to urinate and excrete where they stood.

Diarrhoea and dysentery were common ailments. Decomposing bodies were allowed to float on the surface of the water until a safe time

could be found to deal with them.o Bought on sickness and disease

Poor sanitation and often limited medical facilities led to a high rate of infection gangrene.

Lice Bred voraciously and proved resistant to all forms of control. Constant biting forced men to scratch continually.

o Caused skin to break and sores to develop. Dangerous boils, impetigo and ulcers could develop.

Rats Known as ‘trench rats’ or ‘corpse rats’ Often the size of small dogs. Fed on the dead and food that was left out.

Gas Gangrene Soils of northern France contain manure that has a bacillus in it.

o Bacterium that produces spores (germ cells) in the presence of oxygen. o When it becomes into contact with a wound, causes a condition called ‘gas

gangrene’

The Cold Impossible to escape and no amount of additional clothing were able to keep it out. Frostbite affected many men.

The Psychological Angle Major short- and long-term psychological effects. Majority of soldiers were alien to the violence and savagery of battle.

o Suddenly had to cope with the incessant din of artillery barrage, the sight of human flesh torn apart and the stench of the sickening cocktail of a trench’s content.

Shell Shock Caused by the stresses created by the nature of war.

o Some become violent and angry.o Some turned inwards and refused to communication.o Some would gaze blankly.o Some would shake, mumble and slobber.

Generals thought that it was an ‘excuse for cowardice’ and that there was no such thing called shell shock.

For some, the trauma left them once they returned to civilian life. For others it stayed with them forever.

Food In theory the British were well fed; but men often received less than half of that. Ration allocations were rare: food was stolen, lost or spoiled in transit. Quality of rations was poor. G. army suffered shortages because of the Allied blockade. Officers ate far better than the men of other ranks.

Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele.

Tactics and Strategies to break the stalemate

1. Battlefront Achieve ‘big push’ to capture enemy territory

o Verdun 1916 (G.-led), the Somme 1916 (British-led), Passchendaele 1917 (British-led), Spring Offensives 1918 (G.-led), Allied Counter-Offensive 1918 (Allied-lied)

2. Campaigns beyond the Western Front Open other fronts weaken the enemy’s overall war capability

o Gallipoli 1915 (British-led) to knock Turkey out and resupply Russia through the Dardanelles; open front in Austria had to move/split their armies.

3. Naval Blockades G. conducted submarine warfare U-Boats sinking Allied shipping carrying supplies usually

from US to Britain. British blockade of G. – communication 1914

o All merchants + naval shipping unable to get in/out of German ports. ‘Chock them into submission’ – rations, with no supplies, no food, rubber, steel but also led

to innovations.

4. Peace Initiatives Strikes early in the war by pacifists and socialists (but German socialists joined the war). Negotiations between G. and Allies in 1917 for peace along Wilson’s 14 Points. Papal peace note call to peace by Pope of the time.

Battle Fronts

Verdun (February – November 1916) General Falkenhayn shared the view that the war would be lost or won on the Western

Front.o Did not expect a quick breakthrough but rather, policy of attrition.

Strategy was to wear down the French to the point of exhaustion (‘bleed them white’)

Not defeat, but to annihilate France. Classic policy of attrition.

Verdun had no strategic value for Germany or France.o It had great symbolic importance to France, having been the site of great battles in

the past. Later, became the symbol of French resistance, the epitome of the national

will not to surrender, a sacred city. ‘Ils ne passeront pas’ – Petain. Estimated that almost the entire French Army served in the defence

of the town. Both sides hurled 10 million shells at each other. Became the killing fields not only for French soldiers, but also G. soldiers.

o 500 000 Allies casualties and 400 000 G. casualties. By mid-December the battle was over and Verdun remained French.

The Somme (July – November 1916) British generals had an unwavering belief in ‘the offensive’.

o Believed war would be won by launching massive attacks on the G. positions. The Somme campaign was the brainchild of General Douglas Haig.

o Original intention was to break through the G. lines decisively.o However, he changed his aims during the campaign and doctored his diary to cover

up this failure and said the intentions were to; Relieve pressure on the French at Verdun, Prevent G. from transferring troops to the east to fight Wear down G. forces (attrition)

Those at High Command would not accept any criticism of their plans.o Belief that pre-battle artillery barrage would be so effective that the troops would be

able to simply walk across no-man’s land. o Rawlison gave orders that his men should ‘walk’ across no-man’s land.

Indicated upper-class view that the recruits of Kitchener’s new army were of lower class, and incapable of anything but obeying basic instructions.

More than 1.6 million shells were fired during the last week of June & on 30 June, 400 000 shells were dropped.

o Totally ineffective. Most of the shells were shrapnel shells that did little to harm the barbed

wire.

G. dugouts were so deep and so sturdy that they were able to withstand the bombardment.

British attack began at 7:30 am on 1 July. o Clear, perfect summer’s day.o 60 000 British casualties that day.

By November, 8 kilometres of territory had been gained. o Total number of casualties – 1 million; 620 000 British + French, 420 000 G.

Passchendaele Campaign (July – November 1917) Had several objectives;

o Relieve the French who suffered major losses in 1917 and who were still reeling from the mutinies of year.

o Plan to capture the Belgian ports of Ostende and Zeebrugge.o Further wearing down of the G. army.

Delayed – missed optimal weather and gave Germans time to dig in. o Men & artillery moved into place while Germans constructed the Hindenburg Line.

Each side tried to gain artillery supremacy. o Destruction of Flanders’ drainage system. Destroyed barriers for ground water to

stop flooding up. ‘Flanders Mud’ Transformed battlefields into a swamp.

Completely demoralising – no stable ground. Continual winter/autumnal rains.

By the end of the battle;o Belgian ports had not been captured. o Allies had taken territory & could claim a victory

But Germans could afford concede land and gains provided no opportunity for further advance.

o Allied and G. casualties reached up to 400 000 on each side.

Tanks Britain began the development of the tank in 1915.

o Original aim to use them as land battleships to destroy machine-guns. Originally terrifying to the Germans but they adapted quickly. Premature and incorrect tactical use early in the war.

o Engines were not powerful enough to move through mud and slow speed easy targets for grenades.

Wasn’t until Allied Counter-Offensive 1918 first successful use.o British tanks were importance factors in turning the tide of the war.

Broke the morale of the Germans.

Campaigns beyond the Western Front

Most Allied leaders believed war could only be won on the Western Front. Still tried to break the stalemate with attacks in other theatres of war.

o Attack the Central Power’s ‘soft underbelly’ – G. allies in south-eastern Europe (Turkey, Serbia and Bulgaria).

Turkey – Gallipoli campaign 1915.

Naval Blockades

From the outset of the war, Britain imposed a tight naval blockade on G.o Prevented the importation of essential food and supplies of raw materials. o Running out of supplies; significant strains were appearing by late 1916.

G.’s naval attempt to break the stalemate unrestricted submarine warfare. o Deny Britain its essential food and raw material.

Britain faced serious shortages on the home-front.o Bought the United States into the war.

Changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time

Changing Attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over timeBritain Germany

Early Response

- Early response of the war was overwhelming supportive and excited. - Nationalistic fervor – believed in Britain’s eternal glory.- Expected a very short war – ‘over by Christmas’ Ignorance of the British people (Few had any knowledge of the nature of warfare. )- Propaganda romanticized military conflict. Matter of good vs. evil (Evil G., Innocent Belgium etc.)Britain was duty-bound to come to Belgium’s assistance. - Sincere, deep-seating acceptance of the notions of patriotism, love of the empire, respect for the King, belief in God and honour.- Most sought paternal respect- Saw the maintenance of the British Empire as God’s work ‘doing one’s bit’- Economic appeal – first regular-paying job in years.- Peer pressure. - Desire to impress the ‘fair sex’ Government keenly used women in recruiting propaganda.

- Early response to the war mirrored that of the rest of Europe.- Massive and widespread enthusiasm for a ‘short and exciting adventure’- Patriotism, honour, duty, peer pressure, impressing the girls, a steady income. G. was being encircled by the Entente powers (defensive war).

Response post-1916

- Patriotic fervor had all but disappeared.- The reality of the trenches had greatly

- Also changed.- Food shortages created havoc in both

changed the attitude of the men at the front.- Futility of the war, the senseless and massive slaughter that each new battle bought major effect on troop morale.- Turning point – Battle of the Somme. - Enormous loss of life and never-ending lists of wounded, physical and psychological, could not be kept from the public at home. - The overall effect of two years of futility was the appearance of disillusionment and war-weariness. - Soldiers coming home with injuries + war stores, some not coming home at all. - Soldiers lost faith in their generals, cynical about what the generals knew about the front. - End of the war relief and resignation.

the home-front and on the front.- Developed the same feelings of disillusionment and war-weariness. - Mutiny at Kiel by late 1918. - G. itself underwent political upheaval.- The Kaiser was overthrown and exiled, and a revolutionary socialist government took its place.

The Home-fronts in Britain and Germany

Total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

Total war is a military conflict in which nations mobilize all available resources in order to destroy another nation’s ability to engage in war.

It involves:o Government control over the means of production and communication of the

nation’s resources.o Government direction of the nation’s labour force.o The mobilisation of previously unused resources. o Government control over non-economic areas of control (censorship etc.).

Result of the war of attrition. Civilian population behind the lines were directly and critically involved in the war

(unprecedented in history) – extension of the role of the government in both the economic and social life of its civilians.

Germany

Failure of the Schlieffen Plan + blockade imposed by the Royal Navy = G. accepted the need for total war from 1914.

o Blockade isolated G. from outside supplies of raw materials and food, and forced the G. Govt to take drastic measure to achieve economic self-sufficiency.

Pre-war G. depended on intl’ trade; took away 80% of G. export markets. G. lacked the resources required to fight a prolonged war – experience

chronic shortages of raw materials. Unprecedented levels of government intervention in the economy.

o 1914 – Walter Rathenau set up a War Raw Materials Department (KRA). System of centralised control over G. industry and determined war

production. Key raw materials were declared emergency materials and placed

under KRA control. o Industrial competition was replaced by industrial

coordination. Raw material companies were set up to commandeer raw materials and

allocate them to manufacturers working on government contracts. o 1916 – Weapons and Munitions Procurement Agency (WUMBA) – built two plants of

its own to produce nitrates needed for agriculture and explosives. Shortages were met by using the resources of occupied countries or by producing ersatz

(substitute) goods. o G. chemists extracted nitrogen from the air (nitrogen used for manufacture of

explosives; supplies from Chile cut off).

o 1918 – G. produced synthetic rubber. Food shortages became a critical problem for Germany due to naval blockade, exacerbated

by the failure of the harvest in 1916. o Increasing demand for military shortage of raw materials for consumer goods. o 1915 – Imperial Grain Office was set up to cope with food shortages.

Government took control of the grain and milling business, controlled supplies and set up a system of rationing.

o 1916 – War Food Office established – instituted over 250 different regulations. o By 1918 – 258 laws that imposed restrictions on civil liberties.

294 000 deaths in Germany were attributed to the combined effects of starvation and the naval blockade.

Unprecedented regulation of industrial labour as so many men was serving in the army. o 1916 – National Service Law placed every male from age 17-60 under the control of

the Minister for War to work at any job which was deemed necessary to the war effort.

o 1916 – Auxiliary Services Law restricted worker ability to change employment. Dramatic political consequence;

o Prior to 1914, the Social Democrats were on the rise; called for more liberalism and less authoritarianism.

o The position of the Kaiser and Chancellor deteriorated and both lost real political power.

o The military team of Hindenburg and Ludendorff became the real rulers of Germany; directed G. military strategy and took all the major political decisions, not only in foreign policy but also in such aspects of domestic policy such as food supply and labour management.

Rule as a team and were unhindered by any opposition (military dictatorship.)

Britain

Under the pressure of total war, British economy became a centrally controlled and highly regulated economy (complete opposite to traditional laissez-faire approach).

o 1914 – Defence of the Realm Act allowed the government to assume special powers in order to conduct the war.

Suspended civil rights and put Britain under virtual martial law; police given the right to stop and question citizens and suspects could be imprisoned immediately – gradually expanded over time.

Gave government the power to buy goods at rock-bottom prices and to requisition all forms of transport ranging from ships to cars and horses.

o 1915 – Munitions of War Act gave government the power to control factories engaged in war production and to set up munitions factories of its own (due to shortage of artillery shells).

Leaving Certificate – those employed in the munitions factories could not leave their jobs without one.

o By end of the war, the government had taken over and ran the nation’s docks and harbours, its shipping and the British railway system; took possession of Britain’s 3000 privately owned coal mines.

High level of government intervention to pay for the war effort. o All foreign bonds and shares owned by British citizens were seized and sold off on

overseas markets; owners of these bonds reimbursed in British currency and the govt used the foreign currency it acquired to purchase goods abroad.

o Increased taxation greatly. o Resorted to massive borrowing, particularly from the US.

British living standards did not collapse as they did eventually in Germany due to direct government intervention in employer-union relations which maintained wage levels.

o Poor harvest in 1916 + panic buying + Germany’s submarine campaign food restrictions introduced and government encouraged thrift in early 1917.

Board of Agriculture established a special Food Production Department which directed agricultural production.

o Despite increase in food production, shortages still persisted and the price of staple foods continued to rise – price controls were introduced in late 1917.

o 1918 – Rationing system was introduced to ensure an equal supply of food for all. Large political influence;

o War and divisions within the ranks of the Liberals, allowed the British Labour Party to expand rapidly.

Labour Party consistently opposed the war; effect of broadening the party’s electoral appeal.

Upon the General Election of 1918, the Labour Party made spectacular gains, becoming the official opposition.

Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany

Britain

Recruitment and Conscription

Early recruitment efforts No historical tradition of a large standing army or conscription in Britain. Recruiting committees were established around the country.

o During the early months of the war, little problem encouraging men to join up. All shared the belief that the war would probably be over by Christmas and

so there was a need to volunteer quickly to avoid missing the action. Great competition to enter the ranks; army set high physical standards.

By 1915 – 1 mil had joined up (known as Kitchener’s army). o As losses amounted on the war front, enlistment declined in 1916.

Tough physical standards were gradually removed. As enlistment efforts fell, recruitment campaigns became more radical.

o Propaganda posters aimed specifically at women were produced. o Failure to enlist implied cowardice or lack of cowardice.

o Sports clubs and professional football associations were used effectively to promote recruitment; men in the crowd were encouraged to join up and follow those professional players who were enlisting.

Conscription Despite efforts, voluntary system was failing; compulsory enlistment would be needed. 1916 – First Military Service Act called up all single men and childless widowers aged 18-40.

o Great confusion and trouble over whom should be called up and anger over the exempting of married men.

May 1916 – Second Military Service Act; conscription was introduced – all men were liable regardless of marital status were placed under the government.

o Those not forced to join the armed forces could be directed to work in essential industries.

Conscientious Objectors 16 000 men registered as conscientious objectors during the war.

o For reasons of conscience or a moral revulsion, they would not submit to being conscripted.

Vast majority of the population either supported the war or were at least willing to accept the demands the war made upon them for the good of King and country.

o Conscientious Objectors slackers, traitors, cowards. Dealt with inconsistently at local tribunals; general treatment was severe.

Censorship and Propaganda

Propaganda aims at presenting an accepted view of an issue, censorship aims at preventing the other side of the issue being presented.

Purpose Start of the war; promote patriotic support for the war and to encourage men to enlist.

o Emphasised G. responsibility for the war, concentrated on the plight of poor Belgium and made much of alleged G. war atrocity, justifying British involvement.

From 1916 – tone of propaganda changed. o Greater emphasis placed on the need to maintain national sacrifice and unity on the

home-front in the front of growing war-weariness. Also used to;

o Obtain the support of neutral states. o To promote conservation of scarce resources. o Encourage participation in wartime occupations. o Encourage women to work. o To create awareness of possible German spy activities inside Britain.

Methods and Content of Propaganda Has to be simple and appeal to a low intellectual level; no need for logic or information.

Content of Propaganda1. Images of the other side

- Barbarian/Hun; Animal-like/beastly; Evil/Atrocity etc. 2. Images of War

- An adventure, a manly pursuit, sportsmanship, God on our side, moral “rightness” of war.

Methods of Propaganda1. Propaganda uses stereotypes

- Belief in absolutes; no kind Germans existed – propaganda depicted all Germans as savage barbarians who rapes women, murder priests and throw babies etc.

2. Proper names should not be used- Labels make more effective cartoon caricatures; Germans are ‘Huns’, ‘the Boche’ or ‘the enemy’. - Dehumanising the enemy.

3. Propagandists are selective in their use of material (CENSORSHIP)- Defeats have to be ignored or minimised, and victories played up. - Appeal to emotions and attitudes prevalent at the time.

4. Propaganda frequently lies. - Victories can be concocted and German atrocities invented.

5. Effective propaganda is repetitive- “The bigger the lie and the more frequently it is repeated, the more likely it will be believed.”- Slogans are used to great effect. - Use of symbolism e.g. angels.

6. Propaganda makes strong assertions- No need for them to be backed up by evidence!- Simplification of issues (democracy vs autocracy, good vs evil etc.)

Organisation of Propaganda

June 1917 – National War Aims Committee. o Aim = Produce propaganda that would overcome potential war-weariness that the

government feared might develop as the war dragged on; sought to limit bad news with censorship (such as the film The Battle of the Somme.)

British government realised the value of propaganda and its interest and involvement in promoting propaganda increased as the war went on.

Media used for Propaganda Pre-radio and pre-television, newspapers were of vital importance for spreading

propaganda; all the various aspects of the newspaper were used to build up the propaganda machine.

o Cartoons were very powerful. Germans could be stereotyped most effectively with a propaganda cartoon.

o Photographs were also used.

Beginning - Secret War Propaganda

Bureau

1917-1918 - Department of

Information

1918-end - Ministry of Information

Shots could often be rigged and placed in the wrong context to insinuate things.

o Newspaper writer were very careful to use inspiring language. Friends comrades, enemy foe, men in danger men in peril. War stories were written up in a Boy’s Own Annual adventure style to make

light of the dangers of war and maintain home-front support. o Developed the atrocity story into an art form.

No crime was seen as too awful for ‘the Hun’ to commit. o Germans often did make it easy for British newspapers to develop their propaganda

stories with incidents such as the sinking of the Lusitania etc. Billboard posters were a potent form of propaganda.

o Message was kept simple and aimed to play on the emotions – seeped into the popular consciousness.

Movie theatres and film became a new medium of propaganda.

Impact of Propaganda Violent anti-German actions across Britain; German shops and homes were attacked and

firebombed and German residents in Britain were attacked on the street. Changing the name of German shepherd dogs to Alsatians; Royal family changed name from

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor, Prince Louis de Battenburg changed his name to Mountbatten.

Far more effective than its German counterpart.

Germany

Recruitment and Conscription

Not necessary in Germany; conscription had been accepted for decades. Early days; no need to resort to conscription to fill its armed forces.

o Enormous enthusiasm swept G., many men wanted to join for similar reasons to the British.

Fed romantic notions of service and chivalry for decades, complete lack of understanding of the horrors of modern warfare.

Government later increased its control over the population with a series of other laws, including the Auxiliary Services Law in 1916.

Propaganda

Same techniques of propaganda used as the British though less effective.

Anti-British Propaganda In many ways echoed British propaganda but had its own distinctive features.

o Major difference was that German propaganda did not have to promote recruitment No need on men to do their duty/not to let their mates down etc.

Early German propaganda took on a severely anti-British tone. o German people were encouraged to hate the English and to drive things English

from their lives; extended to all aspects of life.

o As life became increasingly difficult on the home-front, the German authorities were keen to promote anti-English feeling and blame hard times on the impact of the British naval blockade.

Defensive German Propaganda Defensive in tone. Did face a problem encountered by British and French propagandists – German propaganda

worked to justify the actions of the German government in invading Belgium and France. o Official line = G’s invasion of Belgium and France, according to the Schlieffen Plan,

was a defensive response to the aggression it was facing from Britain, France and Russia. Much was made of the alleged circlement of G. by the Entente Powers.

This encirclement sought the destruction of G power and that G’s pre-emptive actions in August 1914 were defensive responses to aggressive Allied intentions.

German soldiers were thus presented as heroes, defending the Fatherland from invasion and destruction – shedding the blood of heroes, dying the deaths of heroes for the sake of the Fatherland.

Censorship G propaganda was not always as effective as British propaganda but what the German

authorities lacked in propaganda skills, they made up for in censorship. o G people believed they were winning the war right to end of 1918.

Not only information from the front that was tightly controlled; authorities also tried to ban any discussion of peace moves in the press.

o German people never told about the peace demonstrations, any international efforts to broker peace (Stockholm Peace Conference, Papal Peace Note).

o Denied information about low troop morale, casualties and desertions.

Organization of Propaganda and the Press One of the main reasons why G. propaganda was less effective was the failure of the G.

authorities to properly organize it. o War of attrition which places an intolerable burden upon the people, both at home

and at the front, the maintenance of moral is crucial. British understood this, Germans did not.

No G. ministry of propaganda/regulatory body; instead, military had its own service called German War News.

o Reliance was on the military to develop and communicate propaganda material which placed increased burden on G authorities.

o Military preferred to exclude the middle-class newspaper proprietors, many of whom were Jewish unlike the British which pushed anti-G propaganda from the start reduced its exposure to the ‘ordinary’ citizen.

G press was generally pro-war and indulged in the atrocity story. o Fabricated stories of vile British acts.

Effectiveness of German Propaganda G propaganda often differed in tone from its British counterpart.

o British propaganda was able to connect with the ordinary citizens. o G propaganda tended to use elitist figures such as intellectuals and military

authorities to transmit its message. Did not always connect with the ordinary G work or the non-Prussian.

Complex and highbrow in nature compared to the simple brutality of a British poster G propaganda was not effective in influencing international opinion – defence of German

culture was often mixed with racial prejudice.

The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany

Britain

Early response to the war Support for the war was almost universal, with the only opposition early on coming from

committed socialists and a few determined pacifists. o ‘Over by Christmas’, eagerness on the part of young men to volunteer and prove

themselves, a genuine patriotic support of the government and a feeling of euphoria across the country at the prospect of war.

Euphoria that swept the country in 1914 meant that opponents of the war stood little chance of airing their views.

Home-front support remained strong into 1915.

The appearance of opposition Not until the slaughters of 1916 and 1917 that any real doubts about and opposition to the

war appeared in both the troops and the home-front. o Troops sickened by the continual carnage and the futility of the war. o War-weariness developed as the casualty lists lengthened, shortages increased etc. o Rationing introduced and worker conditions deteriorated – longer work hours. o Zeppelin raids over eastern coastal cities – bought war to the home-front.

EVIDENCE = Introduction of conscription via Second Military Services Act of 1916. Early opposition to the war came from socialist groups such as the Herald League and the

Workers Socialist Foundation.o However the mainstream of socialism in all of the major countries continued to

support the efforts of the right-wing governments. Two loudest anti-war voices:

o Union of Democratic Control (UDC) – formed in 1914. o No Conscription Fellowship (NCF) – formed in 1915.

Mainly feminists, religious dissenters, socialists etc. Lack of growing opposition to the war very small number of conscientious objectors.

o Majority opposed pacifism and did not seek any moderation in British war aims. Series of international actions seeking to achieve peace:

o International Women’s Peace Party/Women’s International League of Great Britain. o 1917 – Papal Peace Note (came at a time when war-weariness was reaching its

height). Strikes were a major symptom of possible growing opposition to the war.

o 1917 – 688 strikes involving 860 000 workers. Not the result of opposition to the war itself but rather a protest against the

pressures the war had engendered (changing work practices, inflation etc.)o Lloyd George dealt with this by softening workplace relations, introducing measures

to help the workers and to satisfy women’s aspirations (promised them the vote). Ireland was a significant source of trouble for the British government (by 1914, verge on

civil war and demanded independence.)o Many Irish nationalists sought to use Britain’s difficulties on the Western Front as an

opportunity to remove British rule. 1916 Easter Uprising – British troops effectively put it down and at the same

time, many Irish people saw the rebels as traitors. HOWEVER, opposition to the war in Britain never achieved the level it did in other countries.

o Economic strain felt in Britain was far less than that experienced by other belligerents; ability of the navy to maintain an adequate supply of food supplies to the home-front.

o Lloyd George – government paid far greater attention to the needs of the home-front partnership between state and the unions.

o British propaganda was more effective in maintaining genuine support. o JM Winter highly disciplined industrial labour force (strong class-based nature of

British society – everyone knew their place).

Germany

Early response to the war Support for the war was like the rest of Europe; see above for British response. 1914 – Opposition to the war inside Germany was limited and mute.

o Many people supported the war + authoritarian nature of the government which kept a tight lid on dissent.

o Middle-class German Peace Society opposed the war – suffered repression and quickly disappeared + some religious and intellectual opposition.

Like the rest of Europe, German socialists dropped their prewar pacifist sentiments and belief in the international solidarity of the working class and supported the war.

Growth of opposition Feeling of war-weariness was quicker to develop and far stronger in Germany than Britain.

o War-weariness = longevity of a war that was supposed to be over in a few months + endless casualties + apparent futility of the whole business.

Shortages of almost everything + decreasing quality; rampant inflation; standard of living went down.

Anger at the deterioration of working conditions and the growing demands of the authorities on the workers.

o Unlike Britain, German authorities paid little attention to worker welfare. Growing discontent was reflected in the German press despite the government’s attempts at

censorship. 1916 – turning point in terms of opposition the war due to the ‘turnip’ winter of 1916 (large-

scale failure of the harvest meant that Naval Blockade was more widely felt).

Large-scale opposition did not crystallize until the second half of 1918. o German people were willing to put with up a great deal as long as there was a

chance of victory. Experienced far more and far larger strikes during the war than did Britain.

o 1916 – Civilian food riots in over 30 cities. Result of the shortages imposed on the German people by the war effort.

British naval blockade + diversion of available resources to the fighting fronts took their toll on popular support for the war.

o 1917 – 562 strikes involving 668 000 workers. o January 1918 – 1 million workers on strike.

Responded by imposing martial law and giving the ringleaders front-line duties.

Many strikes involved women and young workers. Became increasingly political/growing animosity between the classes in

German society. Working classes were fully aware that were doing more.

Anti-war movement remained a minority movement. o Wide political divisions re-emerged later in 1917.

Military hierarchy continually rejected constitutional changes that might undermine its power and shift authority to the Social Democrat-dominated civilian government.

Since 1916, Germany had effectively been a military dictatorship under Ludendorff and Hindenburg.

Almost constant state of unrest towards the end of the war abdication of the Kaiser.

o As the war went on and nearly reached its end, German support declined dramatically.

Transport system was on the point of collapse and inflation was increasing due to the inability to fund the war effort.

January 1918 – strike by 250 000 workers in Berlin. October 1918 – German fleet refused to take to sea.

The impact of the war on women’s lives and experiences in Britain

At first, government was no keen to mobilise women – wanted them to go to more appropriate pursuits of nursing and voluntary work.

Eventually became active in munitions, transport, agriculture and clerical industries. o Left domestic service, the traditional ‘women’s trades’ or unpaid housework to take

up such jobs. Saw the creation of women’s auxiliary organisations within the armed services. Wages + conditions did improve but did not achieve equality.

o At some factories women received 13 of the weekly wage of men.

Working women were regarded critically by many groups.

DEBATE: Did the war bring significant and long-lasting change in the lifestyles of women? Did it have a revolutionary effect on the lives of women and society’s perception of them?

o Some women received the vote, but was this because of the war?

Women and the Munitions Industry

July 1914 – 3.22 million women in the workforce January 1918 – 4.8 million. o Major part of the increase occurred in the munitions industry following Lloyd

George’s appointment as Munitions Minister in 1915. July 1918 – 80% of all British munitions were being produced by female

munitions workers, the munitionettes (mostly young, working-class). Replaced male workers who have left for the front. Conditions in the munitions factories were tough;

o Shifts were long (12-25 hours). o Work was very dangerous (200 munitionettes were killed). o Many women contracted TNT poisoning.

Despite that, no shortage of women willing to take their place in the munitions factories. o Pay was two to three times the domestic service.

Women outside of the Munitions Industry

At first the female contribution to the war came in the form of voluntary work. Nursing was seen as the most acceptable form of war work for middle- and upper-class

women. o At first, female requests to volunteer for nursing was not accepted by the

government. Soon the number of female nurses expanded to 23 000.

As danger of food shortages became acute; increasingly important to maintain and increase agricultural production – women took over the task of male agricultural workers who left for the trenches.

o 1917 – Women’s Land Army formed and by 1918, numbered 16 000. However, it was not popular; working-class women preferred to work in the

cities. o Farmers often resented having female workers.

Pay was low and the accommodation was poor. Entered a variety of other jobs, working as blacksmiths, gravediggers, managers and

ambulance drivers. Took on a variety of transport roles ranging from tram drivers to ticket collectors – to rail guards. Moved into offices and banks and worked as clerks and tellers.

o All jobs that were vacated by men who had left for the front. HOWEVER, some areas remained almost totally off limits to women.

o Tended not to work as train drivers, or in the iron and steel industry. Rarely worked in shipbuilding, accounting or architecture.

Women in the Armed Services

Women’s branches of the armed services were created; the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), the Women’s Royal Air Force (WRAF) and the Women’s Royal Naval Service (WRNS).

o Enabled women to take on non-combatant jobs, which freed up men for the front. WAAC – took on a variety of roles but were not given military status; enrolled not enlisted.

o Not disciplined in military ones, but civil ones; not given ranks but called officials. Women also became part of the police force during the war.

Women and the Trade Unions

Trade union representatives were not keen on the idea of women entering the workforce. o Fear that if unskilled women entered the factories, the status of skilled workers

would be permanently damaged. o Undercutting of men’s wages or displacement of men by women. o Ambivalent about the issue of pay; fought attempts at equal pay.

Existence of lower female pay made women more attractive to employers seeking to reduce costs.

Some women did unionise and did go on strike for better pay – by 1918, there were 383 trade unions that contained female members.

Stimulated women’s consciousness of their value?o View that once the war was over women would leave their jobs and return home

where they belonged.

The War and Female Suffrage

Before the war, women had been campaigning hard for suffrage but as soon as war had declared, the main suffragette movements suspended their campaigns and threw themselves into the war effort.

As a result of the vital role women played in the war, some argue that the government rewarded them by granting the vote to women (Representation of the People Act of 1918). BUT this view is not really supported by;

o Factors that had prevented the vote being given to women, such as WSPU violence and the opposition of Prime Minister Asquith had been removed by 1918.

o From 1916, Britain had a coalition government and so female suffrage was no longer a party issue.

o Worldwide trend towards female suffrage. o Act of Parliament that gave the women the vote was a very conservative measure.

Failed to enfranchise 5 million out of 11 million adult women.

The Social Impact of the War on Women

War certainly improved the position of women in society. o Gained greater self-respect and their contribution to the war effort was lauded by

people from Lloyd George down. o Press played up female patriotism.

o BUT, it is difficult to generalise about how women’s position in society changed as a result of the war.

Differences in age, class and geographical location all affected the impact of the war on women.

o Most war workers were working class but the majority of these women had been working before 1914.

War had a massive impact on middle-class women; freed them from the restraints of home.o Middle-class women were far more literate and so it was their accounts of wartime

experiences that tended to get into print – somewhat misleading. o One new group was new to work – married women.

War certainly did leave many women with a restless feeling – wanted to continue enjoying the better pay and the greater freedom they had known during the war.

o Loosening of attitudes in the 1920s reflects this. o Outward signs of their freedom were flaunted gaily; swearing, smoking, drinking etc. o Dress sense changed; long dresses, corsets went out of fashion.

Rationing + need for freedom due to working. HOWEVER, the traditional view that war had a revolutionary impact on women’s lives is far

too simplistic. o Most attention is placed on women’s work in the munitions industry BUT;

At the beginning of the war, female employment fell. Production of luxury textile products such as dresses and millinery

fell, and many households dismissed their domestic servants. Female employment in London fell 10% in October 1914. Most munitions workers had switched from another job (not a

sudden increase in female employment). Outside of the munitions industry little had changed; employers did

not want women workers. Union opposition to female workers for fear of impact on wages.

o Majority of women stayed at home during the war. After the war, women were encouraged to return to the home or to traditional female jobs.

o 1921 – Female employment rates were no higher than in 1914. o Restoration of Pre-War Practices Act – tried to take jobs from working-class women.

Turning Points

Impacts of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal

The entry of the United States into the War

Reasons for the American Entry Woodrow Wilson sought to maintain American neutrality.

o Believed it was a European war not requiring US intervention. o Elected on his declaration of non-involvement in the war.

Both sides used propaganda to influence American public opinion to support their cause. Issue of G. policy of unrestricted submarine warfare.

o Germans adopted policy of attacking all shipping heading towards Britain. US objected to the attacks of neutral US merchant ships entering European

waters. o 7 May 1915 – Germans sunk the Lusitania (124 Americans dead.)

US outraged. Germans announced an end to attacks on non-enemy vessels.

o February 1917 – resumption of unrestricted submarine war. Unprovoked attacks on American shipping. By late March, 35 Americans dead.

Zimmerman Telegrapho January 1917 – British intelligence intercepted telegram from the G. foreign minister

Zimmerman to the G. minister in Mexico. Suggested joint G.-Mexican action against the US by conquering New

Mexico, Arizona and Texas. Unrestricted submarine warfare + Zimmerman Telegraph = American declaration of war

upon Germany on 6 April 1917.

Impact of the American Entry into the War

Did not have an immediate military or economic impact. o Allies long relied on American industry for maintaining war effort; by 1817, the Allies

were no longer reliant on American imports.

By 1915, 13 of shells for British army were produced in the US.

Much of Lloyd George’s reorganization of munitions depended on American machine tools.

o Few US soldiers saw action until mid-1918. Little immediate impact on the actual combat and fighting.

Immediate impact on morale. o Allied morale jumped – feeling that the war would now be won. o G. morale plummeted;

Kaiser’s army now had to face the might of the world’s strongest economy.

Did not have the capacity to equal Allied troops who could now send unlimited numbers of fresh men to the front.

American navy had an immediate effect on the course of the war. o Cooperation between British and American naval forces = adoption of the convoy

system, deploying blimps and planes and executing a mine barrage across the North Sea to eradicate German dominance at sea.

Enabled American troops and supplies to cross the Atlantic safely. Mine barrage in North Sea = closed that exit to G. submarines.

Played a key role in the 1918 Allied counteroffensive. o Over 275 000 American troops in France by 1918 at the disposal of Foch. o American forces helped to block back the final surges of Ludendorff’s attacks.

Pivotal in winning the Second Battle of the Marne = G. defeat marked end of the G. offensive.

o Helped to break the Hindenburg Line in the Meuse-Argonne Battle in September-November 1918 (by then, American troops acted as an independent entity.)

The Russian Withdrawal from the War

Reasons for the Russian Withdrawal Main result of the failure of the Schlieffen Plan = Germany had to fight a two-front war.

o Division of resources – major factor that weakened the German war effort on the Western Front.

By the end of 1917, the Russian army was in a state of collapse. o Lack of supplies, food, ammunition = indiscipline, attacks on officers, mutiny and

widespread desertion. Internal political upheaval; abdication of the Tsar, overthrow of the Provincial Government

by Lenin. o Lenin knew that he needed to end the war with Germany to hold onto power.

First action of the new Bolshevik government = Decree on Peace. G. and Bolshevik regime agreed to peace terms in the Treaty of Brest Litovsk on 3 March

1918, ending the war on the Eastern Front. o Terms of the treaty were severe – indication of the potential loses of Allies in case of

German win. o Lenin willing to accept such drastic terms because he believed that his socialist

revolution in Russia would trigger other socialist revolutions across Europe.

Impact of Russia’s withdrawal from the War

In 1918, war was still at a stalemate. o US had yet to make any significant military contribution.

Ludendorff knew that the only chance Germany had of victory was to strike before the Americans arrived in great numbers.

o Withdrawal of Russia gave him ‘window of opportunity’; no longer had to fight a war on two fronts.

Able to transfer troops and supplies from the Eastern Front to the Western Front.

G. did however leave a large number of men on the Eastern Front in order to enforce a ‘predatory eastern policy.’ Russian withdrawal led to Ludendorff’s great gamble to finish the war with one last

mighty offensive. Brest Litovsk gave birth to Operation Michael.

Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive and the Allied response

German Spring Offensive (March – July 1918)

Reasons for the Spring Offensive Ludendorff thought longer war dragged on – great advantage Allies would gain; therefore he

would require a massive breakthrough. Needed to act before the full impact of the USA entry would be felt on the battlefield. Russian withdrawal + signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.

o Boosted G. confidence and morale. o Allowed for the majority of G. troops to be transferred to the Western Front.

Decided to launch a massive attack on the Allied lines in a last-grasp attempt to achieve a breakthrough before it was too late (Operation Michael).

Operation Michael Began March 21, 1918 with a G. bombardment at the Battle of Picardy. By April, G. forces had managed to capture 1000 Allied guns, 100 000 Allied POWs and more

territory than the combined Allied attacks of the entire war. o Only 70 km from Paris.

By late July, tide began to turn against the Germans. o Supplies were running short and the presence of American troops was beginning to

be felt. o Suffered a million casualties but German only made tactical gains not strategic ones. o Lacking reserves of men and supplies, facing every-growing, fresh American forces,

Ludendorff had to face an Allied counteroffensive. The stalemate was broken; a war of movement resumed.

Allied Counteroffensive (August – November 1918)

Reasons for the Counteroffensive G. advance had not progressed evenly and by September, a bludge had emerged in the

German line; attack to cut off troops. Foch realised G. were fully stretched both in manpower and resources. Perfect opportunity to retaliate at a number of different points along the Front, never giving

G. a chance to recover.

Success of the Allied Counteroffensive Massive Allied counterattack on the Germans launched 8 August 1918 at Amiens. Made massive gains with large infantries and battalions of improved tanks.

o Paris was saved by the Allies (2nd Battle of the Marne). o Allies had taken 130 000 German POWs.

Losses were too large for Ludendorff to replace. o Used improved tank design effectively to force a continual G. defeat. o Germans withdraws to the Hindenburg Line.

Allied defeated the Germans but suffered 180 000 casualties.

Result of the Allied Counteroffensive on the German War Effort Increasing number of US troops, circulated by the naval blockade, internal dissent, mutiny at

Kiel and failure of the Spring Offensive forced Ludendorff to advise G. govt to consider peace. October 1918 – G. govt demanded an armistice as her allies Bulgaria, Turkey and Austria

surrendered and the G. home-front and economy had collapsed. o Armistice agreed for 11 November.

Allied Victory

Events leading to the Armistice 1918

1. The failure of the G spring offensive.2. The 1918 Allied counter-offensive.

a. The Battle of Amiens – ‘black day’ for the G army. b. German army withdraws to the Hindenburg Line.

3. Collapse of the Central Powers – Turkey and Austria surrenders. 4. Hindenburg and Ludendorff accept defeat.

a. Realises that the war was lost; essential for G to negotiate an immediate armistice. b. G High Command looked for a way to shift the responsibility to others. c. Most important consideration was to preserve the honour and the standing of the G

army. 5. The army hands over power to civilian government.

a. The Allies were not prepared to negotiate with G until the old government had been removed (US wanted G to become a democracy).

b. New democratic civilian government would carry the blame for the defeat. c. Hindenburg and Ludendorff demanded that a government be established which had

the support of the Reichstag. d. Prince Max of Baden appointed the new chancellor; G had begun the process of

becoming a democracy so that it could negotiate with the Allies. 6. Germany seeks an armistice.

a. Prince Max of Baden dispatched a note to President Wilson requesting an armistice. b. News of defeat came as a shock to the G home-front and a mood of hopelessness

and unrest grew in G fuelled by the severe food shortages. 7. The German revolution 1918.

a. Event mutiny of the G navy at Kiel. b. Workers and soldiers councils were set up and revolution soon spread to other

cities. c. Bavaria declared itself an independent republic.

8. Abdication of the Kaiser. a. Told he no longer had the support of the army or the nation. b. 9th November – Kaiser fled to Holland and his abdication announced. c. Prince Max of Baden steps down and G proclaimed a republic.

9. Armistice is signed. a. 6th November – Allies inform the G government that they were willing to grant an

armistice. b. 11th November – representatives from the Reichstag signed the armistice.

Events leading to the ArmisticeMilitary Economic

- The development of the tank major G. losses as it broke through G. front lines. - Failure of the Spring Offensive. - Success of the subsequent Allied counter-offensive. - Retreat to the Hindenburg Line (a specially constructed area of defences).

- Naval blockade hindered G. economy. - Severe food shortages (“shortage is so great it is a mystery to me what the people of Berlin live on”)

Political Social- Internal dissent. - Germany’s allies (Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria) had already surrendered. - Govt change new supreme command had little hope of ‘forcing peace on [their] enemies’ and wanted a quick end to the war.

- As well as starvation, an influenza epidemic was sweeping through Germany. - Complete loss of morale.

Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse

With the benefit of hindsight, G had little chance of victory as;o Forced to fight a two-front war. o Could never match the combined economic and military might of the Allies.

Lost the element of surprise contained in the Schlieffen Plan. o Could not keep its army supplied (main advantage previously large highly trained)o Entry of the US in 1917 meant that G had to face the strength and wealth of the US. o Allied naval blockade ensured that the longer the war went on, the more difficulty G

had supplying its army and feeding its people. o G’s allies had liabilities. o Strains on the G home-front lowered morale.

Long-term factors that gave the Allies the advantage in fighting a war of attrition

Failure of the Schlieffen Plan Germany’s failure at the Marne + ‘race to the sea’ France and Britain survived and were

able to keep fighting on the Western Front. o Thus burdened with a two-front war, and its armies and supplies were always

divided. Could never bring its full weight to bear on the Western Front. Even the Russian withdrawal meant that an army of occupation had to be in

the east.

The superiority of Allied economic and military resources It was total war – it was fought as much with economic and industrial power as with

manpower. Allies were superior to the G in naval power, economic power, human resources and

technical innovations. o HOWEVER, only became decisive after years of warfare.

The longer the war went on, the greater the casualty rate, the more resources were thrown into the conflict and the greater the strains placed on the home fronts, the more likely it was that the Allies would win.

o Allies were able to call on the combined economic and military strength of the British and French Empires, Russia, Italy and US.

o Germany had only its own resources + three minor partners. Partner relatively weak and were a drain on her resources.

Principal partner, A-H, needed constant help from the G army. Neither Bulgaria nor Turkey were able to make any substantial

contribution to G’s cause, and both were reliant on G aid and military advisers throughout the war.

The human resources that Allies could draw on far exceeded those available to G and the Central Powers – as the war dragged on, the Allies could feed an endless supply of fresh men onto the battlefields and by contrast, G had limited reserves of men to call on, and by 1918 she was desperately short of soldiers.

Allied Blockade Despite the economic and military inequality, G managed to maintain an army in the field for

four years. o Did so as a result of superb organisation on the home front, government controls,

exploitation of occupied territories’ resources and the development of ersatz products.

However, in time, the blockade caused enormous hardship for the G economy. o Practically all of G’s trade with the outside world ceased. o Largest impact on the availability of food supplies.

Unable to import food from abroad, and she had too few workers to increase or even maintain domestic production.

However British never lost command of the sea; constant supply of food, and war supplies to flow into Britain throughout the war.

Demoralisation of the G home-front led to increasing strikes in industry, and contributed to the outbreak of revolution in November 1918.

Lack of key imports put severe limits on the ability of the G economy to supply its armies placed enormous strains on the home-front.

o By 1916, major strains were apparent on the G home-front. Inflation was rampant, shortages of essentials and the evidence of inequality

of suffering was causing great resentment. This + ever-lengthening casualty lists = disillusionment and war-weariness.

o Major strikes occurred, war production was further weakened and domestic morale was dropping.

Success of Allied Propaganda Allies won the propaganda war against G.

o The Allied war aims seemed more reasonable to the world at large than those of Germany and the Central Powers.

o Reinforced the self-confidence of the Allied armies and population, won American support before the US formally entered the war, and ultimately contributed to the undermining of both the G civilian and military morale.

Factors which caused the rapid collapse of Germany towards the end of 1918

Entry of the US into the War Aim of the unrestricted submarine warfare campaign to prevent any supplies reaching

Britain, particularly those coming from the US. o However, it brought the US into the war on the Allied side. o Political gamble that failed; American impact on the war was enormous.

Allied morale lifted while G morale fell. American naval policies had a serious impact on the G effort to continue

fighting. American military forces played a major part in the Allied counteroffensive

of August-November 1918.

The exhaustion of the Germany Army The G army had thrown all they had at the Allies in the Spring Offensive. British and French were able to take advantage of the fresh American troops who were

landing in France in increasing numbers, whereas the G had no reserves and were resorting to conscription young boys and old men.

G munitions industry was nearing a state of collapse, British were bountifully supplied.

Improved Allied military tactics Learnt how to make better use of the tanks (British invention which gave the Allies a war-

winning advantage when the conflict entered its final stage in mid 1918). o G lacked both the technological and industrial know-how and the military expertise

to make use of the tanks. o British industrial capacity which gave them the overwhelming advantage.

Britain had produced 2800 tanks, Germany had produced 20. Allied use of mass tank formations proved to be a crucial factor in the final months of the

war. o Helped break G morale and gave the Allies a distinct edge during the

counteroffensive.

The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles

Background to the Peace Conference

Human Dimension Levels of death and destruction wrought by WWI were unprecedented. Millions of refugees were on the movie, driven out of their homes as new nations were born

and new frontiers were drawn. Europe was a starving continent.

People had also been psychologically manipulated in unprecedented ways by the government and media.

o Development of a tabloid press and a crude but effective propaganda machine had whipped up hatred for Germans for years.

Seemed unlikely that people would abate in their hatred of ‘the Huns’ at the end of the war.

Due to these depressing conditions, the peace delegates aimed to maximise their nation’s individual self-interest and prevent another war.

Economic Dimension Europe’s economy was at the point of collapse.

o Most economies were completely exhausted and unemployment and inflation increased.

o Britain and France found themselves indebted to the US lost economic power. o Germany, once the engine house of the pre-war European economy, was on its

knees. o Protectionism skyrocketed (intensely nationalistic).

Clemenceau was convinced that Germany would be paying for France’s recovery.

Fear of Communism Political leaders at the peace conference felt threatened by the communist movement.

o Ruling classes felt threatened by the anti-capitalist and atheistic aims of Communists.

o Seemed like the ‘red tide of communism’ was spreading across Europe. Communist parties appeared all over Europe.

Peace maker’s hands were tied Delegates arrived with fixed ideas about how to organise the peace. To an extent, decisions were already taken and promises were made before Versailles.

o After collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman Empires ethnic groups seized land and set up their own governments and could not be removed.

o During the war, neutral countries were encouraged into the war through promises of land in treaties.

The Big Three were also bound by their domestic situations and subject to their electorates, levels of political support and strength of their national economies.

The Functioning of the Peace Conference Closeness of the conference to the war emotions and hatreds of the war were still fresh. Delegates were politicians and thus subject to electoral pressures. As conference dragged on, decisions begun to be made in haste; desire to finish up and go

home.o Minor issues predominated. o Under intense pressure to complete the process to hasten the task of

reconstruction. Losers (inc. Germany) were not invited.

Aims of the Big Three

Woodrow Wilson Idealistic Democrat POTUS.

o American not adversely affected by WWI – came out as dominant economic power. Wrote a Fourteen Point Plan which was his basis for peace. He wanted;

o National Self-Determination – the right for ethnic groups to rule themselves.o ‘Open covenants of peace’ – open, transparent diplomacy to be carried out on the

public forum. o Colonial claims – imposition of imperial rule was a negative aspect; colonial claims

to be based on wishes of local population. o Internationalism – nations put the common international good before their own

selfish national ambitions. o League of Nations – where nations could air their grievances and open up to

dialogue. National self-determination; no reparations; freedom of the seas; international interests

above national interests.

Georges Clemenceau “The Tiger” – bullish with G. to weaken it so it never posed a military threat again to France.

o Lived through two French invasions. o Northern France was devastated as a result of WWI.

He wanted; o His desire for security – never again must Germany be allowed to invade France

(“We must crush the German war machine.”)o His desire for compensation – France had been heavily besieged by war w/ Germany

and Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay. o His desire to rebuilt France – “Germany will pay for our reconstruction.”

David Lloyd George Moderator between G. and France. Under political pressure from the British public and Parliament.

o Won an election on “Make Germany pay.”o Anti-German public opinion due to effective wartime propaganda.

He wanted; o German recovery due to British economic interests – was a pre-war major trading

partner. o A strong Germany to counter the spread of Bolshevism from Russia.

Roles of the Big Three

Woodrow Wilson Inexperienced at diplomacy. Little understanding of the nature of European politics.

o Did not realize that most decisions had already been made. Weak domestic political position.

Obstinate, arrogant and uncompromising nature was not suited to international diplomacy. Losing touch with American public opinion.

o US had become increasingly isolationist – did not want to be in a League of Nations and dragged into future European conflicts.

Georges Clemenceau President of the Conference + ability to speak both French and English = advantage. Fought hard and tried his best to impose a punitive settlement on Germany. However, he was still pragmatic – knew he could push Britain and the US only so far. Ultimately failed to gain his goal of security.

o Hoped to separate the Rhineland from the rest of Germany; only achieved the demilitarization of the Rhineland and offered France an Anglo-American guarantee of support should Germany ever again invade France.

David Lloyd George Sought to moderate both between Wilson and Clemenceau, although to limited success. Managed to prevent the separation of the Rhineland from Germany, but failed elsewhere.

The Treaty of Versailles

Key Elements of the Treaty

War Guilt Blamed G for the war and all the damage that the war had bought.

Reparations £6.6 billion to be paid to the Allies.

o Germany did not have the capacity to pay such a high sum.

Economic Provisions Massive reparations to be paid to the Allies. B and F received German machinery.

Military Provisions Denied an air force; army decreased to 100 000. Not allowed tanks or heavy artillery. Navy greatly reduced.

Territorial Provisions Lost approximately 13% of its territory (103 600 km2 of land)

Colonial Provisions Colonial possessions were given to other powers as mandates.

Response to the Treaty G government refused to sign it, and resigned.

o Allies made it clear that if G did not sign, they would resume the war. o Did not believe that the Treaty was fair any more than the previous government did,

but knew it had no choice.

To allow war to restart would be suicidal for G. Treaty of Versailles greatly weakened the new government of Germany. Suited many Germans to believe that Germany had never really lost the war.

o Army leaders like Ludendorff encouraged this view. Army would have fought on to preserve G’s honour. The army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by weak politicians.

Treaty became a symbol of G humiliation and defeat.