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Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za (Accessed: Date).
Running Head: CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
EXPLORING CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT THE
DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS
by
Michelle Nobre
Submitted in fulfilment of the degree
PhD
in
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
in the
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND PEOPLE MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Prof. J. Coetzee
Co-Supervisor: Dr. M. van der Walt
October 2013
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The successful completion of this study depended greatly on the coordinated
efforts of many individuals whose diverse interests, expertise and assistance I wish
to acknowledge with gratitude:
Prof. Jos Coetzee, my supervisor, who guided me patiently and competently
through the phases of the study, and whose gentle guidance and unwavering
belief, I will always remember.
Dr. Marietjie van der Walt, my co-supervisor, through whom I acquired a great
deal of professional knowledge, as well as the opportunity to work with a
woman leader whom I admire.
My parents, whose love and support not only made this study possible, but
who created the opportunities for me to become all I am.
Peter, for his support, faith, encouragement and patience, and for always
being an example of the kind of person I aspire to be.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
ii
Abstract
This study explores the characteristics that prevent the derailment of women
leaders. It further provides insight into leadership derailment as it is experienced and
interpreted by women leaders. The study was done in the context of the scarcity of
women in senior and executive leadership positions within organisations, whilst
equality and transformation remain on the global leadership agenda, as well as the
context of South African Transformation and Employment Equity Legislation.
A qualitative study was undertaken based on the grounded theory research
methodology. The purposeful and snowball sampling technique yielded five research
participants. Through in-depth interviewing eleven themes emerged from the data.
These were the personal and core constructs held by participants in relation to their
conceptualisation of the leadership landscape, derailment, and of themselves as
leaders.
While each participant‘s experience of derailment and the leadership
landscape was unique, the findings of the study indicated that specific personal
characteristics prevented their derailment or enabled them to overcome derailment.
These were: pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to compromise,
insight into behaviour, positive outlook/optimism, building relationships and networks
self-confidence and self-efficacy, resilience and coping, emotional maturity and
managing emotions, recognition of significant others, achievement drive and
perseverance, risk taking and openness to change, and balancing multiple roles.
Whilst an exploration of the external factors leading to characteristics that
prevent derailment as well as opting out and voluntary separation, was not the
purpose of this study, emerging themes in respect to these were discussed.
Finally, an integrated framework was formulated presenting the characteristics
that prevent the derailment of women leaders.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................... i
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... ii
List of tables .............................................................................................................. vii
List of figures ............................................................................................................ viii
CHAPTER 1 Introduction and background ......................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background ................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Defining key concepts ................................................................................... 6
1.4 Definition of the research problem ................................................................ 7
1.5 Objective of the study .................................................................................... 8
1.6 Motivation for the study ................................................................................. 8
1.7 Contribution to the body of knowledge .......................................................... 9
1.8 Research design and methodology ............................................................. 10
1.8.1 Research approach and key scientific beliefs. ...................................... 10
1.8.2 Research strategy ................................................................................ 11
1.9 Ethical considerations ................................................................................. 13
1.10 Chapter outline ............................................................................................ 14
1.11 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 2 Leadership derailment .................................................................... 16
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Defining key concepts ................................................................................. 16
2.2.1 Women executives ............................................................................... 16
2.2.2 Leadership derailment .......................................................................... 17
2.3 Leadership derailment in context ................................................................ 19
2.4 Historic overview of leadership derailment .................................................. 20
2.4.1 Personality traits leading to derailment ................................................. 21
2.4.2 Behaviours leading to derailment ......................................................... 24
2.5 Derailment of women executive leaders ..................................................... 33
2.5.1 Factors leading to the derailment of women executives ....................... 34
2.5.1.1 External factors leading to the derailment of women executives ...... 34
2.5.1.2 Internal factors leading to derailment of women executives ............. 45
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
iv
2.6 Opting out in derailment of women executives ............................................ 51
2.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER 3 Research methodology .................................................................. 59
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 59
3.2 Research design ......................................................................................... 59
3.2.1 Research approach .............................................................................. 59
3.2.1.1 Qualitative research and its key features .......................................... 59
3.2.1.2 Key scientific beliefs ......................................................................... 62
3.2.1.3 Why the particular qualitative research choice ................................. 65
3.2.2 Research strategy ................................................................................ 66
3.3 Grounded theory ......................................................................................... 68
3.3.1 The history of grounded theory ............................................................. 68
3.3.2 Key principles of grounded theory ........................................................ 69
3.3.3 Literature review in grounded theory research ..................................... 72
3.4 Grounded theory applied in context ............................................................ 75
3.4.1 Understanding personal construct theory ............................................. 75
3.4.2 The operationalization of personal construct theory ............................. 76
3.5. Research methodology ............................................................................... 78
3.5.1 Research setting ................................................................................... 78
3.5.2 Entrée and establishing researcher roles ............................................. 79
3.5.3 Pilot study ............................................................................................. 80
3.5.4 Sampling ............................................................................................... 82
3.5.5 Data collection methods ....................................................................... 84
3.5.6 Recording of data ................................................................................. 89
3.5.6.1 Audio-tape recording ........................................................................ 89
3.5.6.2 Personal diary and project journal .................................................... 90
3.5.6.3 Memos and field notes ..................................................................... 90
3.5.6.4 Data storage and safekeeping .......................................................... 91
3.5.6.5 Data analysis .................................................................................... 91
3.5.7 Ethical considerations and ensuring quality research ........................... 95
3.5.7.1 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 95
3.5.7.2 Ensuring quality research ................................................................. 97
3.6. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 99
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
v
CHAPTER 4 Research results ........................................................................... 100
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 100
4.2 Research results ....................................................................................... 102
4.2.1 External factors which support the development of characteristics that
prevent derailment .............................................................................. 144
4.2.2 Derailment experiences ...................................................................... 148
4.2.3 Participants definitions of derailment .................................................. 151
4.2.4 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to derailment .. 153
4.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 155
CHAPTER 5 Interpretation and synthesis of results ....................................... 156
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 156
5.2 Interpretation of themes ............................................................................ 157
5.2.1 Contextualizing personal construct theory .......................................... 157
5.2.2 Themes related to constructs ............................................................. 161
5.2.3 Themes related to personal constructs ............................................... 164
5.2.4 Themes related to core constructs ..................................................... 171
5.3 External factors preventing derailment ..................................................... 181
5.4 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ in derailment ............................... 183
5.5 Leadership derailment ............................................................................... 184
5.6 Towards an integrated framework ............................................................. 186
5.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 189
CHAPTER 6 Summary and recommendations ................................................ 190
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 190
6.2 Approach to the research .......................................................................... 191
6.3 Summary of the major results ................................................................... 194
6.3.1 Core constructs .................................................................................. 194
6.3.2 Personal constructs ............................................................................ 197
6.3.3 External factors preventing derailment ............................................... 200
6.3.4 Opting out and voluntary separation in derailment ............................. 201
6.3.5 Leadership derailment ........................................................................ 202
6.4 Contribution to the body of knowledge ...................................................... 203
6.5 Limitations of the study ............................................................................. 206
6.6 Recommendations .................................................................................... 208
6.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 209
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
vi
List of references .................................................................................................... 210
List of annexures
Annexure 1: Request for participation ................................................................. 241
Annexure 2: Participant details ........................................................................... 243
Annexure 3: Informed consent ............................................................................ 244
Annexure 4: Interview guide................................................................................ 247
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
vii
List of tables
Table 2.1 Characteristics leading to derailment 21
Table 2.2 Personality characteristics leading to derailment 22
Table 2.3 Reasons for management failure 23
Table 2.4 Behaviours of derailed leaders 24
Table 2.5 Characteristics contributing to derailment 26
Table 2.6 Survey scales focusing on derailment behaviours 26
Table 2.7 Flawed behaviours, by leaders whose careers derailed 28
Table 2.8 Habits of unsuccessful people 28
Table 2.9 Factors which lead to career derailment 29
Table 2.10 Characteristics associated with leadership derailment 30
Table 2.11 Career derailment themes 45
Table 2.12 Factors associated with leadership derailment 50
Table 2.13 Summary of literature on opting out 54
Table 3.1 Research perspectives outlined 64
Table 3.2 Data analysis 93
Table 3.3 Data analysis process followed in current study 94
Table 4.1 Constructs: Participant 1 103
Table 4.2 Constructs: Participant 2 109
Table 4.3 Constructs: Participant 3 118
Table 4.4 Constructs: Participant 4 126
Table 4.5 Constructs: Participant 5 136
Table 4.6 External factors supporting the development of
characteristics preventing derailment 145
Table 4.7 Derailment experiences 149
Table 4.8 Definitions of derailment 152
Table 4.9 ―Opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ relating to
derailment 154
Table 5.1 Categorisation of constructs into themes 162
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
viii
List of figures
Figure 2.1 Model of career derailment for female executives 49
Figure 5.1 Characteristics preventing derailment 189
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
The research takes place within the context of the globally recognised scarcity
of women in senior and executive leadership positions within organisations, whilst
parity and transformation remain on the global leadership agenda. In addition, the
South African context of Transformation and Employment Equity Legislation, which
has been specifically designed to support the representation of, amongst others,
women at senior levels within organisations, is of relevance.
In South Africa, results of the most recent Businesswomen‘s Association of
South Africa Leadership Census (2011) reflect that women constitute less than 10
percent of CEO and chair positions of listed and State Owned Enterprises (SOEs)
with the figures at chairperson and directorship level having dropped since 2010.
―There are 15 women CEOs and 18 women chairpersons in this year‘s census,
excluding subsidiaries, as recorded on September 30, 2010. From a total of 339
companies, these numbers are alarmingly low‖ (BWA Census, 10; 2011). Results
further show that only 15.8 percent of all South African directorship positions are
held by women, with very slow improvement being shown in comparison to previous
years.
In addition to the above, statistics from the 2011-2012 annual Commission for
Employment Equity (CEE) report (2012); published by the Department of Labour in
South Africa, reveal that 80.9 percent of top management positions are held by men,
whilst only 19.1 percent are held by women. 71.8 percent of senior management
positions are held by men whilst 28.2 percent of such positions are held by women.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
2
1.2 Background
With regards to the representation of women executives in the private sector,
a recent study by the International American Society for Training and Development,
(Stroope & Hagemann, 2011) reported that women account for only 3 percent of
Fortune 500 CEOs, with only an estimated 10 percent of executive positions and
board seats being held by women. According to the International Entrepreneurship
and Management Journal (2011), the last ―Women FTSE 2009‖ report sponsored by
Pricewaterhouse-Coopers, Sainsbury, Enlivens, HSBC and Pearson, found that the
number of European companies with women in executive positions had reduced
from 16 to 15 and the number of women at board level fell from 39 to 37. Moreover,
there was a decrease in the number of total of businesses with women in their
counsels, since 1 of each 4 businesses has an exclusively male counsel.
McKinsey (2010), in a study of 441 companies in 6 European (Norway,
Sweden, US, France, Germany, UK and Spain) and the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India
and China) countries found that women are still underrepresented on the boards of
these companies, with Norway having 32 percent women on their boards, Sweden
27 percent, the US and France 15 percent, the UK 12 percent, Spain 10 percent,
Russia 8 percent, Brazil 7 percent, China 6 percent and India 5 percent. As can be
seen, even in ―top performing‖ counties, women are far from representative. The
performance at executive level appears to be even worse, with the ―Top Performing‖
countries Sweden, Norway, the US and the UK having 17 percent, 12 percent, and
14 percent and 14 percent women on executive level, respectively.
More recently, The Lord Davies, Women on Boards Report shows that
women account for 17.3%
of UK FTSE 100 and 13.2% of FTSE 250 board directors
(as at 1 March 2013), a number which has increased from 12.5% and 7.8%
respectively in February 2011. It does however appear that this number has
stabilised over the last several months and that growth has stagnated somewhat. In
addition, the report reflects that women have secured 34% of all FTSE 100, and 36%
of FTSE 250 board appointments since 1 March 2012 (Lord Davies, Women on
Boards Report, April 2013).
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
3
With regards to representation in Europe, the Lord Davies report shows that
women constitute just 15.8% of female directors on the boards of companies across
the European Union with little progress being made to improve these statistics. As a
result of this poor progress, the European Commission recently published a draft
directive which places an ―obligation of means‖ on companies to put in place fair and
transparent recruitment policies with the objective of ensuring that 40%
of the non-
executive directors of individual listed companies are female by 2020 (Lord Davies,
Women on Boards Report, April 2013).
Recent research in 2013 shows that some progress has however taken place
in other countries, with 4.2% of Fortune 500 CEOs in the U.S. being women. In
addition 20% of senior executives in U.S. companies are women, compared with
26% in France, 31% in Germany and a startling 51% in China (Bray, Insead, 2013).
However, research also shows that 3% percent of Fortune 1000 companies in the
U.S. have no women on their board of directors whatsoever, whilst at the next tier of
1,000 midsize companies, 30% of U. S. Fortune 1000 companies have no women on
their board of directors whatsoever (Roth, B, 2013).
Whilst some progress may have been made in certain quarters, from the
above, it can clearly be seen that the representation of women executives within the
private sector continues to be poor in general. With regards to the representation of
women executives in the public sector, The Economist (2011) reported that in
parliaments across the world, women on average hold 20 percent of the seats. The
study by the International American Society for Training and Development, (Stroope
& Hagemann, 2011) reported that in government positions, 4.7 percent women were
present in head of state positions across the globe, whilst a Deloitte and Forbes
(2010) survey reflects that whilst women comprise 20 percent of parliamentary seats
worldwide, this compares favourably to the 13.5 percent of women executive officers
represented within the top 500 U.S. companies. In South Africa, The
Businesswomen‘s Association of South Africa Leadership census (2011) also
reveals that progress towards transformation and employment equity goals within the
public sector is outperforming that of the private sector. It can thus be seen that,
whilst representation of women appears to be better than that of the private sector, it
remains inequitable.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
4
Based on the above, it would appear a better understanding of what makes
women in executive positions succeed in these positions, could facilitate necessary
policy and organisational interventions to increase the equitable distribution of
executive Leadership positions between genders.
An increased representation of women in executive leadership positions
between genders appears to be imperative to the success of business. Research by
Catalyst (2007) documents that Fortune 500 companies with women on their board
of directors achieve superior business results including:
higher return on equity: On average, companies with the highest percentages
of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by 53 %;
superior sales: On average, companies with the highest percentages
of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by 42 %;
higher return on investment: On average, companies with the highest
percentages of women board directors outperformed those with the least, by
66 %.
In addition to the above, Catalyst (2007) research found that the companies
with the best financial results were achieved by companies with more than three
women board of directors.
McElhaney (in Roth, 2013), investigated the corporate performance of more
than 1,500 organisations across three main categories of environmental, social and
governance. Research findings showed that organisations with more women on their
board of directors are more likely to:
invest in renewable power generation and take proactive steps to improve
operational energy efficiency;
integrate climate change into their actuarial models and develop products that
help customers manage climate change risk;
measure and reduce carbon emissions of their products;
have supplier programs to reduce their supply chain carbon footprint;
reduce the environmental impacts of their packaging;
address environmental risks in their financial decisions;
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
5
not disturb large and/or fragile areas of biodiversity.
In the context of the underrepresentation of women executive leaders as well
as the benefits of women executives in organisations, the on-going challenges faced
by women leaders in the workplace, remain topical. (Schein, 2007, Morrison et al.,
1992; Morrison, Schreiber, & Price, 1995; Morrison, 1996, Valian, 2000). In a
longitudinal study by Gayle, Golan and Miller (2009) of 2 500 publically listed
American companies, 30 000 executives and 10 job descriptions over a 14 year
period, it was found that the attrition rate of women executives is much higher than
that of their male counterparts. Clark and Kleyn (2011) found that in 2004, the
turnover rate of South African women executives was 17.15 percent, three times that
of their male counterparts.
A McKinsey study (2010) identified the two main barriers for the success of
women leaders as being:
the ―double-burden‖ syndrome, where women have to balance domestic and
work responsibilities; and
the ―anytime, anywhere‖ performance model, with the demand for total
availability and greater geographical mobility.
Lips (2009) reported the barriers to the success of women leaders to include
the following:
the different responses that women in leadership roles elicit;
the expectation that women combine compassion with leadership;
the fact that people do not easily take direction from or listen to women;
women who promote themselves and their abilities reap disapproval; and the
fact that
women tend to require more external validation than their male counterparts.
Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found:
lingering prejudice toward women;
cultural perceptions of gender roles in society;
lack of education and support networks;
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
6
a dearth of female role models already in office; and
a lack of time and financial resources; as being the greatest barriers to the
success of women leaders.
Extensive research has been conducted on leadership derailment (Bentz,
1967, 1985 a, 1985 b, 1990; McCall & Lombardo, 1983; Morrison, White & Van
Velsor, 1987; Lombardo, Ruderman & McCauley, 1988; McCauley & Lombardo,
1990; Van Velsor & Leslie, 1995; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Eichinger & Lombardo,
2003; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; Rasch, Shen, Davies & Bono, 2008).
Although to a lesser degree, there also seems to exist a relatively large body
of knowledge about the barriers to the success, as well as the ultimate derailment, of
women leaders (Schein, 2007, Morrison et al., 1992; Morrison, Schreiber, & Price,
1995; Morrison, 1996, Valian, 2000).
Of interest to me, is that some women executive leaders, despite the barriers
and potential derailers they face, appear to succeed, whilst others fail.
A better understanding of the intrinsic characteristics of women executives
who have not fallen prey to, or who have overcome derailment, has practical
benefits. Policy makers and drivers of organisational change will be in a position to
select women executives who will be less likely to derail, as well as put in place
support mechanisms and developmental initiatives to increase the number of
successful executive women leaders in organisations into the future.
1.3 Defining key concepts
The current study undertakes an exploration of leadership derailment
amongst women executives and the characteristics that prevent the derailment of
women executives. A clearer understanding of leadership derailment as well as of
women executives is thus required.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
7
The various definitions of leadership derailment are discussed in more detail
in Chapter 2 and the definitions of derailment as experienced and interpreted by the
research participants are further explored during the study. However, a preliminary
definition of leadership derailment for the purposes of this study is as follows: when
an individual, placed in an executive position is fired, asked to resign, forced out of
the organization, is demoted, or has their career plateau unexpectedly.
The various definitions of women executives are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 2. However, a preliminary definition of a woman executive for the purposes
of this study is as follows: a woman who is a Top or Senior Manager, who is
responsible for the day to day operations of a business in its entirety or for a
functional division of a business and who is among the most senior decision-makers
within a business. Such a woman executive reports to a CEO or top executive, or is
a CEO or top executive who reports to a Board. She may also be, but is not
necessarily, an Executive Board Member.
Both key concepts above will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.
1.4 Definition of the research problem
Leadership derailment is a reality, as is more specifically, the derailment of
women executives. Whilst several factors appear to contribute towards the potential
derailment of women executives, it appears that some women are able to overcome
these and remain successful, influential and inspirational business leaders.
In addition, general derailment literature tends to focus on internal personality
traits and behaviours of leaders as being causative of their derailment, rather than
focusing on the characteristics which prevent derailment from taking place. Whilst
research which has been conducted on the derailment of women leaders tends to
focus on the external derailers which women face, again there appears to be a
significant paucity in the research on the intrinsic characteristics of women leaders
who succeed despite the internal and external barriers and derailers which they face.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
8
The paucity in research in this regard is thus the issue which the current study
wishes to address through an in-depth exploration of the intrinsic characteristics
which prevent, or assist women executives in overcoming, career derailment.
1.5 Objective of the study
It is my belief that women who do not fall prey to derailment or who overcome
it, do so due to the mental representations they hold as well as the way they
construct meaning in a continually changing world.
It is thus the primary objective of the current study to explore the intrinsic
characteristics possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to
derailment, or who have overcome it, which act as preventative measures against
derailment. Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics
which prevent career derailment of women executives is developed.
A secondary aim of the study is to reach a more integrated and holistic
understanding of the phenomenon of leadership derailment as it is experienced and
interpreted by women executive leaders, themselves.
1.6 Motivation for the study
A review of the historical development of research on the behaviours and
personality characteristics associated with leadership derailment reveals that little
has been exclusively conducted on women. In the research that does include
women, few gender differences in derailment traits and behaviours have been found.
There thus appears to be a need for further research on the potential differences in
derailment traits and behaviours of women and men.
Another interesting aspect to note in reviewing the general derailment
literature is that very little research has focused on the experiences of leaders who
are confronted with derailment. Instead, the focus has been how others‘ experience
these leaders, or on characteristics and behaviours which others believe these
leaders possess or fail to possess. In the current study, the experience of
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
9
participants who have been confronted by, and overcome factors which lead to
derailment as well as their personal characteristics and behaviours, as identified and
experienced by them, rather than others, will be explored.
1.7 Contribution to the body of knowledge
By gaining a better understanding of the mental representations and
constructions of meaning held by the participants, it is my belief that a significant
contribution can be made to the body of academic literature on women leadership.
In addition to the above, it is my belief that a contribution can be made to the
success of women leaders in the organisations within which they function. CEOs and
human resources practitioners will be in a better position to recruit, select and place
women executives who will be less likely to derail. In addition, policy makers and
drivers of organisational change will be empowered to put in place support
mechanisms, training and developmental initiatives as well as coaching and
mentoring practices that reliably increase the number of successful executive women
leaders in their businesses.
From a policy perspective, the study, through practical, implementable
initiatives associated with the findings, could lead to an increased number of
successful women leaders in various sectors of the economy, thus supporting
transformation and employment equity policy and legislation.
Finally, the study takes place within the theoretical framework of grounded
theory, where techniques of personal construct theory are applied with the objective
of eliciting the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by women
who have not fallen prey to derailment, or have overcome it. It is believed that this
will yield valuable insights into the intrinsic factors at play in women leadership
derailment. In addition, the application of a methodological framework which
explores human experiences in terms of the mental representations and
constructions of meaning they hold, will make a contribution to how we study and
understand the rich complexity inherent in human experiences.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
10
1.8 Research design and methodology
1.8.1 Research approach and key scientific beliefs.
The research takes place within the qualitative research paradigm. Arguments
for the use of qualitative methods are based on the view that quantitative methods
are inadequate in terms of accounting for context and meaning, and that qualitative
methods offer richer understandings of phenomena (Murray & Chamberlain, 1998).
Whilst definitions of qualitative research and data may vary, the definitions of well-
respected qualitative researchers such as Lofland and Lofland (1984), Gilmore and
Carson (1996); Bogdan, and Biklen (1998), Creswell (1998), Mason (1996), Strauss
and Corbin (1990), and more recently, Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar and Newton
(2001), Schwandt (2007) and Denzin and Lincoln (2008), share the following key
features.
It focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and
creates a view of what real life is like.
It has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong
potential for revealing complexities. According to Amaratunga et al. (2001)
such data provide rich, vivid descriptions, nested in a real life context.
The fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period
makes it powerful for studying any process.
The inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what
has been going on is really understood.
It is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing
hypotheses.
It allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to
explore the field and consider the dimensions involved.
The adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of
action that may evolve with the researcher‘s experiential learning and
development.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
11
Based on the above characteristics of qualitative research, I believe that a
qualitative approach is best suited to the study of the characteristics preventing the
derailment of women executive leaders.
According to Babbie (2007, p. 33), ―all qualitative researchers approach their
studies with a certain paradigm or worldview, a basic set of beliefs or assumptions
that guides their enquiries. Each of the paradigms offers a different way of looking at
human social life, makes its own assumptions about the nature of social reality, and
can open up new understandings‖.
It is my view that reality, to a large extent, is objective and external to people‘s
awareness. Kvale (1996, p. 41) likens this conception of knowledge to a ‗mirror of
reality‘. In the current study, I thus ―hold a mirror‖ to the reality of the research
participants by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach, through
which reality is discovered so that insight is gained into the meanings and
interpretations which they hold and how these interact with leadership derailment
factors.
Behind ones‘ ontological beliefs, lie different theories of knowledge and
perception, or epistemologies. Easterby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe (2002, p. 31)
define epistemology as a ―general set of assumptions about the best ways of
enquiring into the nature of the world‖
In the current study, I follow an interpretivistic approach, as it is my belief that
reality should be interpreted through the meaning that research participants give to
their world. I will thus interpret the reality of a sample of women executive leaders, as
well as the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold, which act
as preventative measures against them falling prey to career derailment, or assist
them in overcoming potential derailment.
1.8.2 Research strategy
I employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy in the study of
the research participants. By understanding similarities and differences between
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
12
them, it is hoped that themes/trends of characteristics will be established, which will
in turn lead to the development of an integrated framework of characteristics which
prevent career derailment amongst women executives.
I further conducted the research within the methodological framework of
grounded theory. As per Schram (2006), the objective of grounded theory is to
develop theory that is grounded in data. It focuses on generating theory based on
the study of social situations. Grounded theory is a ―specific, highly developed,
rigorous set of procedures for producing formal substantive theory of social
phenomenon‖ (Schwandt, p. 2007; p. 131).
Within the methodological framework of grounded theory, techniques of
personal construct theory are applied in order to reach a deeper understanding of
the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by women executives
which prevent their career derailment.
The method of grounded theory and the application personal construct theory
within this framework, appears to be well suited to achieving the purpose of this
study, namely to explore and understand the characteristics, mental representations
held and constructions of meaning preventing, or supporting recovery from
leadership derailment, and developing a theoretical framework of guards against
career derailment amongst women executives. This will be further discussed in
Chapter 3 and Chapter 5.
Research participants represent a cross section of South African
organisations of varying sizes functioning in various sectors. Participants have been
selected based on adherence to the following criteria:
women across racial groups, who;
currently occupy executive level positions, and have;
experienced factors which typically lead to derailment, and;
whose careers have not derailed; or
who have successfully overcome potential derailment.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
13
Interviewing is one of the most widely used qualitative methods (Greeff, as
cited in de Vos et al; 2011). DePoy and Gilson (2008, p. 108) describe interviewing
as a method of data collection whereby researchers obtain information through direct
interchange with an individual or group that is known or expected to possess the
knowledge they seek. Kvale (Sewell, 2011, p. 1) defines qualitative interviews as
―attempts to understand the world from the participant‘s point of view, to unfold the
meaning of people‘s experiences to uncover their lived world prior to scientific
explanations.‖ In the current study, data are gathered by means of a combination of
unstructured and structured interviewing, used interchangeably.
In terms of data recording, the interviews are recorded via audio-tape with the
permission of each participant, to enable me to devote my full attention to the
participant. Interviews are recorded and transcribed with extensive field notes being
made after each interview. Care is taken to ensure the safety and confidentiality of
all data.
1.9 Ethical considerations
It is imperative to ensure that each step of the research process be dealt with
professionally to ensure the overall quality of the final research product. It is my view
that in addition to ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and methodically documented‖
research, the best way to ensure quality research is through following a transparent,
well documented and auditable research process within a recognised theoretical
framework.
Strydom (de Vos et al, 2011), remarks that the fact that human beings are the
objects of study brings unique ethical problems to the fore, which can be pervasive
and complex. According to Gravetter and Forzano (2003, p. 60) two basic categories
of ethical responsibility exist.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
14
Responsibility to those, both human and non-human, who participate in a
project; and
Responsibility to the discipline of science to be accurate and honest in the
reporting of their research.
Ethical considerations with relevance to the current study are avoidance of
harm, informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity, debriefing of participants and
publication of the findings. Each of these will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
1.10 Chapter outline
The thesis consists of six chapters. Chapter 2 gives a detailed literature
overview of leadership derailment, and more specifically, leadership derailment
amongst women. Key concepts are described and discussed with a summary of the
main conclusions of the existing literature, being provided.
Chapter 3 discusses the research design and methodology of the study. As
this study is conducted utilising the qualitative method, focus is placed on
explanation of this qualitative approach. Chapter 3 further provides an overview of
grounded theory as well as the application of techniques associated with personal
construct theory. Personal construct theory techniques such as interviewing and
laddering are utilised within the framework of grounded theory in order to construct a
framework of the intrinsic characteristics possessed by women executives who have
either not fallen prey to derailment, or who have been able to overcome it.
The sampling design, the sampling techniques employed and the criteria used
in the choice of the sample size are discussed in detail. The process, procedures,
techniques of data collection and the settings of the data gathering are provided.
Finally, the rationale for the data analysis procedures is clearly depicted.
Chapter 4 provides the key findings, themes and categories that emerge from
the data obtained during the study.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
15
Chapter 5 focuses on interpreting and discussing the findings and integrating
the findings to build a practical understanding and a theoretical framework of the
characteristics, mental representations and constructions of meaning which
executive women leaders possess, which prevent or assist in recovery from
derailment.
Finally, the thesis is concluded in Chapter 6 where the relevance and
limitations of the study are presented, and themes for further research, suggested.
1.11 Conclusion
In this introduction, the scarcity of women in senior and executive leadership
positions within organisations has been outlined, as well as some of the on-going
challenges faced by women leaders in the workplace. It has further been discussed
that several barriers to the success, as well as the ultimate derailment, of women
leaders, exist. This study undertakes an exploration of the intrinsic characteristics
which women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have
overcome it, possess, which act as preventative measures to possible derailment. It
is my belief that women who do not fall prey to derailment or those who overcome it,
do so due to the mental representations they hold, as well as the way they construct
meaning. By fully exploring this, it is envisaged that an integrated framework or
model of characteristics which prevent career derailment amongst women
executives, be developed. In Chapter 2 to follow, the existing literature on the
derailment of women leaders and the barriers which they face are explored, and
personal construct theory, which acts as the framework within which the current
study is conducted, is outlined.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
16
CHAPTER 2
LEADERSHIP DERAILMENT
2.1 Introduction
The current chapter explores the key concepts of leadership derailment, as
well as women executives. In addition, the importance of studying leadership
derailment amongst executives will be discussed. Leadership theory has evolved
over time and therefore an overview of the historical development of leadership
derailment literature is provided. The primary factors typically associated with the
derailment of women executives, as well as an overview of the main conclusions of
the literature in this regard, are presented.
2.2 Defining key concepts
2.2.1 Women executives
The Businesswomen‘s Association of South Africa (2011) defines executives
as those who control company operations on a day-to-day basis, are responsible for
the success or failure of a business and are the most senior decision-makers within
any business, after board members.
Oxford University Press (2012), defines an executive as an individual with
senior managerial responsibility in a business, whilst Business Dictionary.com (2012)
defines an executive manager as an individual or group appointed and given the
responsibility to manage the affairs of an organization, and the authority to make
decisions within specified boundaries. Business Dictionary.com (2012) further
defines top management as ―the highest ranking executives (with titles such as
chairman/chairwoman, chief executive officer, managing director, president,
executive directors, executive vice-presidents, etc.) responsible for the entire
enterprise.‖ (Business Dictionary.com, 2012; http://www.businessdictionary.com).
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
17
The South African Employment Equity Report (2011) further classifies top and senior
management as the most senior positions within an organisation.
For the purposes of this study a woman executive will be defined as a woman
who:
is regarded as a top or senior manager in terms of South African Employment
Equity Legislation;
is responsible for the day to day operations of a business in its entirety or for a
functional division of a business in its entirety;
is among the most senior decision-makers within a business;
reports to a CEO or top executive, or is a CEO or top executive who reports to
a board;
may be, but is not necessarily, an executive board member.
2.2.2 Leadership derailment
Various definitions of leadership derailment exist. Kellerman (2004) describes
seven types of poor leadership which include rigid, incompetent, callous,
intemperate, insular, corrupt, and evil. These are further categorised in two different
forms of poor leadership, being ineffective and unethical. Furnham (2010) listed the
following types of poor leaders: Aberrant leaders; anti-social leaders; dark-side
(triad) leaders; derailed leaders; despotic leaders, destructive leaders, incompetent
leaders, malignant leaders, toxic leaders and tyrannical leaders.
According to Furnham (2010, p. 6), the definition of a derailed leader:
…emphasises the idea of being thrown off course. Trains on tracks derail.
Leaders set fair in a particular direction deviate from the path, unable to
move forward. It is sometimes hyphenated with the next word in the
dictionary, namely deranged, which implies not only a breakdown in
performance, but also insanity.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
18
The above definition includes concepts such as insanity and Hogan and
Hogan (2001) postulate that derailment is due to ―dark side‖ personality traits, which
are linked to personality disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders – Four (DSM IV). Other authors, as will be discussed in the next
section, also link derailment to personality flaws.
Schmidt (2009, p. 4), defines derailment as occurring:
…when an individual, who was placed in an executive role in an
organization and was judged to have the ability to be successful in this
executive role, is fired, asked to resign, or forced out of the organization.
Derailment is involuntary, often punitive, and may be an unexpected
circumstance for the executive.
According to Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988), derailment occurs
when a manager who was expected to go higher in the organization and who was
judged to have the ability to do so is fired, demoted, or plateaued below expected
levels of achievement.
An important distinction between the definition of Schmidt (2009) and that of
Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988) is the exclusion of career plateau in
Schmidt‘s definition, and the exclusion of punitive factors in Lombardo, Ruderman &
McCauley‘s definition. For the purposes of this study, an executive will be
considered to have derailed when:
being fired;
being asked to resign;
being forced out of the organization;
being demoted;
having their career plateau unexpectedly.
In this study, the definitions of derailment as experienced or interpreted by the
research participants will be further explored. In addition, I explore, with the research
participants, the incorporation of the construct of ―opting out‖ in the traditional
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
19
definition of derailment. So called ―voluntary separation‖ resulting from
incompatibility, restructuring for various reasons leading to displacement, will also be
explored with research participants, as ―voluntary resignations‖ are also not typically
incorporated in the traditional definition of derailment, and could potentially be
considered to be a form of derailment.
Further exploration of the definition of leadership derailment with the research
participants will be undertaken with the aim of reaching an integrated, holistic
understanding of the phenomenon as it is experienced and interpreted by women
executive leaders, themselves.
2.3 Leadership derailment in context
The study of leadership derailment is an important one due to its prevalence
as well as the high costs it incurs, both from an organisational as well as an
individual perspective.
Negative leader behaviour has been shown to result in a wide range of
negative outcomes for employees, such as followers modelling the negative
behaviours displayed by leaders (Ambrose, Seabright, & Schminke, 2002; Mitchell &
Ambrose, 2007). Poor leaders cause substantial negative outcomes (Hogan and
Kaiser, 2005) and have a negative impact at multiple levels, including employee and
organizational levels, by increasing the likelihood of employee turnover, withdrawal,
sabotage, and retaliation (Hogan, 2007).
Derailed leaders often need to be replaced at great cost by organisations, with
replacement costs varying from 150 percent of the leader‘s monthly salary to 24
times the leader‘s annual salary (Watkins, 2003).
It has been estimated that between 50 and 75 percent of leaders are not
performing well (Hogan & Hogan, 2001), with the number of leaders that get fired for
failing to perform increasing over the past decade, and the tenure of organisational
leaders has steadily dropping (Hogan, 1999). Leadership derailment can cost
organisations up to twenty times an executive‘s salary in direct and indirect costs,
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
20
including time and resources to recruit, select and train new executives. Hidden
costs associated with ―golden parachutes‖, lost intellectual and social capital, missed
business objectives and damaged employee morale, as well as the impact that
derailed or derailing leaders have on the mental health of their subordinates, further
add to the cost. (Finkelstein, 2003; Smart, 1999; Wells; 2005; Hogan & Kaiser, 2005;
Hogan, Hogan & Kaiser, in press).
The reverse of this is also true, with Zenger and Folkman (2012) reporting that
their research has shown that leadership skills are strongly correlated to
organizational success factors such as retaining talent, customer satisfaction,
employee engagement, and profitability.
2.4 Historic overview of leadership derailment
There have been several thought leaders in the study of leadership derailment
over time, amongst them, the most prominent being Bentz, 1967, 1985 a, 1985 b,
1990; McCall and Lombardo, 1983; Morrison, White and Van Velsor, 1987;
Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley, 1988; McCauley and Lombardo, 1990; Van
Velsor and Leslie, 1995; Hogan and Hogan, 2001; Eichinger and Lombardo, 2003;
Dotlich and Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; and Rasch, Shen, Davies and Bono,
2008.
What can be seen from the existing derailment literature in general over time,
is a distinction between personality traits/characteristics and behaviours/behavioural
traits, both of which can be regarded as internal barriers to success or causes of
derailment. Whilst one would expect research to have been conducted on the
external circumstances or barriers which lead to career derailment, this appears to
be absent in the general derailment literature. This however does not appear to be
the case with the existing literature on the derailment of women, which appears to
focus more evenly on internal barriers (personality traits/characteristics and
behaviours/behavioural traits) and external circumstances, and barriers leading to
derailment. This will be further explored in section 2.5 to follow.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
21
2.4.1 Personality traits leading to derailment
It appears that Bentz (1967, 1985 a, 1985 b, 1990) pioneered the research on
career derailment, as well as linking the existence of particular personality traits or
characteristics leading to derailment. In 1985, Bentz (1985 a) in a study of failed
leaders in the retail industry (at Sears), found nine personality flaws which derailed
leaders had in common. These are as follows:
Table 2.1: Characteristics leading to derailment
Characteristics
Seen to have an overriding personality
defect
Unable to build relationships with a
network of contacts
Unable to deal with complexity Emotions cloud their judgment
Reactive and operational Slow to learn
Unable to delegate Lacked business skills
Unable to build a team
Source: Bentz (1985 a)
Personality flaws, as first identified by Bentz, appear to characterise people
when they are stressed or careless; and were later referred to researchers such as
Hogan and Hogan (2001), as the ―dark side‖ of personality.
Hogan and Hogan (2001) support that derailment may be due to the presence
of undesirable personality characteristics or flaws, and list eleven personality
characteristics which may lead to derailment. These are as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
22
Table 2.2: Personality characteristics leading to derailment
Personality Characteristics
Skeptical Colourful
Cautious Imaginative
Reserved Diligent
Leisurely Dutiful
Arrogant Mischievous
Excitable
Source: Hogan and Hogan (2001)
According to them, the ―dark side‖ of personality erodes the effectiveness of
managers and executives over time (Hogan, 2007; Hogan and Hogan, 2001). Using
a combination of the existing derailment literature in conjunction with personality
disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders –
Four (DSM IV), the Hogan Development Survey (HDS) was developed based on
DSM Axis II personality disorder descriptions and describe eleven personality
characteristics which relate to derailment. Hogan and Hogan‘s (2001) postulate that
derailment is caused by a ―pathological‖ personality, supports Furnham‘s (2010)
definition of a derailed leader as including ―insanity‖. According to Furnham, Crump
and Chamorro-Premuzic (2007, p. 808):
The test (Hogan Development Survey) essentially measures the dark-
side of human behaviour and explores the dimensions of personality
that are likely to derail senior managers. The idea is that when under
stress, those with high scores on these negative traits are prone to act
in dysfunctional ways. The authors call these risk factors for counter-
productive behaviour under stress.
Goldman (2006) supported these findings, when he researched a case of an
executive suffering from Borderline Personality Disorder as defined by the DSM IV.
In his study, he describes the extent to which this particular personality disorder has
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
23
a detrimental effect on the functioning of an organisation. He describes a leader in
his case study as follows:
As a leader, Favio was obviously flamboyant, dramatic, deeply troubled
and enigmatic. He engulfed, lifted and confused his workforce. In the
final analysis, Favio took his employees on a wild, steeplechase ride,
through praise, hyper compassion and wild success, to depression,
anger and despair. The workplace seemed to take on characteristics of
Favio‘s personality.
(Goldman; 2006, p. 740)
Subsequent to Hogan‘s research on eleven personality characteristics which
relate to derailment, Eichinger and Lombardo (2003) conducted a study of the
ratings of over 1000 managers over a two year period. Whilst the study was focused
on managers and not exclusively on executives or leaders, the results are
nonetheless noteworthy. Eichinger and Lombardo (2003) reported nine reasons for
management failure.
Table 2.3: Reasons for management failure
Reasons
Poor administrative skills Poor political skills
Difficulty making tough choices Inability to deal with conflict
Lack of strategic thinking Questionable integrity
Failure to build a team Low self-awareness
Lack of interpersonal savvy
Source: Eichinger and Lombardo (2003)
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
24
2.4.2 Behaviours leading to derailment
In their initial work on leadership derailment, McCall and Lombardo (1983)
focused on specific behaviours of derailed leaders. According to them, leader
behaviours leading to derailment include anti-subordinate behaviours, such as
intimidating and bullying subordinates, as well as anti-organisational behaviours
including laziness, lack of managerial skills, and the inability to build teams and to
think strategically. More specifically they found that leaders derailed for ten reasons.
These reasons are as follows:
Table 2.4: Behaviours of derailed leaders
Behaviours
Experienced specific business problems Overly ambitious
Insensitive Failed to staff effectively
Cold, arrogant and aloof Unable to think strategically
Betrayed trust Unable to adapt to a boss with a different
style
Over managed and did not delegate
enough
Overly dependent on advocate or mentor
Source: McCall and Lombardo (1983)
McCall and Lombardo (1983) highlight that the most frequent cause for
derailment is insensitivity to others. Under stress, the derailed managers in their
study became abrasive and intimidating.
In addition, McCall and Lombardo (1983) further noted that approximately
twenty five percent of employees who are identified as having high potential, derailed
because they became plateaued at lower levels in the organisation. It would thus
appear that it may be important for researchers to identify and manage ―derailers‖
amongst individuals lower in the organisational hierarchy at an early stage of their
careers, in order to prevent this early plateau. In terms of the current study, obtaining
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
25
data on characteristics which prevent derailment, can further serve to minimise the
risk of future derailment amongst junior women managers not only once they reach
executive level, but whilst they are climbing the career ladder.
Subsequent to McCall and Lombardo‘s 1983 study, Morrison, White and Van
Velsor (1987), using the same methodology, compared successful and derailed
women executives. Their results corresponded with those of the McCall and
Lombardo study, showing the existence of specific traits or behaviours in derailed
leaders.
Interestingly, an additional theme which was unique to women was identified,
being ―having a poor image‖. This finding is of particular interest as it related to the
current study, and is thus further explored with the research participants of the study.
Contrary to ―having a poor image‖, it appears that self-efficacy is linked to success.
Self-efficacy refers to an individual‘s convictions (or confidence) about his or her
abilities to mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action
needed to successfully execute a specific task within a given context (Stajkovic &
Luthans, 1998). Self-efficacy is also a key concept in Bandura‘s social cognitive
theory (Stajkovic & Sommer, 2000). Bandura (1982, p. 122) defines it as a personal
belief as to ―how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations‖. It appears that individuals with a poor image or low levels of
self-efficacy are likely to cease their efforts prematurely and fail at the task (Stajkovic
& Luthans, 1998).
In addition to the above, whilst it appears that a ―poor image‖ is a unique
derailer for women, Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987) also found that women
tended to have fewer relationship problems than men, which tended to guard against
their derailment.
In their later research, Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988) attempted
to provide quantitative support for some of the earlier, more qualitative work on the
detailed explanations of executive derailment. According to Lombardo, Ruderman
and McCauley (1988), previous studies regarded derailment as being due to an
individual lacking in certain characteristics. According to them however, whilst
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
26
focusing on what derailed leaders lack, provided helpful information, it didn‘t provide
a thorough enough explanation of the type of behaviours and skills which derailed
leaders possess, which differentiate them from their more successful counterparts.
Thus began the era of a shift from what derailed leaders lack to a true focus
on ―derailment behaviours and characteristics‖. In their study, Lombardo et al (1988)
subsequently identified eight characteristics which contributed to the derailment of
leaders.
Table 2.5: Characteristics contributing to derailment
Characteristics
Inability to build a cohesive team Overtly emotional
Over and under managing Insensitive, cold and arrogant
Overly ambitious Maintaining poor relations with staff
Not supportive and demanding of
subordinates
Overriding personality defects
Source: Lombardo et al (1988)
A short time later McCauley and Lombardo (1990), in an extension on their
1988 study, developed a survey with six scales focused on derailment behaviours.
These derailment behaviours are as follows:
Table 2.6: Survey scales focusing on derailment behaviours
Survey Scales
Problems with interpersonal relationships Lack of follow through
Difficulty moulding staff Over-dependence
Difficulty in making strategic transitions Strategic differences with management
Source: McCauley and Lombardo (1990)
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
27
In addition to the above behaviours, McCauley and Lombardo (1990), found
that ―difficulty in making a transition‖ was the strongest predictor of leadership
derailment. Van Velsor and Leslie (1995) subsequently replicated the 1998
Lombardo et al. study across organisations in several different countries in order to
determine generalizability. Their results echoed those of the previous studies and
further found that problems with interpersonal relationship appeared to be the most
common derailment factor across time, organisations and cultures.
Dotlich and Cairo (2003) show that even great leaders can derail their careers
by exhibiting one or more of eleven flawed behaviours which are often closely
related to factors that made them successful thus far (Burke, 2006). According to
Dotlich and Cairo, all leaders are vulnerable to these factors, which are deeply
engrained personality traits which affect leadership behaviours.
Based on the above, it would appear that an individual with a specific
personality trait, or set of personality traits, is likely to exhibit particular behaviour, or
respond, to a specific external situation or triggers in a specific manner, which may
lead to their derailment. It is my belief that the opposite is also true. Within the
framework of personal construct theory, the current study aims to show how
particular behaviours which lead to particular responses to various situations, are
driven by ―constructions of reality‖, which leaders‘ hold, which some researchers, as
will be discussed later, define as personality.
According to Dotlich and Cairo (2003), the eleven flawed behaviours, shown
by leaders which derail their careers are as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
28
Table 2.7: Flawed behaviours by leaders whose careers derailed
Flawed Behaviours
Arrogance Mischievousness
Melodrama Eccentricity
Volatility Passive resistance
Excessive caution Perfectionism
Habitual distrust Eagerness to please
Aloofness
Source: Dotlich and Cairo (2003)
Finkelstein (2003, p. 238) summarised his research findings on leadership
derailment in terms of ―… the seven habits of spectacularly unsuccessful people‖.
The seven habits or behaviours of these unsuccessful people are as follows:
Table 2.8: Habits of unsuccessful people
Habits
Overestimate their strength and underestimate the strength of their competition
Put personal interests ahead of company interests
Arrogant and make reckless decisions
Eliminate anyone who might challenge their decisions
Ignore operations while trying to manage their company‘s image
Minimise difficult obstacles and don‘t plan accordingly
Rely on outdated strategies and tactics
Source: Finkelstein (2003)
In a study of subordinate descriptions of ineffective leaders, Rasch, Shen,
Davies and Bono (2008), found nine empirically derived behavioural factors, which
they believe, lead to career derailment. These factors which are seen as strictly
being behaviourally or personality based, are as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
29
Table 2.9: Factors which lead to career derailment
Factors
Avoiding conflict and people problems Rumour mongering and inappropriate
use of information
Poor emotional control Procrastination
Over controlling Failure to consider human needs
Poor task performance Failure to manage and nurture talent
Poor planning, organisation and/or
communication
Source: Davies and Bono (2008)
Two of their empirical findings warrant special attention. Firstly, they found no
sex differences in the frequency of these behaviours. Secondly, the category of poor
behaviour that had the most toxic impact on staff morale was the failure to consider
human needs (Hogan & Hogan, 2001).
Whilst it appears that research over time appears to distinguish between
personality traits or characteristics and behaviours which lead to career derailment,
both which can be considered to be internal barriers to success, there does however
appear to be some overlap between what researchers define as being a personality
trait or characteristic, and being a behaviour or a behavioural trait. It can thus be
argued that a lack of clarity exists amongst leadership derailment researchers on the
differences between derailment personality traits and derailment behaviours.
An integrated summary and comparison of the factors, personality
characteristics and behaviours, which thought leaders over time have determined
contribute to derailment, are outlined in Table 2.10.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
30
Table 2.10: Characteristics associated with leadership derailment
Bentz (1985 a)
Hogan and Hogan (2001)
Eichinger & Lombardo (2003)
McCall and Lombardo (1983)
Lombardo et al (1988)
McCauley & Lombardo (1990)
Dotlich & Cairo (2003)
Finkelstein (2003)
Rasch, Shen, Davies & Bono
(2008)
Personality traits leading to derailment
Behaviours leading to derailment
1 Lacked
business
skills
Excitable Poor
administrative
skills
Experienced
specific
business
problems
Inability to
build a
cohesive
team
Problems with
interpersonal
relationships
Arrogance Overestimate
their strength
and
underestimate
the strength of
their
competition
Avoiding conflict
and people
problems
2 Unable to
deal with
complexity
Skeptical Difficulty
making tough
choices
Insensitive Over and
under
managing
Difficulty
moulding
staff
Melodrama Put personal
interests ahead
of company
interests
Poor emotional
control
3 Reactive
and
operational
Cautious Lack of
strategic
thinking
Cold,
arrogant and
aloof
Overly
ambitious
Difficulty in
making
strategic
transitions
Volatility Arrogant and
make reckless
decisions
Over controlling
4 Unable to
delegate
Reserved Failure to
build a team
Betrayed
trust
Not
supportive
and
demanding
Lack of follow
through
Excessive
caution
Eliminate
anyone who
might challenge
their decisions
Poor task
performance
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
31
of
subordinates
5 Unable to
build a team
Leisurely Lack of
interpersonal
savvy
Over
managed
and did not
delegate
enough
Overtly
emotional
Over-
dependence
Habitual distrust Ignore
operations
while trying to
manage their
company‘s
image
Poor planning,
organisation
and/or
communication
6 Unable to
build
relationship
s with a
network of
contacts
Arrogant Poor political
skills
Overly
ambitious
Insensitive,
cold and
arrogant
Strategic
differences
with
management
Aloofness Minimise
difficult
obstacles and
don‘t plan
accordingly
Rumour
mongering and
inappropriate
use of
information
7 Emotions
cloud their
judgment
Mischievous Inability to
deal with
conflict
Failed to
staff
effectively
Maintaining
poor
relations with
staff
Mischievousness Rely on
outdated
strategies and
tactics
Procrastination
8 Slow to
learn
Colourful Questionable
integrity
Unable to
think
strategically
Overriding
personality
defects
Eccentricity, Failure to
consider human
needs
9 Seen to
have an
overriding
personality
Imaginative Low self-
awareness
Unable to
adapt to a
boss with a
different
Passive
resistance
Failure to
manage and
nurture talent
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
32
defect style
10 Diligent Overly
dependent
on advocate
or mentor.
perfectionism
11 Dutiful Eagerness to
please
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
33
When considering the personality characteristics and behaviours identified by
researchers over time as being associated with leadership derailment, it is
interesting to note that although much research has been done over an extended
period, the findings are very similar and tend to converge. Whilst different
methodologies across different settings were utilised, the data appear to show that
derailed leaders tend to have a number of characteristics in common, including
having difficulty with relationships, struggling to build teams, and difficulty managing
themselves.
Also interesting to note, is that none of the research was exclusively
conducted on women and that few gender differences in derailment traits and
behaviours were found in the research that did include women. This is with the
exception of the research by Morrison, White and Van Velsor, (1987) who compared
successful and derailed women executives and found a theme unique to women -
―having a poor image‖. Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987) also found that
women tended to have fewer relationship problems than men.
2.5 Derailment of women executive leaders
Whilst the section above has dealt with Leadership Derailment research in
general, the following section focuses on research conducted on Leadership
Derailment as it relates to women specifically.
There appears to be much less research available on factors derailing female
executives once they reach an executive leadership position than there is on the
barriers which prevent women reaching executive positions in the first place.
However, it stands to reason that barriers to advancement are important to
understand in the context of women executive derailment, as the barriers which exist
to advancement may be the same as those which ultimately lead to derailment once
on executive level. This is confirmed by Schmidt (2009), and is an aspect that is
further explored with participants in the current study.
Researchers (Schein, 1973; Schein, 1975; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Fiske,
Bersoff, Borgida, Deaux & Heilman, 1991; Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992;
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
34
Morrison, 1992; Schein & Mueller, 1992; Valian, 2000; Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000;
Powell, Butterfield, & Parent, 2002; Powell & Graves, 2003; Yancey Martin, 2003;
Schneider, 2004; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs & Tamkins, 2004; Catalyst, 2005;
Eisenhart, 2006; Schein, 2007; Schmidt, 2009) have found that there are specific
derailment factors which are considered to be unique to women, and which act as
barriers to women‘s success, as well as potential derailers for women executives.
2.5.1 Factors leading to the derailment of women executives
Whilst it appears to be the case with general derailment literature over time
that there is a lack of research conducted on the external circumstances or factors
which lead to career derailment, a more balanced approach appears to exist in the
literature on the derailment of women, which tends to more equally focused on
internal (personality traits/characteristics and behaviours/behavioural traits) and
external factors and barriers leading to their derailment.
Despite the more balanced approach above, there appears to be paucity in
the research on how women are able to overcome the barriers they face as well as
derailment, and why some are more able to do so than others. It is thus the primary
objective of the current study to explore the intrinsic characteristics possessed by
women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it.
In the section to follow, the external factors and barriers, as well as the
internal factors and barriers (personality and behaviour), which lead to the derailment
of women executives, are discussed.
2.5.1.1 External factors leading to the derailment of women executives
There appear to be a number of external factors identified by the literature,
which act as barriers to the success of women executives and which lead to their
derailment. These include:
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
35
Gender Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination
According to Schneider (2004, p. 24) ―stereotypes are qualities perceived to
be associated with particular groups or categories of people.‖ According to Valian
(2000), gender schemas are intuitive theories that people have about men and
women, which help people to process information, structure prior knowledge, and
create a framework for understanding the world. Valian (2000) describes a schema
as a broader, more inclusive term than a stereotype, whilst Schneider (2004)
describes schemas as a kind of theoretical reasoning that often accompanies
stereotypes.
Researchers such as Eagly and Johnson (1990) and Powell, Butterfield, and
Parent (2002), have found that the masculine and feminine stereotypes that exist
about men and women affect how people perceive gender roles and consequently,
their expectations of how men and women should behave in the workplace.
In a Harvard Business Review (2013) interview, Chief Executive Officer of
Facebook Sheryl Sandberg reports that:
The data show that success and likability are positively correlated for men
and negatively correlated for women, which means that as women get
more successful, they are liked less—both by men and by other women.
That‘s because we want people to conform to our stereotypes. And when
they don‘t, we don‘t like them as much. We expect men to have leadership
qualities, to be assertive and competent, to speak out. We expect women
to have communal qualities, to be givers and sharers, to pursue the
common good. The problem is, we want to promote and hire people who
are both competent and liked. And that‘s just much easier for men.
Many researchers have explored gender-based stereotypes, prejudice, and
discrimination in the workplace (Catalyst, 2005; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Fiske,
Bersoff, Borgida, Deaux & Heilman, 1991; Morrison, 1992; Powell, Butterfield &
Parent, 2002; Schein & Mueller, 1992; Valian, 2000). According to Schein (2007),
although not all of these studies exclusively studied executive derailment, they are
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
36
nevertheless important because gender-based stereotypes, prejudice, and
discrimination in the workplace, all contribute to the derailment of female executives.
Berthoin and Izraeli (1993, p. 63) state that ―probably the single most
important hurdle for women in management in all industrialised countries is the
persistent stereotype that associates management with being male.‖ A more recent
study by Catalyst (2003) found that stereotyping was the number three barrier to
women‘s overall advancement. Exclusion from informal networks was rated as the
number two barrier to advancement, whilst lack of significant line experience was
rated as number one.
Whilst it can be seen from the above, that stereotyping is no longer the
number one barrier, which indicates that some strides have been made in this
regard, it nevertheless still appears to be an extremely significant barrier to success.
Schein (1973; 1975) conducted a study across 13 insurance companies in the
USA, wherein 300 male middle managers and 167 female middle managers were
asked to determine whether 92 descriptive management terms were characteristic of
males. Results found that males were strongly characterised as managers, whilst the
ratings for women possessing managerial characteristics was almost zero. Schein
(2007) concluded that gender stereotyping was a major barrier to women‘s entry into
management. ―Characteristics such a leadership ability, desires responsibility, and
objectivity were seen as requisite management characteristics and more likely to be
held by men than women. To ―think manager‖ was to ―think male‖, and this view
worked against women seeking to enter and advance into management positions‖
(Shein, 2007, p. 8)
Similar studies were conducted to examine whether these stereotypes had
changed over time. In separate studies, Brenner et al (1989), Heilman et al (1989,
Schein et al (1989), Dodge et al (1995) and Martell (1998), found that whilst the
stereotypes that women held of other women appeared to have decreased over the
course of almost three decades, males continue to perceive men as more likely than
women to possess managerial characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
37
In order to examine the phenomenon of ―think manager, think male‖
internationally and across different cultures, Schein conducted a series of
international studies. Schein and Mueller (1992) selected Germany and the United
Kingdom, Schein and Davidson, (1993) studied the United Kingdom and Schein et al
(1996) studied the People‘s Republic of China and Japan. As per Shein (2007, p. 8),
the results showed that ―managers are seen as possessing characteristics more
commonly ascribed to men than women in Germany, the United Kingdom, China and
Japan… ,the Chinese sample exhibited the highest degree of male –manager
similarity.‖
Schein (2007) thus concludes that the psychological barriers to women
success are still very much in place and occur across cultures and countries.
More recent research by Zenger and Folkman (2012), in a survey conducted
of 7,280 leaders, however showed that at top management, executive and senior
level, women‘s overall leadership competencies were rated by their peers,
colleagues, superiors and employees, as being at 67.7 percent, versus 57.7 percent
for their male counterparts, with two particular leadership traits where women
participants outscored men to the highest degree being taking initiative and driving
for results, which Zenger and Folkman (2012) report have traditionally been thought
of as particularly male strengths. This suggests that there may be a shift from the
―think manager, think male‖ phenomenon.
Despite the above results however, Zenger and Folkman (2012) also found
that women remain underrepresented and scored higher on taking initiative and
driving for results because they felt that they had to work harder than men to prove
themselves and felt under constant pressure to never make a mistake, and to
continually prove their value to the organization. Whilst the behaviours of initiative
and driving for results obviously benefit the organisations in which women work, they
also point to the fact that women still believe themselves to be in a precarious
position and that psychological barriers to the success of women are still very much
in place.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
38
Schein (2007) points out that various surveys show that women see the
negative impact of gender stereotyping on their careers, whilst men do not:
Women senior executives in the USA (Catalyst, 1996, 2004), Canada
(Catalyst, 1997), the UK (Catalyst/Opportunity Now, 2000) and in major
corporations in 20 European countries (Catalyst, 2002a, b) all agree that
gender stereotyping is a major barrier to women‘s progress in
management. On the other hand CEO‘s in the USA (Catalyst, 2004) and
in major corporations in 20 European countries (Catalyst, 2002a, b) do not
see stereotyping as a significant barrier to women‘s advancement. They
tend to see lack of line experience as a major barrier to women‘s
progress. Overall, women recognise the insidious effects of stereotyping
on their careers, but men continue to operate with blinders on when it
comes to the influence of gender stereotyping on decision-making.
(Schein, 2007, p. 10)
Schein (2007) emphasises the importance of keeping legal pressure on, and
challenging the assumptions about work requirements and way work is structured, if
progress is to be made in the advancement and the success of women.
Research by Schmidt (2009), Catalyst (2005), Erkut (2001), Heilman, Block,
Simon and Martel (1989), Powell, Butterfield, and Parent (2002), as well as Schein
and Muller (1992) has found that gender based stereotypes have the potential to
derail female executives once they make it to senior level positions. If a female
executive is placed in a senior leadership role, but is either unconsciously or
consciously perceived not to have the ability to be successful in that role due to
gender-based stereotypes, she could be set up for failure before even assuming her
position. As noted by Schmidt (2009, p. 21), this can be especially problematic when
stereotypes evolve into prejudice and discrimination.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
39
Gendered organisations, occupations, sex segregation and tokenism
According to Schmidt, (2009, p. 24) ―organisations and occupations are
‗gendered‘ to the degree that they are male of female dominated‖. According to
Acker (1990, p. 146) gendered organisations mean that ―advantage and
disadvantage, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are
patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and female, masculine
and feminine.‖ Acker further states that gendered segregation of work as well as the
income and status equality between men and women are created though
organisational practices and processes such as hiring, assignment, and promotion
practices.
Research by Acker (1990), Britton (2000), Catalyst (2005), Heilman (1997),
Kanter (1993), Lipman-Blumen, Freyling, Henderson, Moore, and Vecchiotti (1996),
Meyerson and Fletcher (2000), Powell and Graves (2003), and Yancey Martin
(2003), has shown that traditional organisations are gendered masculine as are the
executive roles within them. Female executives thus often experience pressures
which could potentially lead to their derailment, which their male counterparts do not.
Research by Catalyst (2005) found that regardless of a woman‘s competence,
if she works in a stereotypically masculine occupation, she will be found to be less
competent than if she works in a feminine occupation. Powell and Graves (2003)
found that sex segregation of occupations exists when males and females are not
evenly distributed across occupations. According to them, although sex segregation
has decreased over the years, it still remains high. They state that in the United
States only 8.8 percent of women work in traditionally male occupations.
It further appears that tokenism may contribute to women leadership
derailment. According to Schmidt (2009), when a few women move into senior
organisational roles, typically defined as masculine, they become tokens, which
means that they become ―representatives of their category rather than independent
individuals‖ (Kanter, 1993, p. 6). Kanter (1993) also found that tokens need to deal
with high visibility, unwarranted attention and an amplification of differences and
stereotyping, which are challenges that lead to higher turnover rates amongst
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
40
tokens. In Kanter‘s research it was found that tokenism occurs when a particular
group comprises 15 percent or less in an organisation.
More recent research by Thomson et al (2008) reveals that corporate and
political groups tend to become more supportive of senior women leaders when
there are at least three women in a particular leadership group. Torchia et al., (2011)
in a study of 317 Norwegian firms, further found that having at least three women on
a corporate board showed a significant correlation with higher levels of
organisational innovation. According to Eagly and Carli (2007), the concept of ―built-
in legitimacy‖ is also associated with tokenism, in that women leaders are often seen
to lack the legitimacy that is given to men. According to them, this is typically rectified
when it is recognised that a woman chosen for a leadership position is indeed the
best candidate.
The “glass ceiling” phenomenon
The glass ceiling phenomenon was popularised in 1986 after being used in a
Wall Street Journal Article (Smith et al, 2012). Powell (2012) describes the ―glass
ceiling‖ as an everyday metaphor used to describe the invisible barrier in front of
women attempting to move up organisational hierarchies. According to Catalyst
(2011) and Okimoto and Brescoll (2012), the glass ceiling phenomenon is
responsible for the lack of women in senior and leadership positions, particularly in
the area of business and politics, and is the most powerful and memorable image of
the barriers preventing women from achieving promotions (Barreto et al., 2009;
Burke & Vinnicombe, 2005).
Much research has been conducted on the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon.
Catalyst (1998), Catalyst (2000), Erkut, (2001), Morison et al. (1992), Morrison,
Schreiber, and Price (1995), Morrison(1996), The U.S Glass Ceiling Commission
(1995a, 1995b) and Valian (2000). According to Schmidt (2009, p. 8), this research
includes ―theories and recommendations about organisational practices and
programmes that assist female executives, in being more successful in the
organisation.‖ She further states that this research provides insight into support
strategies aimed at enhancing the success of female executives. She further states
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
41
that support strategies also have the potential to contribute to career derailment if
such support strategies are absent in the workplace.
From the above, it appears that it is assumed that once a woman executive
has broken the glass ceiling, this particular barrier is no longer of relevance.
However, Morrison et al (1992, p. 142) point out that:
After breaking the glass ceiling, many women realise that they are still not
on the road to the top, that they are hemmed in even more than they were,
and that the support that was so helpful in the past all of a sudden
becomes scarce.
According to Schmidt, (2009) the lack of support, including the absence of
women‘s initiatives for women executives who have broken through the glass ceiling,
may be a contributory factor to the derailment of women executives. She thus
proposes five categories of organisational support strategies for women executives,
which include the following.
Top management support - if having women in senior level positions is not
supported, lack of support structures, exclusion from internal networks and
sabotage, may lead to failure.
Accountability – This is defined as creating a clear business strategy for the
advancement of women that is linked to business goals and objectives
(Schmidt, 2009, p. 39).
Selection processes – Expanding the pool of qualified candidates through
recruitment practices and processes that have diversity considerations
embedded within them, will further support the success of women.
Development programs – This develops linking career development
programmes for women directly to succession management processes.
Work/life policies – This includes flexible work arrangements, child and elder
care, family leave benefits, and relocation assistance (Schmidt, 2009, p. 42).
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
42
Research has shown that even after breaking through the glass ceiling, the
lack of these five support strategies for women executives may lead to their ultimate
derailment. (Catalyst, 1998; Morrison, 1996; U.S. Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995
b).
The “glass cliff” phenomenon
Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) and Haslam and Ryan (2006) conducted
archival and experimental research in which they found that as compared to men,
women are more likely to find themselves on a glass cliff, which they define as
being places in positions of leadership that are associated with greater risk and an
increased possibility of failure. In an analysis of the performance of FTSE 100
companies, before and after the appointment of male and female board members,
Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) found that, specifically in times of a general downturn
in the stock market, companies that had appointed female board members, had
experienced consistently poor business performance in the months preceding the
appointment. This thus exposed them to a greater risk of unfair criticism and blame
for negative outcomes and often resulted in the dismissal or resignation of the
women involved. In a series of experimental studies to establish the authenticity of
the glass cliff phenomenon, Ryan and Haslam (2005a, b) and Haslam and Ryan
(2006) found that participants consistently judged women job candidates to be more
appointable when organisational performance was declining.
According to Ryan, Haslam and Postmes (2007) the underlying psychological
processes underlying the glass cliff phenomenon are likely to include:
sexism in the workplace;
lack of women‘s support networks;
the perceived mismatch between stereotypes associated with women leaders;
the match between stereotypes associated with crisis management and
women.
Ryan et al (2005a) also identified the existence of glass cliff positions in UK
general elections between 1966 and 2005.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
43
In a study exploring the explanations that 164 individuals provided for the
glass cliff phenomenon, Ryan, Haslam and Postmes (2007) found that whilst various
explanations were provided, over 50 percent of male participants did not
acknowledge the very existence of the glass cliff phenomenon. In addition, whilst
women were more likely to recognise the unfairness, prevalence and danger of the
glass cliff for women, men tended to downplay the dangers associated with glass
cliffs for women. Such findings emphasise:
The subtle nature of the glass cliff as a barrier for women, and again
suggest that managing the change associated with women‘s increasing
representation in the workplace will not be a straightforward process.
(Ryan, Haslam & Postmes, 2007, p. 197)
It thus appears that as women break through the glass ceiling, they may be
faced with a new challenge and a more subtle barrier to their success.
Organisational culture
According to Fassinger (2008), women can face a ―chilly work climate‖, which
is an unwelcoming environment which is reinforced by double-standards and unfair
evaluation practices. Research by Cormier (2007) of successful women in
organisational positions such as chief operating officer, vice president, director, and
senior manager, found that they experienced a sense of isolation and lack of
integration into the culture of the organisation. These women felt like outsiders and
… ―expressed an acute sense of isolation and a longing to be fully integrated‖
(Cormier, 2007, p. 265). Cormier (2007) found that when these leaders spent time
and energy trying to fit into the organisational culture, their ability to engage fully was
hampered.
Cormier (2007) cited the steps to building a culture of integration as:
customizing leadership profiles;
developing women leaders;
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
44
creating a culture of integration; and
establishing women‘s networks within organisations.
Crucial to the success of changing an organisational culture is the role of the
executive and leadership team who have the most impact on successful culture
change Cormier (2007). ―The executive team holds the potential for the organisation
and it is the place where the new culture must be developed and modelled‖
(Cormier, 2007, p. 267). She further goes on to state that:
What happens at the executive table… is critical for creating an
environment where women leaders, along with their male counterparts,
can thrive. The leadership team is the organisation‘s culture in microcosm.
The shift to a culture of integration begins here.
(Cormier, 2007, p. 267)
Career derailment themes
Schmidt (2009) conducted a qualitative study of 20 women executives who had
been derailed, in order to explore the factors which they felt contributed to their
derailment. Based on the results of her research, Schmidt (2009) developed eleven
career derailment themes. These are reflected in Table 2.11 to follow:
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
45
Table 2.11: Career derailment themes
Themes
Relationship with the boss Inability to achieve business objectives
Business operations resulted in company
eliminating jobs
Organisational practices
Discrimination Education and development
Sabotage Other people‘s reactions to a competent
women
Leadership style New senior leadership (not the boss)
Lack of relationship building and
networking
Source: Schmidt (2009)
Schmidt (2009) further found that each participant experienced an average of
4 themes leading to derailment and that any one factor or theme was not responsible
for derailment, but that at least two or more themes played a role in the women‘s
career derailment.
Of the eleven career derailment themes found by Schmidt (2009), the
following six can be regarded as being external:
business operations resulted in company eliminating jobs;
discrimination;
sabotage;
organisational practices;
other people‘s reactions to a competent women;
new senior leadership (not the boss).
2.5.1.2 Internal factors leading to derailment of women executives
As is the case with the literature on derailment in general, the literature on the
internal barriers leading to the derailment of women executives can be broadly
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
46
categorised as being based on personality traits as well as on behaviours exhibited
by women executives who derail.
Leadership styles and behaviour
According to Jonsen, Maznevski and Schneider (2010) the debate amongst
management scholars whether the difference in leadership styles of men and women
are ―real‖ and objective and based in empirical findings, or socially construed,
persists. In addition, differences or perceptions of differences between the leadership
styles of men and women paly a powerful role in maintaining the glass ceiling.
It has been found that a strong bias exists towards stereotypical masculine
leadership behaviours, as well as the lack of acceptance of female leaders by male
executives (Eagly, Johannesen- Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003; Eagly & Johnson,
1990; Eagly & Karau, 2002; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins, 2004; Powell et al.,
2002; Schein & Meuller, 1992). According to Schmidt (2009), biases towards
masculine leadership behaviours are relevant to the career derailment of female
executives.
A recent study found that female leaders outperformed their male colleagues
on leadership traits like empathy, influence, and conflict management. They further
appear to display slightly higher levels of self-awareness. However, the study found
that female leaders are less likely to be seen as demonstrating strategic vision and
being comfortable with risk-taking (Gavett, 2013).
Empirical studies reveal only slight differences between the leadership styles
of men and women and conclude that knowledge of a leader‘s gender will not help to
predict what his or her leadership behaviour will be (Eagly et al., 2003; Eagly &
Johnson, 1990; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003; Robinson & Lipman-Blumen, 2003).
Research on organisational structures suggested that female executives may be
placed in positions with diminished opportunity and power, leading to less access to
the organisational resources needed to get the job done (Kanter, 1993; Ragins &
Sundstrom, 1989).
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
47
In addition to the above, research on gender norms indicate that gender
polarization may lead to the devaluation of women in masculine occupations, such
as executive roles, and result in detrimental consequences such as rejection, poor
performance evaluations and limited rewards (Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992;
Heilman et al., 2004). Some women find that when working in masculine occupations
it is not acceptable for them to demonstrate either stereotypical feminine or
masculine qualities (Eagly, Makhijani & Klonsky, 1992; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs &
Tamkins, 2004; Eisenhart, 2006).
The data of a study of 22 executives conducted by Morrison et al (1992)
revealed that three serious flaws were perceived to be causes of female derailment.
The inability to adapt.
Wanting too much for oneself or other women.
Not meeting performance expectations.
Women who appeared to be assertive and request raises or promotions were
regarded as inappropriate. Wanting too much for oneself or other women and not
meeting performance expectations, were themes that were unique to women
executives sampled. It should however be noted that the study comprised of 16 men
and only 6 women. In addition, as later research on gender stereotyping shows
however, women who display stereotypically masculine traits such as assertiveness
and directness are often socially rejected (Eagly & Makhijani, 1992; Heilman et al.,
2004; Ruderman & Ohlott, 2002, Valian, 2000).
Morrison (1992) found that a number of female executives who had derailed
were promoted to senior-level positions and could not handle the complexity required
of these positions. Participants in the study reported that the experience level of
many of these derailed women executives was too narrow to have allowed them to
be successful in senior-level positions.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
48
A meta-analysis conducted by Leslie and Van Velsor (1996) which cut across
five studies and were common to both men and women, revealed four derailment
themes, namely:
problems with interpersonal relationships;
failure to meet business objectives;
inability to build and lead a team; and
inability to change or adapt during a transition.
It should however be noted that approximately 95 percent of derailment cases
in this meta-analysis were male, highlighting once again the lack of focused research
on the internal factors leading to the derailment of women executives.
Zenger and Folkman (2002), rated approximately 25 000 leaders, both men
and women, and found five patterns of behaviour which contributed to derailment.
These include:
inability to learn from mistakes;
lack of core interpersonal skills and competencies;
lack of initiative;
lack of accountability; and
lack of openness to new or different ideas.
Lombardo and Eichinger (2002) reviewed the termination data of over 1000
men and women executives over a two year period and found that the following
three themes lead to executives being fired:
having weak relationships and networks;
not getting work out;
not managing strategy.
In Schmidt‘s (2009) study of 20 women executives who had been derailed, of
the eleven themes found, the following five Career Derailment Themes can be
regarded as being internal to the women themselves, and based either on their
personality or behaviour. These are:
relationship with the boss;
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
49
leadership style;
lack of relationship building and networking;
inability to achieve business objectives;
education and development.
Schmidt (2009) found four broad elements contributing to the career
derailment of women executives, being societal, organisational, other individuals and
self. She subsequently provides a graphic illustration of career derailment,
incorporating these elements and their associated themes. This graphic illustration
is provided in Figure 2.1 below:
Figure 2.1: Model of career derailment for female executives
Source: Schmidt (2009)
In conclusion then, the available literature on the internal as well as external
factors leading to the derailment of women executives can be summarised as per
Table 2.12 below:
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50
Table 2.12: Factors associated with leadership derailment
EXTERNAL FACTORS – Factors outside
of women leading to derailment
INTERNAL FACTORS - Personality traits and behaviours leading to derailment
Gender Stereotyping Leadership styles and behaviour
Gendered organisations The inability to adapt
Gendered occupations Wanting too much for oneself or other
women
Sex segregation Not meeting performance expectations
Tokenism Problems with interpersonal relationships
and networks
Prejudice Failure to meet business objectives
The ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon Inability to build and lead a team
The ―glass cliff‖ phenomenon Inability to learn from mistakes
Organisational culture Not managing strategy
Business operations resulted in company
eliminating jobs
Relationship with the boss
Discrimination Education and development
Sabotage Lack of initiative
Organisational practices Lack of accountability
Other people‘s reactions to a competent
women
New senior leadership (not the boss)
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
51
When considering the factors leading to career derailment amongst women
executives discussed above, it can be seen that a more balanced approach exits
with regards to internal and external barriers leading to career derailment. However,
it should be noted that in several of the studies focusing on personality traits/
characteristics and behaviours, women were the minority of subjects sampled. In
addition, only one study (Morrison et al., 1992), which was included in Leslie and
Van Velsor‘s (1996) meta-analysis, addressed derailment factors specific for women.
The purpose of this study aims to explore the intrinsic characteristics
possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who
have overcome it. It is envisaged that a better understanding can thus be reached
about how women are able to overcome the external derailers they face.
I further envisaged that the current study will lead to a better understanding of
the intrinsic characteristics of women who are able to overcome their own internal
(personality traits/ characteristics and behaviours) barriers to success.
It is thus envisaged that the current study will lead to the empowerment of
women executives and an increased sense of agency, when it comes to their ability
to overcome both internal and external barriers and derailers to their success as
leaders.
2.6 Opting out in derailment of women executives
The section above has focused on the factors traditionally explored by the
literature as acting as barriers and potential derailers to success of women
executives. It is however my belief that the phenomenon of opting out merits further
exploration and consideration as being a potential barrier and derailer to the success
of women executives.
Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper, Hawkins-Rodgers and Wentworth (2007) found
that 26 percent of women on the brink of being promoted to the highest levels in their
profession reported that they did not want the promotion. Mero and Sellers (2003)
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
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further found that it is not always a case of women not being able obtain to executive
positions, but rather a case of them not wanting these positions.
Cannon (2009) defines opting out as the phenomenon of the conscious
decision to leave a position as a senior leader. According to Hemmasi and Jawahar
(2006) the ―opting out revolution‖ is characterised by well-educated professional
women leaving the workforce altogether.
Studies over time on the ―opting out revolution‖ reveal that there may be
varying reasons for the existence of this phenomenon. Organisation‘s lack of support
of women‘s advancement leads to turnover of well qualified and experienced women
(Goodman et al, 2003; Indvik, 2001; Morrison & Von Glinow, 1990), and is cited as
one of the primary reasons for women executives opting out. Schmidt (2009)
reported that in a catalyst study (1998) of professional women who left jobs in the
private sector, over half of them stated that they had left due to negative
circumstances, which included perceptions of exclusion and lack of opportunity.
Hewlett and Luce (2005) found that whilst it was traditionally assumed that the pull of
family was the primary cause for women opting out, women are currently leaving
organisations due to high levels of dissatisfaction.
Hewlett and Luce (2005) found that reasons for opting out were as follows:
44 percent of women opting out did so in order to increase time spent with
family;
23 percent opted out due to unsatisfying work;
7 percent chose to opt out due to the fact that they were relocating; and
16 percent due to a decision to make a change in career.
Deutch‘s (2005) findings were similar to those of Hewlett and Luce (2005) in
so far as:
38 percent of women opted out in order to resume their studies;
31 percent decided to stop work altogether;
45 percent of women decided to start their own business;
33 percent made a change in their personal lives; and
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35 percent changed their careers.
According to Puffer (2004) women opted out due to a need for flexibility, whilst
Morris, Bonamici, Kaufman, and Neering (2005) found that the primary reason for
opting out was due to discrimination in the workplace. Maneiro and Sullivan (2005),
Sull and Holder (2005), as well as Wallis et al (2004) found that the glass ceiling,
discrimination and lack of developmental opportunities primarily caused women to
opt out, whilst Gersick and Kram (2002) found the primary reason for opting out, was
for executive women to ―re-evaluate life‖.
Research of a group of 54 high-potential women by Stone (2013) shows that
they pursued their careers for an average of 11 years and that 60% of them worked
well past the birth of their second child. Ninety percent of these women who have
children and ultimately left their careers, left not to care for their families, but
because of workplace problems. These workplace problems were primarily identified
as frustration and long hours. Two-thirds of those who left attempted part-time work
but found it problematic as they‘d been putting in long weeks with part-time
remuneration tending to mean 40 hours of work for 20 hours‘ worth of remuneration.
Factoring even more into decisions to opt out entirely, however, was the inability to
work part-time without being marginalised.
Cannon (2009) in her comprehensive study on the factors leading to women
leaders‘ decision to opt out of their senior leadership positions, discussed in detail
the existing literature on opting out. This can be summarised as follows:
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Table 2.13: Summary of literature on opting out
Reasons for Opting
Out
Research Focus/Findings- Researcher/Author
General Opting Out Phenomenon Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner,
2000; Hewlett & Luce, 2005;
Lyness & Thompson, 2000;
Maniero & Sullivan, 2005;
Taylor et. al., 2000
Multiple reasons -
organization, career,
family, personal
Survey of 2,443 women – family (44
%), earn degree (23 %); work not
satisfying (17 %); moved away (17
%); change career (16 %)
Lyness & Thompson, 2000
Multiple reasons –
education, career,
personal
Going back to school (38 %);
quitting work (31 %); starting
business (45 %); personal life (33
%); changing careers (35 %)
Deutsch, 2005
Multiple reasons –
personal,
organization, career
Multiple reasons – Medial crisis,
downsizing, lack of challenge,
discrimination, more education,
desire to travel
Morris, 1995
Organization reasons
- multiple
Lack of line experience (47 %);
exclusion from informal networks
(41%); stereotyping (33 %); failure
of leadership to be accountable for
women‘s advancement (29 %t)
Wallis et. al., 2004 – specific
findings
Similar findings by:
Ebberwein, et. al., 2004; Liff
& Ward, 2001; Ragins et. al.,
1998; Ryan & Haslam, 2007;
Wellington et. al., 2003
Organization reasons
– Discrimination
Glass ceiling, discrimination, lack of
developmental opportunities
Jones, 2007; Liff & Ward,
2001; Maniero & Sullivan,
2005; Meyerson & Fletcher,
2005; Morris et. al., 2005;
Shambaugh, 2007; Sull &
Holder, 2005; Trumbell,
2007; Wallis et. al., 2004
Organization reasons Policies/lack of organization policies Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000;
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- Policies – work/life
Cornell Couples and Careers Study
Moen, 1999; Porter, 2004;
Rowe & Kahn, 1998; Winn,
2004
Career reasons –
men and women
(career choices)
Career paths and choices different
from women and men Women more
interested in intrinsic value
Women and men work for same
reason.
O‘Neil & Bilimoria, 2005;
Woodd, 1999; Cron, 2001
Career reasons –
obstacles and lack of
opportunity (men vs.
women)
Women don‘t fit culture, work group
exclusivity, fewer mentoring
opportunities, social isolation,
stereotypical assessment, fewer
developmental assignments, fewer
overseas assignment
General finding related to general
distribution of top spots. Women
face more career obstacles than
men.
Bergman & Hallberg, 2002;
Cappelli & Hamori, 2005;
Fels, 2004; Hastings, 2007;
Hewlett & Luce, 2005;
Lyness & Thompson, 2000;
Morris, 2005; Nash &
Stevenson, 2004; Stroh et.
al., 1996; Terjesen, 2005;
Tischler, 2004; Winn, 2004;
Woodd, 1999
Career reasons –
patterns (general)
Career patterns changing – affected
by technology, competition,
downsizing, new work contracts
(implied and specific).
Hewlett, 2002; Terjesen,
2005; Woodd, 1999
Career reasons –
patterns for women
Adjust to accommodate new roles,
Develops in given field and moves
on in spiral or cycle pattern,
Portable skills,
Scale back lives so can scale back
work,
Women beginning own businesses.
Maniero & Sullivan, 2005;
Woodd, 1999; Hewlett, 2002;
Terjesen, 2005; Dagley &
Salter, 2004; Friedman,
2005; Hall & Mirvis, 1996;
Kossek, et. al., 1998, Laker,
2002; Schor, 1998; Ewers,
2007; Farrell, 2005; Menzies
et. al., 2004; Moore, 2003;
Terjesen, 2006; Winn, 2004
Career reasons –
retention and
development
Women leave jobs because of
workload, control over scheduling,
working standard or consistent
schedule, availability of flexi time.
Moen, 1999; Smart, 1999
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Retention tied to rewards like
special projects, task forces, job
movement, seminars, personal
coaching, status symbols and
recognition.
Family reasons –
career change
Home based businesses
Affecting career change decisions
Farrell, 2005;
Maniero & Sullivan, 2005
Family reasons –
work/life balance
Women want more flexibility;
difficulty achieving balance. 44
percent of women surveyed said
family most important (Lyness &
Thompson)
Amatea et. al., 1986; Bailyn
et. al., 2001; Barnett & Hyde,
2001; Beatty, 1996; Berg et.
al., 2003; Dychtwald, 1999;
Hewlett & Luce, 2005;
Lyness & Thompson, 2000;
Puffer, 2004
Family reasons -
responsibility
Women bear disparate amount of
responsibility for family/home
Bielby & Bielby, 1989; Cron,
2001; Hewlett & Luce, 2005;
Kossek et. al., 1998; Maniero
& Sullivan, 2005; McKenna,
1997; Moen, 1999
Family reasons -
eldercare
Responsibility to care for non-child
family members
Barnett & Hyde, 2001;
Hewlett & Luce, 2005
Personal reasons –
Life stage and self-
awareness
Life stage – re-evaluate life,
expectations of self and others,
wholeness, self-clarity
Bozionelos, 2004; Campbell
et. al., 1996; Drucker, 1999;
Fredrickson, 2001; Friedman
et. al., 2005; Gersick &
Kram, 2002; Goleman et. al.,
2001; Levinson, 1996;
MacArthur Foundation, 1999;
McKenna, 1997; Moen,
1999; Morris, 1995;
Ruderman & Ohlott, 2002;
Sull & Holder, 2005; Winn,
2004
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Personal reasons –
stress and time
Work-related stress and time
pressures
Barnett & Hyde, 2001;
Beatty, 1996; Gewirtz et. al.,
2003; Hewlett, 2002; Karoly
& Panis, 2004; Morris, 2002;
Rowe & Kahn, 1998; Taylor
et. al., 2000; Wallis et. al.,
2004
From the above it can be seen that four main categories exist for women
executives opting out. These are:
organization reasons;
career reasons;
family reasons and;
personal reasons.
These reasons can be further classified as ―pull‖ reasons, which are reasons
which are externally drawing women executives to opt out, as well as ―push‖ reasons
within their work environment which are forcing them to opt out. Whilst it appears
that several ―pull‖ factors exist, there can be no doubt that the ―push‘ factors leading
to the decision to opt out are not dissimilar to those associated with derailment. It is
for this reason that I propose that the phenomenon of opting out be further explored
during the current study.
From the literature review on leadership derailment of women executives, it
can be seen that there is a complex, and sometimes intertwined labyrinth of barriers
and derailers faced by women executives. Whilst the literature review above is not
exhaustive, it outlines some of the major barriers and derailers to the success of
women executives. Notable in the derailment literature, is that the literature on
derailment amongst women has a more balanced approach to a focus on internal
and external factors leading to derailment, than has the general derailment literature.
Very little, if any, focus however is given to the internal characteristics of women who
are able to overcome barriers and derailment, and how they can be differentiated
from those who are unable to do so.
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The current study will thus explore the intrinsic characteristics which women
executives, who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it,
possess, regardless of whether the barriers they face are internal or external. It is
proposed that these internal characteristics act as preventative measures against
possible derailment. More specifically, I explore the mental representations and the
constructions of meaning held by executive women which act as preventative
measures against derailment. This exploration takes place within the theoretical
framework of personal construct theory, which is further discussed in Chapter 3.
2.7 Conclusion
Chapter 2 dealt with the key concepts of leadership derailment and women
executives as well as a discussion of the importance of the study of leadership
derailment due to its prevalence and cost to organisations and individuals. A
historical overview with a summary of the thought leaders in the field of leadership
derailment, in general, followed by an outline of the research conducted on
leadership derailment as it relates to women specifically, was provided.
Discourse on specific factors found to be barriers to women‘s success as well
as potential derailers for women executives, including: gender stereotyping,
prejudice and discrimination; gendered organisations, occupations, sex segregation
and tokenism; leadership styles and behaviour; the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon;
organisational culture as well as other career derailment themes, was undertaken.
In the following chapter, the research design that served as the approach and
methodology to explore the characteristics that prevent the derailment of women
leaders, are discussed.
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CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter qualitative research, the key scientific beliefs held by myself
and the research strategy of the current study, are discussed. This is followed by a
discourse on the history and principles of grounded theory as well as the application
of a literature review during a grounded theory study. My approach in this regard is
delineated and grounded theory as the framework of the current study is discussed
in some detail.
In the current study, a technique typically associated with personal construct
theory, is applied within the grounded theory framework. This technique as well as
the key elements of personal construct theory are discussed briefly in Chapter 3,
whilst the discussion and interpretation of research findings, as they relate to
personal construct theory, are further embroidered upon in Chapter 5.
Chapter 3 is concluded with an outline of the research methodology applied in
the study, with particular focus on the research setting, researcher roles, and the
pilot study conducted. In addition, sampling in the study, data collection, recording
and storage of data, as well as data analysis, are outlined.
3.2 Research Design
3.2.1 Research approach
3.2.1.1 Qualitative research and its key features
The history of qualitative research reveals that disciplines of modern social
science have taken as their mission, the analysis and understanding of the social
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processes of society. Qualitative research is particularly well suited to this
mission (Vidich & Lyman, 2000, p. 37).
Vidich and Lyman (as cited in Denzin and Lincoln; 2008, p. 19) outline the
stages of qualitative research. These are as follows:
firstly, the early exploration of cultural phenomenon (ethnography), which
occurred to the 17th century;
secondly, colonial ethnography which was conducted by 17th, 18th and 19th
century explorers;
thirdly, the ethnography of the American Indian as ―other‖ which took place
during the late 19th and early 20th century;
fourthly, community studies and ethnographies of American immigrants which
took place from the early 20th centrury though the 1960‘s;
fifthly, studies of ethnicity and assimilation, which occurred midcentury
through the 1980‘s;
finally, the present, which is referred to as the eighth moment of qualitative
research.
In each of these eras, researchers have been influenced by their political
hopes and ideologies, discovering findings in their research that confirmed their prior
theories or beliefs. Arguments for the use of qualitative methods are based on the
view that quantitative methods are inadequate in terms of accounting for context and
meaning, and that qualitative methods offer richer understandings of cultural and
social phenomena (Murray & Chamberlain, 1998).
As described by Denzin and Lincoln (2000, p. 1048), qualitative research is an
interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It
crosscuts the humanities, the social sciences and the physical sciences. Qualitative
research is many things at the same time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its
practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are
committed to the naturalistic perspective and to the interpretative understanding of
human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped by
multiple ethical and political allegiances.
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Schurink (2001) states that although qualitative researchers share an anti-
positivistic set of basic beliefs or paradigms, they still may have different
perspectives based on their worldview of scientific truth. Due to the diverse nature of
qualitative research, gaining an understanding of its key features provides more
clarity.
Whilst definitions of qualitative research and data may vary, the definitions of
well-respected qualitative researchers such as Lofland and Lofland (1984), Gilmore
and Carson (1996); Bogdan, and Biklen (1998), Creswell (1998), Mason (1996),
Strauss and Corbin (1990), and more recently, Amaratunga, Baldry, Sarshar and
Newton (2001), Schwandt (2007) and Denzin and Lincoln (2008), share the following
key features.
It focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and
creates a view of what real life is like.
It has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong
potential for revealing complexities. According to Amaratunga et al. (2001)
such data provide rich, vivid descriptions, nested in a real life context.
The fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period
makes it powerful for studying any process.
The inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what
has been going on is really understood.
It is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing
hypotheses.
It allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to
explore the field and to consider the dimensions involved.
The adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of
action that may evolve with the researcher‘s experiential learning and
development.
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3.2.1.2 Key scientific beliefs
According to Babbie (2007, p. 33), ―all qualitative researchers approach their
studies with a certain paradigm or worldview, a basic set of beliefs or assumptions
that guides their enquiries. Each of the paradigms offers a different way of looking at
human social life, makes its own assumptions about the nature of social reality, and
can open up new understandings‖.
Bateson (1972, p. 314) states that a researcher is ―bound within a set of
epistemological and ontological premises which – regardless of the ultimate truth or
falsity – become partially self-validating‖. In what is to follow, I outline my ontological
as well as epistemological beliefs.
Ontology
Mason (1996) defines ontology as the researcher‘s view on the essence and
nature of the social world. The key ontological question for social researchers is:
should we see reality as objective, external to people‘s awareness, or should we
view it as social constructions built up from the actions, experiences and perceptions
of people?
It is my view that reality, to a large extent, is objective and external to people‘s
awareness. Kvale (1996, p. 41) likens this conception of knowledge to a ‗mirror of
reality‘. During the current study the I thus ―hold a mirror‖ to the reality of the
participants by means of a systematic, interactive methodological approach, through
which reality can be discovered so that insight can be gained into the characteristics
which they possess which have prevented their derailment as leaders, or have
assisted them to overcome it.
Epistemology
Behind ones‘ ontological beliefs, lie different theories of knowledge and
perception, or epistemologies. Eastrby-Smith, Thorpe and Lowe (2002, p. 31) define
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epistemology as a ―general set of assumptions about the best ways of enquiring into
the nature of the world‖. Various epistemological approaches exist.
Fouche and Schurink, (cited in de Vos et al; 2011) identify three research
perspectives, namely:
objectivism;
interpretivism;
constructionism.
Each of the above comes with its own ontology, epistemology, methodology,
methods of data collection and analysis, as outlined in table 3.1:
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Table 3.1: Research perspectives
Paradigm Ontology Epistemology Methodology Method of data
collection and
analysis
Report/writing style
Objectivism
Positivism
The life world of
subjects can be
discovered in an
objective manner
Interpretation arises
from observation of
the researcher. With
the right methods
meaning can be
discovered
For example, classic
ethnography and
phenomenology
For example,
participant
observation and
interviewing
Description of day to
day events
experienced in the
field, realist tales in
an authorial, supreme
voice to represent
and interpret other‘s
story
Interpretivism
Modernism
Realism
The real world can be
discovered by means
of a systematic,
interactive
methodological
approach
Knowledge arises
from the
understanding of
symbols and meaning
(Symbolic
interactionism)
Grounded theory
Data are gathered by
means of participant
observation, human
documents and
interviewing, and are
analysed
systematically
The researcher
provides insights into
the behaviour
displayed and the
meanings and
interpretations that
subjects give to their
life worlds
Constructivism
Post-modernism
There is no real world
or truth out there,
Those who are
personally
Newer forms of
ethnography: auto-
Interviewing,
participant
The story must be
lifelike, evocative,
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Impressionism Only a narrative truth.
Reality can thus only
be known by those
who personally
experience it
experiencing it
construct knowledge
through a process of
self-conscious action
ethnography,
collaborative enquiry
(PAR), appreciative
enquiry, personal-
reflexive
ethnography,
narrative inquiry
observation, human
documents, personal
narratives, poetic
representations and
fictional texts
believable and
possible to enable
readers to put
themselves in the
place of others and
have empathy
Source: de Vos et al (2011, p. 311)
I followed an interpretivistic approach during the current study, as it is my belief that reality should be interpreted through the
meaning that research participants give to their life world. I thus interpret the reality and personal characteristics of a sample of
women executive leaders, as well as the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold, which prevent them from
being derailed, or assist them in overcoming potential derailment.
3.2.1.3 Reasons for the choice of qualitative research
The decision to apply an interpretivistic approach within the qualitative paradigm in this study is based primarily on the
features of qualitative research and interpertivism as previously discussed as well as the fact that limited research appears to be
available on the intrinsic characteristics and mental representations and constructions of meaning of women executives who have
not fallen prey to career derailment. An interpretivistic qualitative approach enables the researcher to gain a holistic understanding
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of the lived experiences of these female executives and the rich complexity inherent
in the mental representations and constructions of meaning they hold.
3.2.2 Research strategy
I utilise case studies as the strategy to conduct the current research. Case
studies are a common way to do a qualitative enquiry. As a form of research, case
studies are defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of enquiry
used (Stake, as cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). This is echoed by Fouche and
Schurink, (de Vos et al, 2011; p. 320) who state that in contrast to other
methodological frameworks, case study design is more of a choice of what to study
rather than a methodological one. They further state that case study research has
the ability to adapt to a wide range of methodological frameworks.
According to Stake (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008), case studies can broadly be
grouped into three categories, namely the intrinsic case study, the instrumental case
study and the multiple or collective case study. Each of these categories is briefly
described below:
An intrinsic case study is a case study which is undertaken:
… because, first and last, one wants a better understanding of this
particular case. It is not undertaken primarily because the case represents
other cases or because it illustrates a particular trait or problem, but
instead because, in all its particularity and ordinariness, this case is of
itself of interest.
(Stake as cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p. 121 - 122)
Stake further states that the purpose of conducting an intrinsic case study is
not to come to an understanding of some abstract construct or generic problem. He
also states that conducting an intrinsic case study is not an appropriate research
strategy to utilise if one is interested in theory building.
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An instrumental case study is where ―a particular case is examined mainly to
provide insight into an issue or to redraw a generalization. The case is of
secondary interest, it plays a supportive role, and it facilitates our
understanding of something else‖, Stake (cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p.
123).
When a number of cases are studied jointly to investigate a phenomenon,
population, or general condition, a multiple case study/collective case study is
an appropriate research strategy to employ.
It is an instrumental study extended to several cases. Individual cases in
the selection may or may not be known in advance to manifest some
common characteristic. They may be similar or dissimilar, with redundancy
and variety each important. They are chosen because it is believed that
understanding them will lead to better understanding, and perhaps better
theorising, about a still larger collection of cases.
Stake (cited in Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p. 123)
In this study, I employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy in
order to explore whether women executives who have not fallen prey to career
derailment, or who have overcome it, share common characteristics and mental
representations and constructions of meaning. By understanding similarities and
differences between them, it is envisaged that themes/trends of mental
representations and constructions of meaning will be established, which will in turn
lead to a better understanding, and the development of an integrated framework or
model of characteristics which prevent career derailment amongst women
executives.
I further employ a multiple case study/collective case study strategy within the
methodological framework of grounded theory, which is thus the subject of the
following discussion.
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3.3 Grounded theory
3.3.1 The history of grounded theory
Grounded Theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) from their
collaboration during their studies of dying in hospitals and is presented in their book,
―The Discovery of Grounded Theory‖. According to its founders, grounded theory
constitutes an innovative methodology facilitating ―the discovery of theory from data‖
(Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 1), thus showing that qualitative empirical data could
reliably lead to generating new theory.
According to Dunne (2011), grounded theory was developed in response two
factors:
Firstly, as a revolt against the dominance of quantitative research during the
1960‘s, when the pervading view was that qualitative research was regarded
as ―impressionistic, anecdotal, unsystematic and biased‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p.
5). Grounded theory was thus an attempt to make qualitative research more
scientific.
Secondly, Glaser and Strauss recognised the lack of systematic guidelines to
improve the quality of qualitative research. By combining ―the depth and
richness inherent in qualitative interpretive traditions with the logic, rigor and
systematic analysis inherent in quantitative survey research‖ (Walker &
Myrick, 2006, P. 548), grounded theory constituted a pioneering research
approach. Glaser and Strauss:
… made a cutting edge statement because it contested notions of
methodological consensus and offered systematic strategies for
qualitative research practice. Essentially Glaser and Strauss joined
epistemological critique with practical guideline for action.
(Charmaz, 2006, p. 5)
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Since its development in 1967, and especially over the last two decades,
grounded theory has become extremely popular in qualitative research (Payne,
2007).
In the 1990‘s an ideological split took place between Glaser and Strauss,
when after they initially ―invited their readers to use grounded theory strategies
flexibly and in their own way‖. Glaser became uncomfortable with the development of
the many varying interpretations and methodologies of grounded theory.
Glaser and Holton (2004) subsequently outlined the differences between
grounded theory and other qualitative data analysis methods, stating that by not
recognising and applying those differences, grounded theory as it was initially
developed, was compromised. Strauss and Corbin (1994, p. 283), however opposed
this view, stating that ―a child once launched is very much subject to a combination
of its origins and the evolving contingencies of life. Can it be otherwise with a
methodology?‖
3.3.2 Key principles of grounded theory
As per Schram (2006), the objective of grounded theory is the development of
theory that is grounded in data. It focuses on generating theory based on the study
of social situations. Schwandt (2007, p. 131) describes grounded theory is a
―specific, highly developed, rigorous set of procedures for producing formal
substantive theory of social phenomenon‖ whilst Charmaz (2006, p. 2) describes
grounded methods as consisting of ― systematic, yet flexible guidelines for collecting
and analysing qualitative data to construct theories grounded in the data themselves.
The guidelines offer a set of general principles and heuristic devices rather than
formulaic rules.‖
Charmaz (2006, p. 3) further states that:
Grounded theorists start with data. We construct these data through our
observations, interactions, and materials that we gather about the topic or
setting. We study empirical events and experiences and pursue our
hunches and potential analytic ideas about them. Most qualitative
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methods allow researchers to follow up on interesting data in whatever
way they devise. Grounded theory methods have the additional advantage
of containing explicit guidelines that show us how we may proceed.
Grounded theory is based on two concepts, namely constant comparison and
theoretical sampling (Suddaby, 2006). Thus, a continuous, iterative process occurs
where new data are gathered, actions are observed and perceptions of participants
recorded, and constantly compared with those of new subjects in order to generate
theory.
In addition, Fouche and Schurink, (de Vos et al, 2011, p. 318) claim that ―data
are collected by means of interviews with individuals who have participated in a
process about a central phenomenon in order to ‗saturate‘ categories and detail a
theory‖. Charmaz (2006) explains that testing of the emergent theory is guided by
theoretical sampling, which seeks pertinent data to develop an emerging theory. The
main purpose of theoretical sampling is to elaborate and refine the categories
constituting a theory. According to Dunne (2011, p. 111), ―unlike most strategies of
enquiry, grounded theory demands that data collection and analysis occur
concurrently, rather than in a linear sequence‖, in order to continuously elaborate
and refine the categories constituting a theory.
According to Glaser and Strauss (1967), grounded theory meets the following
criteria:
a close fit with the data;
usefulness;
conceptual density;
durability over time;
modifiability; and
explanatory power.
In summary then, and as eloquently stated by Charmaz (2006), the defining
components of grounded theory practice, originally were:
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simultaneous involvement in data collection and analysis;
constructing analytic coded and categories from data, not from preconceived
logically deducted hypotheses;
using the constant comparative method, which involves making comparisons
during each stage of the analysis;
advancing theory development during each step of data collection and
analysis;
memo-writing to elaborate categories, specify their properties, define
relationships between categories and identify gaps;
sampling aimed toward theory construction, not for population
representativeness;
conducting the literature review after developing an independent analysis.
Charmaz however contends that basic grounded theory guidelines can be
used in conjunction with twenty-first century methodological assumptions and
approaches. Unlike Glaser and Strauss‘s original position, Charmaz assumes that
data and theories are not discovered, but that researchers are part of the world they
study and the data they collect. Thus researchers construct their grounded theories
through their involvement and interactions with participants in the research process
(Charmaz 2006). According to Charmaz, her approach to grounded theory:
Explicitly assumes that any theoretical rendering offers an interpretive
portrayal of the studied world, not an exact picture of it. Research
participant‘s implicit meanings, experiential views – and researchers‘
finished grounded theories – are constructions of reality.
(Charmaz 2006, p. 10)
As discussed previously, my epistemological view is an interprevist one and
thus well suited to Charmaz‘s approach to grounded theory. It is believed that the
guidelines for grounded theory as advocated by Charmaz, can thus be utilised to
achieve the purpose of this study, namely to explore and understand the intrinsic
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characteristics, mental representations held and constructions of meaning that
prevent leadership derailment of executive women.
3.3.3 Literature review in grounded theory research
As previously mentioned, an ideological split took place between Glaser and
Strauss regarding the application of grounded theory. The same is true for the
thinking on the application of literature in grounded theory research. According to
Bryant and Charmaz (2007, p. 19), ―ever since the publication of The Discovery of
Grounded Theory, concerns have arisen regarding how students and researchers
should apply and use the existing literature relevant to their research topic‖. It
appears that a rigorous debate in this regard has ensued ever since.
Initially Glaser and Strauss (1967) explicitly argued against engaging with
existing literature before collecting primary data. The rationale behind this view
―essentially related to the desire to allow categories to emerge naturally from the
empirical data during analysis, uninhibited by extant theoretical frameworks and
associated hypotheses‖ (Dunne, 2011, p. 114).
It appears that Strauss later altered his view and began to advocate a review
of literature prior to gathering empirical data whilst Glaser maintained his original
view. The arguments for and against the review of literature early in a study are
many and are summarised below, followed by an explanation of the decision taken
by me to follow a more ―Straussian‖ approach in the current study.
Suspending the review of literature until empirical research has been
conducted is argued for the following reasons, according to Glaser (1998), Lock
(2001), McCallin (2003), Nathaniel (2006), Holton (2007), Charmaz (2006), and Dick
(2007).
Literature review may contaminate data collection, analysis and theory
development.
Literature review may lead the researcher to impose existing frameworks,
hypothesis and theoretical ideas on the data.
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Literature review may undermine the authenticity, focus and quality of
grounded research.
Researchers may be side-tracked by literature which supports existing
assumptions and preconceptions which are not relevant to the new study;
External ―rhetorical jargon‖ may impede the research.
Delaying a literature review encourages the researcher to articulate their own
ideas rather than importing and imposing preconceived ideas of others.
Researchers may be intimidated or awed by the existing research of others,
undermining their sense of self-worth and competence with regards to theory
development.
As ground theory research is unpredictable, the researcher may not know
upfront which literature is relevant, and the activity of undertaking the
literature review may be wasteful, inefficient, and irrelevant to the research
being conducted.
In opposition to the above, conducting a review of literature prior to
conducting empirical research is argued for by McGhee et al.,(2007), Nathaniel
(2006), Coyne and Cowley (2006), Chiovitti and Piran (2003), Creswell (1998),
Hutchinson (1993), McCann and Clark (2003), Urquhart (2007), Denzin (2002),
McMenamin (2006), Coffey and Atkinson (1996), Strauss and Corbin (1998), Maijala,
Paavilainen and Astedt-Kurki (2003), and Henwood and Pidgeon (2006), for the
following reasons.
It can provide a persuasive and strong motivation and objective for a specific
research proposal.
It ensures that the intended study has not already been done.
It potentially highlights pertinent gaps in existing knowledge.
It can help contextualise the study, orientate the researcher and reveal how a
social phenomenon has been studied to date.
It can assist the researcher in gaining theoretical sensitivity and avoid
conceptual and methodological pitfalls.
It can assist the researcher to become aware of unhelpful preconceptions.
It can help promote clarity about concepts and theoretical development.
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Postponing literature review until data have been collected may not be
workable, especially for a PhD student whose research funding, approval and
progression through the doctoral process is dependent on producing a
literature review before commencing the study.
A researcher cannot establish paucity of knowledge in an area of study unless
a review of the literature takes place.
Prohibiting a researcher from conducting a literature review at the time of their
choosing, essentially limits the freedom of the researcher, whilst grounded
theory is designed and intended to be empowering and freeing for a
researcher.
In addition to the above, it is my belief that no researcher undertakes a study
without some prior knowledge of an area of study, as how else would their interest
be piqued enough to embark on further exploration? A researcher should further
have the ability as well as duty to remain open minded despite possessing
knowledge in an area. By keeping in mind this existing knowledge, the researcher
has more insight and self –awareness to better identify and allow potentially
contradictory findings to emerge.
Reflexivity and the constant comparative method are inherent to grounded
theory research. Reflexivity, defined by Robson (McGhee et al., 2007, p. 335) is ―an
awareness of the ways in which the researcher as an individual with particular social
identity and background has an impact on the research process.‖ It is my belief that
the duty and ability to remain in keeping with the ethos of grounded theory and
maintaining reflexivity lies with a researcher undertaking such research.
It is further my belief that a review of the existing literature was central to the
formulation and justification of the research question in the current study. In fact, as
a review of the literature progressed, I was forced to subtly modify and clarify the
objective of the current study, to better articulate the paucity in the research and the
contribution to be made. It is felt that I needed to fully appreciate the context within
which the current study takes place. Thus, in the current study, the literature view
has been conducted and presented prior to empirical data being gathered.
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Whilst this has allowed me to gain clarity about existing theoretical concepts
and as well as potential theoretical development, I undertook to remain open to
identifying additional theories, which may initially have seemed unrelated, to help
explain or even contradict the themes and categories emerging from the empirical
data, should it become necessary. Additional relevant theories and literature will thus
be presented in the interpretation and discussion in Chapter 5.
3.4 Grounded theory applied in context
In the current study, personal construct theory is applied within the context of
grounded theory as it is my belief that this may facilitate greater understanding of the
characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders.
3.4.1 Understanding personal construct theory
The fundamental postulate of personal construct theory, in Kelly‘s own words
is as follows: ―A person‘s processes are psychologically channelised by the ways in
which he anticipates events‖ (Kelly, 1955, p. 46).
In unravelling this definition, Kelly (1955) explains that a person‘s mental
energy (processes) is channelled through an ordered network of pathways
(channelised), in a psychological manner (psychologically), to make predictions
about future reality (anticipated events). More simply put, the theory is primarily one
of the examining how humans continually construct meaning in a continually
changing world (Epting & Paris, 2006).
Personal construct theory states that, as individuals, we give meaning to our
world and experiences. We do this by creating an unspoken theoretical framework,
which personal construct theory refers to as our personal construct system. It is thus
within this system that we anticipate the future and engage with our environment.
Understanding the characteristics of executive women who have not fallen
prey to derailment, in the context of the personal constructs and core constructs they
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hold, may make a significant contribution to our understanding of leadership
derailment amongst women leaders. The discussion and interpretation of research
findings, as they relate to personal construct theory, are thus further embroidered
upon in Chapter 5.
3.4.2 The operationalization of personal construct theory
The repertory grid has ―occupied a position of pre-eminence within the
psychology of personal constructs since its introduction by Kelly in 1955‖ (Niemeyer,
2002, p. 89). According to Bannister, ―Kelly seems to have looked to the repertory
grid technique to illustrate, in vivid and practical form, what he saw as the primary
undertaking of psychology: to develop an understanding of the way in which persons
interpret their experiences‖ (Bannister, 1985, p. xi).
Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004) describe a repertory grid as a type of
formalised structured interview which formalises the process of coming to
understand an individual‘s views of the world through conversation, by assigning
mathematical values to the relationships between the individual‘s constructs.
Repertory grids further aim to illicit constructs defined in an individual‘s own words in
a systematic manner in order to enable comparisons between various personal
construct systems (Klapper, 2008).
In this study, I elicit constructs from the research participants via an in-depth
interview within grounded theory methodology, which will be discussed further later
in Chapter 3.
According to Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004), once constructs have been
elicited, additional constructs can be elicited from them (Fransella, Bell & Bannister,
2004) in a number of ways including: laddering, constructing pyramids, the ABC
model, and the bow-tie diagram.
In the current study, I elicit additional constructs from the research participants
based on initial constructs elicited during the initial phases of the interview, through
using laddering. In many studies within the framework of personal construct theory,
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once constructs are elicited, they are typically placed within a repertory grid.
Although the repertory grid has held a position of dominance within the psychology
of personal constructs, it would appear that, as per Fransella, Bell and Bannister
(2004 there is no requirement that the resulting constructs should be used in some
form of repertory grid, as the information obtained can be of satisfactory use in itself.
In addition, ―grid method is a Frankenstein‘s monster which has rushed away
on a statistical and experimental rampage of its own, leaving construct theory
neglected, stranded high and dry, far behind‖ (Bannister, 2002, p. 89). In addition,
the technique has undergone creative adaptations over time, prompting Banister
(2002, p. 91) to make note of the fact that ―even a cursory review of the method‘s
development reveals striking proliferation of adaptations over the years, many of
them constituting distinctly different forms of the original methodology‖. It would thus
appear that the results are affected by different nuances in the design and
procedures of a particular grid, which raises questions as to the reliability of results.
Bannister thus advocates a critical reappraisal of the repertory grid technique,
with aspects such as the reliability of constructs, the differences between elicited and
supplied construct dimensions as well as the psychometric properties of repertory
grids, requiring the attention of researchers.
Based on the above, it appears that a researcher undertaking the repertory
grid technique is faced with a particular set of challenges to understand the nature of
the demands that the method imposes. Even subtle or unintentional procedural
variations can register a substantial impact on repertory grid outcomes.
It is for the reasons above that I am not utilising the repertory grid technique
during the current study. As mentioned in Chapter 1, as per Schwandt (2007),
grounded theory is a precise, highly developed, arduous set of procedures for
producing formal substantive theory of social phenomenon. It is felt that applying
these rigorous procedures during the elicitation of constructs through the
interviewing process as well as through laddering, will provide sufficient information
on the constructs of executive women in order to develop an integrated framework of
guards against career derailment amongst women executives.
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The research methodology to be utilised within the grounded theory paradigm
in the current study is further expounded upon below:
3.5. Research methodology
3.5.1 Research setting
I employed a multiple case study/collective case study strategy consisting of
five individual cases. The research setting was thus five different South African
organisations of varying sizes and functioning within different sectors of the
economy. The details of the five research settings in this study are as follows.
A financial services group listed on the JSE stock exchange whose services
include individual, group and short-term insurance, personal financial services
such as estate planning, trusts, home and personal loans, savings and linked
products, investment, asset management, property asset management,
stockbroking, risk management and capital market activities.
An independent financial services company, delivering a broad range of
financial services with a focus on areas of wealth creation and preservation,
asset management and insurance solutions.
A manufacturer of a large range of lighting products including dry cell
batteries, and energy saving light bulbs. The group also includes a renewable
energy brand including micro-wind turbines.
A large timber organisation who grow, harvest and process pine products
from Cape Town to Port Elizabeth for use by the building and furniture
industry across Southern Africa.
A golfing resort, comprising three 18-hole championship golf courses, two
hotels, a spa, casual and classic restaurants, conference and event facilities
as well as an extensive residential property real estate portfolio.
The organisational setting thus differed from participant to participant, with the
varying organisational contexts allowing for a comparison of experiences and
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emerging themes across contexts, which enhance the generalizability and
transferability of data obtained.
3.5.2 Entrée and establishing researcher roles
Entry into the various research settings was gained in a number of ways. In
two instances, a referral from a human resources executive known to me as well as
the participants in two of the organisations was utilised in order to gain access. As
both participants had worked with/were currently working with the human resources
executive in question, had developed a trust relationship with him over time, and
held him in high regard, this greatly facilitated entry.
In two instances entry into the research setting was gained through an
existing professional relationship with the research participants. In one case, I had
been employed by the organisation where the participant was the Chief Executive
Officer, and in the other cases I had a long-standing consultant-client relationship
with the organisation, with the participant having been involved in previous
processes facilitated by myself.
In the final instance, the participant was referred to me by one of the other
participants, which will be discussed further in the section below, which describes the
sampling process in more detail.
In all instances, I was surprised and humbled by the willingness of the
participants to engage in the research process, all of them having expressed
excitement in the research topic and the potential value it could add to the success
of women leaders. Even in the cases where potential participants declined
participation due to varying pressures, enthusiasm was expressed about the
intended research.
In this study, initial contact with each participant was established
telephonically and then via a follow-up e-mail (see Annexure 1). This took place
after an initial telephonic introduction had been made to each of the participant‘s
personal assistants. This was deemed to be an important part of the process as the
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buy-in and cooperation of the personal assistants would become crucial in gaining
access to and scheduling meetings with the participants. The personal assistants to
some extent were regarded as the ―gatekeepers‖ to making the research setting
accessible to me.
During the interviews, rapport was established and the participants put at
ease through explaining the rationale of the study, assuring participants of the
valuable contribution that they would be making to the study of, and thus the
potential impact of derailment on other women.
My role and research paradigm were shared with the participants in order to
create context and manage the expectations of the participants during the data
gathering process. It was described to the participants that my role is to ―hold a
mirror‖ to their reality to gain insight into the meanings and interpretations which they
hold. It was further described that I will interpret this reality (in other words, an
interpretivistic approach will be followed). It was also explained to the participants
that whilst they would be guided through a broad framework of questions, the
structure of the interview would primarily be dictated by them.
As it was initially anticipated that second face-to-face interview or follow-up
telephonic interview would be required with certain participants in order to facilitate
further exploration of certain emerging categories and gaps in data, this was
contracted with the participants during the interview. Subsequent to data collection,
analysis and interpretation a second face-to-face interview was however not found to
be necessary. However in certain instances follow-up telephonic consultations were
held with participants to further explore emerging themes (and coding categories)
after an initial analysis of the data had been conducted.
3.5.3 Pilot study
The purpose of a pilot study is to determine whether relevant data can be
obtained from research participants and allows the researcher to test certain
questions and focus on previously unclear areas. It further allows the researcher to
make necessary modifications, aids in estimating the time and cost involved in the
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data gathering phase of the research and also helps pre-empt problems which may
arise. (Royse, 1995, p. 172; Janesick in Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p. 213; Monette et
al, 1998, p. 93).
Stydom and Delport (de Vos et al, 2011) refer to four aspects of a pilot study.
Reviewing literature in order to decide on its place and role within the
research.
Discussion with experts to identify further themes or verify literature review
with a view on verifying findings.
Assessing the feasibility of the study in terms of the openness and
cooperativeness of participants as well as number of participant most likely to
be required.
Testing the measurement instrument or interview questionnaire to be utilised
in the study.
During this study, literature was reviewed and decisions made as to where it
was to be placed in the study, as was discussed in some detail in the sections 3.3
above. I also requested the guidance of two research supervisors, one for his
expertise in conducting research, at the other for her expertise as an experienced
woman counselling Psychologist who coaches several woman leaders and who has
a particular interest in the subject of women leadership.
In addition, the interview guide was piloted with two women leaders known to
me. After the pilot interviews took place, a debriefing meeting was held where the
participants‘ experiences of the interview process was discussed.
Based on my experience of the pilot interviews as well as feedback from the
participants the challenges in:
identifying and following-up on emerging themes;
applying the laddering technique;
ensuring that the flow of the interview remained smooth and unstilted;
remaining present with the participant; and
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creating a positive space and relationship, all whilst attempting taking field
notes, were highlighted.
Thus adjustments were made to the interview guide, with the decision to have
fewer interview questions. In addition it was decided to apply the laddering technique
inconsistently, and only when the participant was unable to reach a deeper level of
exploration and analysis on their own. Also it was decided to minimise field notes
during the interview, and focus on post-interview field notes, memos and recorded
transcriptions for data analysis.
3.5.4 Sampling
According to Strydom and Vos (de Vos et al, 2011) non-probability sampling
is the most commonly used sampling method within qualitative research. In non-
probability sampling, the odds of selecting a particular participant are not known
because the researcher does not know the population size or the members of the
population (Gravetter & Foranza, 2003, p. 118; Salkind, 2000, p. 87).
They further state that the overall purpose for the use of an appropriate
sampling technique is to collect the richest data, which they describe as being a wide
and diverse range of information collected over an extended period of time. They go
on to describe seven types of non- probability sampling namely purposive sampling,
theoretical sampling, deviant case sampling, sequential sampling, snowball
sampling, key informant sampling and volunteer sampling.
In this study it was initially anticipated that purposive sampling and extensive
snowball sampling would be made use of. These two sampling techniques are
described as follows.
Purposive sampling: This entails the selection of a particular case due to it
illustrating features or processes of interest for a particular study. It is based
on the judgment of the researcher that the sample is composed of elements
that contain the most representative attributes of the population that best
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serve the purpose of the study (Rubin & Babbie, 2005; Monette, Sullivan &
DeJong, 2005; Grinnell & Unara, 2008).
Snowball sampling: This is typically used when a researcher has limited
access to appropriate participants, or when participants are hard-to-reach, as
was anticipated would be the case in the current study. Babbie (2007, pp. 184
-185) describes snowball sampling as involving approaching a single case
involved in the phenomenon to be investigated with information being sought
from this participant to locate further members of the same population.
It was initially anticipated that two participants known to me, who met the
sample criteria and were approached and invited to participate in the research,
would be requested to provide me with names of other individuals who also fit the
criteria of the study.
However, snowball sampling was only necessary in one instance as additional
research participants were obtained via purposeful sampling with the help of a
colleague who is a human resources executive in a listed financial services group
and had long standing relationships with two participants who met the research
criteria.
Patton (2002, p. 244) states that there are no rules for sample size in
qualitative research with the sample size depending on what the researcher wants to
know, the purpose of the study, what is useful, what will have credibility and what
can be done with the available time and resources. Sarantakos (2000, p. 156)
describes sampling within qualitative research as being relatively limited and based
on saturation rather than representation, with the size not being statistically
determined.
In this study purposive and snowball sampling yielded a total of 5 research
participants and allowed for data saturation of emerging categories and themes.
The following criteria were utilised as a basis of the selection of research
participants:
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women who currently occupy senior or executive level positions, and have;
experienced factors which typically lead to derailment, (which was probed
during the interview process) and;
whose careers have not derailed, (which was determined based on the fact
that they held senior or executive level positions within an organisation), or
who have successfully overcome potential derailment, (which was determined
through exploration of their derailment experience in the context of derailment
literature, as well as the fact that they subsequent to experiencing derailment,
held senior or executive level positions within an organisation).
Further information of the participants‘ biographical details is provided in Annexure 2.
3.5.5 Data collection methods
A number of data collection methods can be made use of in qualitative
research, amongst them being.
Participant observation: In this procedure, feelings, physical activities,
settings, events and conditions are physically observed and recorded rather
than being asked about (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000; Walliman 2006, p. 95).
Royse (2004, p. 237) recommends that the researcher literally walk in the
shoes of the participant, whilst Creswell (2003, p. 185 -188) suggests that
field notes should be made and that actions, interactions and events should
be recorded in an unstructured or semi-structured manner.
Document study: Documentary analysis involves the study of existing
documents, either to understand their substantive content or to illuminate
deeper meanings which may be revealed by their style and coverage (Ritchie
& Lewis, 2003, p. 35). Documents may vary from personal documents which
include letters to friends and family, diaries and autobiographies, to non-
personal documents such as minutes of meetings, government documents,
agendas, office memo‘s and archived newsletters, to mass media, including
newspapers and magazines.
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Secondary analysis: This involves the reworking of previously analysed
data over which the researcher had no control or initial involvement. It is thus
an empirical exercise conducted after primary analysis of data have been
conducted. Secondary analysis can be useful by bringing new perspective,
using previously unanalysed elements and comparing data with new data
collected (Babbie, 2007, p. 277; Royse, 2004, p. 211, Walliman, 2006, p. 52;
Gravetter & Foranzo, 3002, p 38; Ritchie and Lewis, 2003, p. 61).
Interviewing: One of the most widely used qualitative methods for collecting
data is the interview (Greeff, as cited in de Vos et al; 2011). DePoy and Gilson
(2008, p. 108) describe interviewing as a method of data collection whereby
researchers obtain information through direct interchange with an individual or
group that is known or expected to possess the knowledge they seek. Kvale
(Sewell, 2011, p. 1) defines qualitative interviews as ―attempts to understand
the world from the participant‘s point of view, to unfold the meaning of
people‘s experiences to uncover their lived world prior to scientific
explanations.‖
Different types of interviews exist in qualitative research, which include: one to
one interviewing, unstructured one-to-one-interview, semi-structured one-to-one
interview, ethnographic interview, e-mail interview, telephone interview, convergent
interviewing, and focus group interviewing.
Charmaz (2006, p. 28) states that in grounded theory research, the
researcher is required to take control of their data collection and analysis, and that
the method of interviewing allows the interviewer to assume more direct control over
the construction of data that other methods (e.g. textual analysis). She suggests that
intensive qualitative interviewing fits grounded theory methods ―particularly well‖ as
they are ―open-ended yet directed, shaped yet emergent, and placed, yet
unrestricted‖.
Greeff (de Vos et al, 2011) opines that semi-structured interviewing allows the
researcher to follow up on particularly interesting avenues that emerge and are
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especially suitable when the researcher is interested in complexity or process or
when an issue is controversial or personal.
In addition:
The combination of flexibility and control inherent in in-depth interviewing
techniques fits grounded theory strategies for increasing the analytic
incisiveness of the resultant analysis. Grounded theory interviewing differs
from much in-depth interviewing, because we narrow the range of
interview topics to gather specific data for developing our theoretical
frameworks as we proceed with conducting the interviews.
(Charmaz, 2006, p. 29)
Based on the above, in-depth semi-structured one to one interviews best
fulfils the objective of the current study as well as the grounded theory research
framework:
Greeff (de Vos et al, 2011) states that with this type of interview, whilst the
researcher has a set of predetermined questions on an interview schedule, this
serves to guide rather than dictate the interview. According to Charmaz (2006), in
grounded theory research, a few broad and open ended questions are devised. This
is then followed by focusing interview questions to invite detailed discussions of the
topic. By creating open-ended, non-judgmental questions, the researcher
encourages unanticipated statements and stories to emerge. The combination of
how the researcher constructs the questions and conducts the interview, shapes
how well he/she achieves a balance between making the interview open-ended and
focusing on significant statements.
In the current study I thus made use of an interview schedule as the basis for
the discussion, but allowed the participants maximum opportunity to tell their stories.
I further adapted the questions and focus of the interview in order to peruse
emerging themes and guide the participants to deeper levels of introspection
regarding emerging themes.
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In order to aid deeper exploration of participants‘ constructions of reality
during the interview, the technique of laddering, as advocated in personal construct
theory, was also applied.
This technique elicits increasingly superordinate constructs – ―that is,
constructs of a higher order of abstraction from those (originally) elicited‖ and
involves a series of ‗why questions‖ in order to tap into ―the hierarchical structure of
self and elicit core constructs‖ (Butler, 2006, p. 28). In addition, as per Butler (2006,
p. 28):
It is in the process of laddering that one gets closest to an experience of
being almost part of the other person. Laddering is seen by many
practitioners as possibly the most powerful procedure for eliciting the
values a person holds and the meanings with which they organise their
world.
Fransella et al (2004) call attention to the fact that the interviewer must be
skilled enough when applying the technique of laddering to ensure that the interview
remains on course, by eliciting superordinate constructs without impeding on the flow
of the interview or interfering with the participant‘s construing process (process of
creating meaning).
The quantity and quality of information exchanged depend on how astute and
creative the interviewer is at understanding and managing the relationship between
himself and the participant (Monette, Sullivan & DeJong: 2005, p. 108). Charmaz
(2006) advocates gathering rich, detailed and full data and then placing them in their
relevant situational and social contexts.
According to Greeff, (de Vos et al, 2011) poor interviewing skills, poor
phrasing of questions, or inadequate knowledge of the participant‘s culture or frame
of reference may result in a collection that obtains few useful data. I thus
endeavoured to ensure that my interviewing skills were well practised by not only
conducting a pilot interview, but conducting a ―dry run‖ with a fellow colleague.
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The interview setting differed from participant to participant, with the
participants being given a choice of where they felt most comfortable participating in
the interviews. In three cases, the interviews were conducted at the participant‘s
respective offices. The interviews in this setting enhanced by my ability to obtain a
deeper understanding of the physical context within which the participants function,
and also to gain some insights into the organisational climate and culture, albeit
based on limited interaction with receptionists, employees passed in the hallways
and personal assistants, as well as observations of the physical work environment,
the interaction between employees as well as the interaction between the participant
and other employees.
In one instance the interview was conducted at the participant‘s home, which
helped add to the richness of the data obtained, as personal context was provided
and the participant was observed in an environment where she felt comfortable and
in control thus allowing her to reveal more of themselves. The fifth interview was
conducted in a boardroom of one of the participant‘s service providers, due to the
participant having scheduled a previous meeting at the same premises, and it being
convenient for her to see me there.
The interviews were approximately 1 ½ to 2 hours in duration each. I opened
each interview with some small talk to build rapport, outlining my role as well as
reiterating the details of the research. Each participant was requested to complete an
informed consent form (see Annexure 3) which was discussed in some detail. The
final interview guide is annexed hereto (see Annexure 4).
This was followed by structured background questions in order to obtain
information regarding: age, title, structure and reportees, length of time in position,
description of roles and responsibilities of position, and, length of time in company.
From the above, as well as subsequent interview process, an effort was made
to gain insight into the culture, context and frame of reference of each participant.
The interview progressed with questioning around how each participant saw
themselves as leaders and what they believed made them successful. This allowed
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me insight into how they view themselves (their core constructs), which allowed for
further probing. This also allowed participants the opportunity to relax and to become
comfortable with the tape recorder and the interviewing process.
Participants were then questioned around their interpretation, views and
definitions of derailment. This allowed me to gain valuable data regarding the
similarities and differences in the definitions of derailment as provided by women
leaders themselves, as compared to what had been revealed during the literature
review.
Thereafter participants were encouraged to ―tell their stories‖ allowing for the
sharing of personal derailment experiences, experiences of the derailment of other
women colleagues, their beliefs about why they were able to overcome or avoid
derailment. I probed, utilised the laddering technique and guided the interview as
was appropriate in each case in order to fully explore perceptions, beliefs and
experiences as well as the underlying mental representations.
A focus was placed on maintaining rapport and building a relationship with
each participant in order to facilitate the gathering of data. At the same time, during
the interview process, I endeavoured to utilise the developed interview guide to
ensure consistency and comprehensiveness during the interview process.
3.5.6 Recording of data
Prior to commencing data collection, recording of data should be planned for
in a systematic manner that is appropriate to the setting and/or participants,
participants‘ sensitivities and that will facilitate analysis (Schurink, W., Fouché. C. B.,
& De Vos, A. S: 2011, p. 398). In the current study, data were collected in the
following manner:
3.5.6.1 Audio-tape recording
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Interviews were recorded via audio-tape with the permission of each
participant, to enable me to devote my full attention to the participant and to ensure
that data are available for scrutiny and interpretation. With the consent of the
participants, a typist was contracted to transcribe the interviews. The typist was
required to sign a confidentiality agreement and I ensured the correctness of the
transcribed interviews by comparing the typed transcriptions to the original audio-
tape recordings. Participants were also provided the opportunity to review
transcriptions for accuracy.
3.5.6.2 Personal diary and project journal
A personal diary and project journal were made use of during the study to
ensure that the various steps taken during the research process were recorded, as
well as my own feelings and reflections about the interviews and study, as well as
interpretations and important decisions. This assisted me to gather secondary data
for later analysis and coding, and enhanced reflexivity and objectivity throughout the
process.
3.5.6.3 Memos and field notes
Memo-writing after each interview was a further discipline applied throughout
the study. Charmaz (2006) describes memo-writing as an essential intermediate step
between data collection and writing final drafts in grounded theory. Memo-writing
requires the researcher to analyse ideas about codes in any and every way. Memo
writing helps increase the level of abstraction about ideas and should be
spontaneous, informal and ―fosters developing and preserving your natural voice‖
(Charmaz, 2006, p. 84). In addition ―…memos catch your thoughts, capture the
comparisons and connections you make, and crystalise questions and directions for
you to pursue. Through conversing with yourself while memo-writing, new ideas and
insights arise during the act of writing‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p. 72).
Bogdan and Bilken (2007) suggest that reflections on analysis, reflections on
method, reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts, as well as reflections on the
researchers frame of mind, should ideally be included in field notes.
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The above was taken cognisance of during the current study with an effort
being made to include the above elements in each set of field notes taken after each
individual interview was conducted.
3.5.6.4 Data storage and safekeeping
Both a soft-copy as well as manual back-up system of all audio-tapes,
transcribed interviews, personal diary and project journal, as well as memo‘s were
maintained in order to minimise the risk of data being lost. In addition, all soft copy
documents were safeguarded by being password protected, and hardcopy
documents locked in a secure office, to ensure safety and confidentiality of all data.
3.5.6.5 Data analysis
Qualitative analysis transforms data into findings. This involves reducing the
volume of raw information, sifting significance from trivia, identifying significant
patterns and constructing a framework for communicating the essence of what the
data revel (Patton, 2002, p. 432). Data analysis is the process of bringing order,
structure and meaning to the mass of collected data. ―Broadly conceived this is the
activity of making sense of, interpreting and theorising data‖ (Schwandt; 2007, p. 6).
As described by Schurink, Fouche and De Vos (as cited in de Vos et al, 2011:
p. 399), in order to ensure quality research during the data analysis phase, analysis
should be ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and methodically documented‖.
According to Charmaz (2006), coding in grounded theory means attaching
labels to segments of data that depict what each segment is about, Coding, further
distills data, sorts them and provides the researcher with a handle for making
comparisons with other segments of data. Coding is further described as ―the first
step in moving beyond concrete statements in the data to making analytic
interpretations‖ (Charmaz, 2006, p. 43) and ―is the pivotal link between collecting
data and developing emergent theory to explain these data.‖
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Grounded theory coding consists of at least two main phases, (Charmaz, 2006),
namely initial coding and focused coding. Each of these as well as a third type of
coding, and theoretical coding is discussed below:
Initial coding - this encourages the researcher to study the data closely in
order to begin conceptualising ideas.
Focused coding - this allows the researcher to separate, sort, synthesise
and explain large amounts of data and are more directed, selective and
conceptual than initial coding. Focused coding includes:
o Word by word coding – This approach is useful when working with
documents or certain types of transitory written or printed matter;
o Line by line coding – This prompts researchers to stay open to the
data and see nuances in it. It also serves the benefit of refocusing later
interviews;
o Incident by incident coding – here incidents are compared with each
other, and as ideas take hold, new incidents are compared to the
researcher‘s conceptualisation of previously coded incidents. This type
of coding aids the discovery of patterns and contrasts.
Focused coding further means:
Using the most significant and/or frequent earlier codes to shift through
large amounts of data. Focused coding requires decisions about which
initial codes make the most analytic sense to categorise your data
incisively and completely.
(Charmaz, 2006, p. 57).
Theoretical Coding - This is a more sophisticated level of coding proceeding
focused coding and reveals ―how substantive codes may relate to each other
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as hypotheses to be integrated into a theory (Glaser, 1978, p. 72).
Theoretical codes are integrative and lead to coherence.
Charmaz (2006, p. 96) describes theoretical sampling as:
… seeking pertinent data to develop your emerging theory. The main
purpose of theoretical sampling is to elaborate and refine the categories
constituting your theory. You conduct theoretical sampling by sampling to
develop the properties of your category(ies) until no new properties
emerge.
Cresswell (1998) proposes that the analysis of data be facilitated by
adherence to the steps as outlined in table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2: Data analysis
Steps in Data Analysis
1. Get a sense of the whole. Read through all of the transcriptions carefully. Jot
down some ideas as they come to mind.
2. Pick one document (interview). Go through it, asking yourself what is this about?
Do not think about the substance of the information, but rather its underlying
meaning. Write thoughts in the margin.
3. When you have completed this task for several informants, make a list of topics.
Cluster together similar topics. Form these topics into columns that might be
arrayed as major topics, unique topics and leftovers.
4. Now take this list and go back to your data. Abbreviate the topics as codes and
write the codes next to the appropriate segments of the text. Try out this
preliminary organising scheme to see whether new categories and codes emerge.
5. Find the most descriptive wording for your topics and turn them into categories.
Look for reducing your total list of categories by grouping topics that relate to each
other. Perhaps draw lines between your categories to show interrelationships.
6. Make a final decision on the abbreviation for each category and alphabetise these
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codes.
7. Assemble the data material belonging to each category in one place and perform
a preliminary analysis.
8. If necessary, recode your data.
Source: Cresswell, 1998, p. 155
In the current study, initial coding, focused coding and theoretical coding are
utilised in order to thoroughly analyse and integrate the data gathered in order to
develop an integrated framework of guards against the derailment of women
executives. However, I utilised a combination of both Charmaz‘s and Creswell‘s
approaches.
Thus the method of data analysis undertaken by me during the current study
is as outlined in table 3.3 below:
Table 3.3: Data analysis process followed in this study
Data analysis process
1. Firstly getting an idea of the whole by reading all the transcripts and jotting
down ideas
2. Proceeding to each transcription and understanding the broad meaning it
conveys and the main categories and topics which emerge
3. Applying the main categories back to the data to establish whether new
categories and codes emerged
4. Grouping the categories together to provide an alphabetical list of categories
5. Applying line by line analysis to data in each transcription and code the data
line-by-line
6. Comparing and integrating the emerging categories to the categories already
found from the previous analysis
7. Conducting incident coding to compare the incidents with each other, and add
emerging categories to the already established categories
8. Applying theoretical coding to the established categories as a basis for the
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development of a theoretical framework
In addition to the above, data obtained from memo-writing, field notes and a
personal diary are integrated during the establishment of final categories.
During the current study, I gathered more data on specific categories during
follow up/telephonic consultations with the participants after an initial analysis of the
data had been conducted and initial categories emerged, where required.
In the current study, data were gathered until the categories were saturated.
Charmaz (2006, p. 113) defines saturation as occurring ―when gathering fresh data
no longer sparks new theoretical insights, nor reveals new properties of these core
theoretical categories.‖
3.5.7 Ethical considerations and ensuring quality research
3.5.7.1 Ethical considerations
Strydom (de Vos et al, 2011), remarks that ethical guidelines for research
should form the basis of how each researcher benchmarks his or her own conduct.
Ethical principles should thus be internalised by the researcher to such an extent that
ethical decision making and the humane and sensitive treatment of participants
becomes part of the researcher personality (Bless et al 2006, p. 140; Corey &
Callanan, 1993, pp. 3-4). Ethical issues include avoidance of harm, voluntary
participation, informed consent, deception of subjects and respondents, violation of
privacy/anonymity/confidentiality, denial of treatment, compensation, debriefing of
participants, actions and competence of researchers, cooperation with contributors
and sponsors, and publication of findings.
Ethical considerations with particular relevance to this study are briefly
described below.
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Avoidance of harm: Due to the fact that the study focuses on mental
representations and constructions of meaning, which are typically at low
levels of awareness, exploring these could result in insights, emotions and
reactions, not previously encountered or confronted by participants. Exploring
participants derailment experiences can also be potentially stressful and
emotional, possibly bringing back to mind previously unresolved issues.
I will utilise my skills as a Psychologist to deal with this appropriately. In
addition, where necessary, I will refer participants to an Executive Coach, to
assist them in working through new insights and utilising these in improving
their functioning.
According to Strydom (de Vos et al; 2011), the responsibility for
protecting participants against harm reaches further than mere efforts to
repair, or attempt to minimise, such harm afterwards. Participants should be
thoroughly informed beforehand about the potential impact of the
investigation. Such information offers participants the opportunity to withdraw
from the investigation if they so wish. Researchers should also identify
participants who could possibly be vulnerable during the investigation in order
that they may be eliminated from the study beforehand, as per Strydom (as
cited in de Vos et al, 2011; p. 115). This is also borne in mind and applied
during the current study.
Informed Consent: According to Royse (2004, p. 52- 54) as well as Williams,
Tutty and Grinnell (1995, p. 30), obtaining informed consent implies that all
possible or adequate information on the goal of the research; the expected
duration of the participant‘s involvement; the procedures which will be
followed during the research; the possible advantages, disadvantages and
dangers to which the respondents may be exposed; as well as the credibility
of the researcher, be rendered to potential subjects.
I am committed to ensuring that this takes place. Informed consent
forms are discussed with and signed by participants. These are then safely
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stored, to ensure that confidentiality is maintained. Whilst an informed consent
form cannot deal with all eventualities, it is hoped that the nature of the
rapport and trust relationship developed, the adherence to sound
methodology and my professionalism and skill, will be sufficient to deal with
possible unforeseen circumstances, to which the participants may be exposed
during the course of the research.
Confidentiality and anonymity: Whilst complete anonymity of participants in
a study of this nature is unattainable, confidentiality of research participants is
maintained by not referring to them by any recognisable terms in the research
report or in any material that any individual other than myself has access to. In
addition, all material relating to the study is stored in a secure location, to
which only I have access.
Debriefing of participants: ―Being taken through a directive and reflective
process, especially in qualitative research, affects the persons involved and
they discover things about themselves that they did not know before‖ (Patton,
2002, p. 405). Thus, in a study of this nature, debriefing is an essential part of
the research process and takes place upon the finalisation of the study.
Participants are given the opportunity to discuss their feelings about the study
as well as any experiences it elicited. Any questions they may have are
answered and any possible misconceptions dealt with. In addition, all
participants are provided with a summary of the findings of the study.
Publication of the findings: Reporting of the study needs to take place in a
manner that is clear, accurate and objective and avoids any possible
misunderstanding by readers. Care is taken with language usage to ensure
that there is no perceived bias in the study. Inclusion of the contribution by
other researchers takes place with the proper acknowledgments. In addition,
any shortcomings of the study are reported on in order to encourage
utilisation by other researchers or stakeholders.
3.5.7.2 Ensuring quality research
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It is imperative to ensure that each step of the research process, described in
the sections above, be dealt with professionally to ensure the overall quality of the
final research product.
It is my view that in addition to ―rigorous, disciplined, systematic and
methodically documented‖ research as required within the grounded theory
framework, the best way to ensure quality research is though following a transparent,
well documented and auditable research process within a recognised theoretical
framework.
Lincoln and Guba (1999) propose four concepts to be adhered to in order to
ensure quality research in a qualitative study.
Credibility/Authenticity
Transferability
Dependability
Conformability
Each of these, as they apply to the current study, are briefly discussed below:
Credibility/Authenticity: I need to ensure that my reconstruction and
representation of the participant‘s views match that of the participants in order
for the study to have credibility. In addition, I will ensure that the description of
the complexities of variables and interactions are always embedded with data
obtained during the interviewing process. Lincoln and Guba (1999) state that
through prolonged engagement and persistent observation in the field,
triangulation of different methods, peer debriefing, member checks and
formalised qualitative methods (such as grounded theory), the creditability of
research can be increased.
Transferability: I need to ensure that the findings of the research are
transferable from a specific case (or set of cases) to another. To ensure this, I
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will continuously refer to the theoretical framework, in this case grounded
theory, to show how data collection and analysis will be guided by concepts
and models. In addition, triangulating multiple sources of data through the use
of multiple cases, in this case, five participants will further improve
transferability.
Dependability: To ensure dependability, I will ensure that the research
process is logical, well documented and audable, in order to account for any
changing conditions in the phenomenon under study, or any changes in
design, which may occur as refined understanding evolves during the study.
Conformability: To ensure that the research findings of the study can be
confirmed by other researchers, I will ensure objectivity by providing evidence
that corroborates the findings and interpretations.
3.6. Conclusion
The key scientific beliefs and the research strategy of the current study were
outlined in this chapter. Grounded theory was also discussed in some detail whilst
personal construct theory was briefly introduced. The chapter further dealt with the
research setting and entry, researcher roles, and the pilot study conducted.
Sampling, data collection, recording and storage, as well as data analysis, were all
outlined in this chapter.
In Chapter 4 to follow, the key findings of the study are discussed. This is
done by outlining the findings for each of the participants in tabular form. In addition
to the discussion of the primary findings, a discussion of the role of the external
environment in developing characteristics which guard against their derailment, the
participants‘ definition of leadership derailment, as well as the participants‘ views
regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to derailment, are
outlined.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the results of the study. The primary aim
of this study is to explore the intrinsic characteristics possessed by women executive
leaders who have not fallen prey to derailment, or who have overcome it. It is my
belief that these characteristics act as preventative measures against derailment.
Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics which prevent
career derailment of women executives will be developed.
The findings for each of the participants are outlined in the tables to follow
which outline: the constructs of participants which were extracted by holistically
scrutinizing the interview data, the descriptions of the constructs, which were
obtained from my memos, field notes and reflections on the interviews with the
participants, and, the supporting quotes for each construct.
This study explores the internal characteristics preventing derailment,
however, the participants also share their experiences of how the external
environment has supported the development of characteristics that prevent
derailment.
In addition to the primary objective of this study, I further wish to explore the
following two areas:
Participants‘ definition of leadership derailment. As discussed in Chapter 2,
various definitions of leadership derailment exist, including those of Kellerman
(2004), Furnham (2010), Hogan and Hogan (2001), Schmidt (2009) and
Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley (1988). It is a secondary objective of the
study to reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the
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phenomenon of leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by
women executive leaders, themselves.
Participants‘ views regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they
relate to derailment are presented. I hold the belief that the phenomenon of
opting out and voluntary separation, whilst not typically being linked to
derailment, merits further exploration in the context of derailment as it could
potentially be considered to be a form of derailment.
Finally, the chapter will be concluded with a summary of the constructs of the
research participants, which are categorised according to the various themes which
they represent.
It is important to note at this juncture that whilst the findings below reflect the
actual responses of participants and have thus been directly quoted, three of the five
interviews were conducted in Afrikaans, requiring translation. In order to ensure the
accuracy of these translations, I have made use of my understanding of the
Afrikaans language and also consulted with an Afrikaans colleague. In addition,
where necessary, the Afrikaans participants themselves have been consulted to
ensure that they are comfortable that their opinions have been accurately expressed
and reflected.
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4.2 Research results
The Constructs of the participants which have prevented their derailment are outlined in separate tables below:
Table 4.1: Constructs: Participant 1 (P1)
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
1 Self-confidence This participant described an
overarching sense of self confidence
and the self-assurance to assert her
needs.
“I have the confidence in the contribution I am
making, and confidence in the role I am playing. - I
think that a lot of the basics go back to your level of
confidence.”
“… When they arrange a meeting at 6 in the
morning, and you have a husband and children …
it is not bad and it is not wrong or weak to say that
you cannot be there.”
2 Positivity She described her positive outlook on
life.
“I‟m naturally a positive person. I tend to be upbeat
most of the time. There are times when I get a bit
down, but in general I think I am one of the most
positive people I know (laughs somewhat self-
consciously). I believe that negativity is contagious
and infects all areas of one‟s life if you allow it. In
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my position, this is simply not an option.”
3 Emotional awareness P1 discussed elements such as
managing own emotional impulses as
well as the emotions of others,
emotional maturity and discerning
between valid and invalid criticism.
“One needs to get to understand your impulsive or
emotional response to situations. I am good at
dealing with the fallout on an emotional level from
situations that arise, and can facilitate and
negotiate emotionally tough situations.”
“It‟s about emotional maturity…it‟s important to sift
through incoming feedback and deciding what
warrants a deeper look or introspection, I think that
a lot of that comes with maturity…”
“I think those personalities that tend to internalise
struggle in a senior hard driven environment. It is
an incredible risk when you internalize”
4 Team work The participant shared how she goes
about leading her team.
“Its important to be a team player. If people know
that you support their strategy and goals, and have
their interests at heart, they will do the same for
you”
“I‟m a team player and I don‟t let my employees feel
that my word is law and that they have to obey like
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foot soldiers…I discuss things with them and
engage in debate. At the end of the day the
decision is mine, but everyone in the team has had
the opportunity to share their opinions…”
4 Relationship focus P1 shared the benefits to be gained
from supporting colleagues and building
relationships.
“I don‟t believe in management by consensus but
believe that building a good relationship and
respecting those around you is crucial.”
“Building relationships is also about being
competent and delivering on what you promise…”
“… I think I have very strong opinions and I like
people to do what I tell them to but I really try my
best to, and I think women are very good with that,
to get them to think that it was their idea in the first
place.”
5 Resilience and coping
mechanisms
P1 described her ability to cope in a
crises as well as her ability to recover
quickly from setbacks.
“There is an inherent personality that can cope…I
am a very strong coper, so when there is a crisis or
we need something to happen I go into a coping
mode and I am very good at playing that role.”
“I‟ve also been able to deal with the
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disappointments I‟ve had to face. The ability to
bounce back because of all the dynamics that you
have to deal with is crucial. I can‟t lie down and get
depressed if something goes wrong. I have to pick
myself up and keep moving forward.”
6 Work-life balance She described the importance of work-
life balance and also being able to cope
with the conflict that different roles
engender.
“The biggest challenge has been … being able to
… have a kind of balanced life; you cannot be
successful if you do not have some other balance
in your life”
“I had deal a lot with the guilt in trying to fulfill my
role in society, as a woman, as mother, and as a
wife. I often ask myself whether I have
compromised some of my roles to be successful at
work… It‟s a constant challenge…”
“You have got to know in yourself that it is ok to
have and nurture different facets of yourself…”
7 Responsiveness to own
and other‘s behaviours
The participant described the
importance of being alert to the
emotional cues and responses from
others and adjusting her behaviour
“… I am able to very quickly pick up on somebody
else‟s emotional state or temperament.”
“There have been times that I have had to confront
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accordingly, especially in difficult
situations or where tough issues need
to be confronted.
a situation and have not always been successful. I
would maybe feel that (a specific) way, but I
wouldn‟t express it that way… because I need to
come across in the right way or I will not get the
response I am looking for”.
8 Passion and drive Participant 1 saw herself as having a
strong passion, drive and having a
strong desire to grow, learn, achieve,
seek new challenges and self-actualise.
“I‟ve always been hungry to improve and learn
more. Throughout my career, after three years in a
position, I started looking for the next challenge.
Achievement has always been important for me, it‟s
always been important for me to do well.”
9 Recognition for and
Reinforcement from others
for contributions
P1 shared the need to contribute and
be recognised and receive
reinforcement for one‘s contributions.
She shared how she experienced this
as a child and how this has carried
through in her career.
“As a child the recognition of my contribution to the
family was always important to me - I would get
recognised and receive positive reinforcement from
my parents – at work I tend to respond very
positively to the recognition of the deliverables I
have achieved.”
10 Risk taking and following
one‘s instincts
She reported that risk taking behaviour
has been beneficial to her.
“…women are more inclined to overthink things
than follow their gut at times. I try to challenge
myself on this as I know it‟s not my natural style,
and most of the times it has paid off. For me the
longer I have been in my role, the more risks I have
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taken, and the more they have paid off over time.
11 Understanding and
capitalising gendered
behaviour
P1 described how she deals with some
of the gender issues that arise between
her and her male colleagues. She
appears to frame the behaviour of her
male colleagues in a specific manner
and to use it to her advantage.
“If it helps for one of my male colleagues to feel as
though he has protected me or assisted me when
we‟ve gone into a particular environment …I know
why they are doing it, I don‟t view it, … like they are
antagonizing me, I feel that I understand why they
are adopting that behaviour… and I play to that
behaviour and by doing that I get them to feel good
about themselves and we are able to get along”.
“When you walk into the room and a man stands
up to take your briefcase, it‟s not to be offended by
that, it is actually to understand that that is how he
was brought up, he is not trying to insult you or
your gender. Sit down, let it go and move on”.
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Table 4.2: Constructs: Participant 2 (P2)
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
1 ―I‘m okay‖ This participant described the
importance of ―being okay‖ with oneself,
which in turn leads to the ability to deal
with criticism and assert oneself. She
described in some detail the importance
of possessing a deeper seated
/ingrained sense of self-belief.
“I think that when you don‟t have a sense of „I‟m
okay‟, you tend to take things up sensitively at
work. One can immediately see when a woman
does not feel okay about herself, because she
cannot deal with criticism. The corporate
environment exposes you to a lot of criticism and if
you cannot deal with it, you will derail.”
“I‟ve often said in a meeting that „I am
uncomfortable with this‟, but I won‟t turn it into a
confrontation. I will also however not let the issue
go, but set up a separate meeting to resolve the
issue.”
“You have to look at a situation and say, it‟s not
about me, it‟s not about you, let‟s get the job done.
If you don‟t think you are okay, it‟s easy to think
„what did you mean with that remark?‟ Then it
becomes about you. We all make mistakes, but
one can‟t live thinking, „What have I done wrong
now again?‟ I think this is something that I have
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developed from very early on.”
2 Positive thinking She shared her tactic of mentally
refocusing from negative thoughts to
positive thoughts, and thinking about
past successes in order to remain
positive.
“Sometimes I tend to obsess about something that
went wrong during the day or that I should have done
better, but I then stop myself and say „hey, rather
think about the 100 things that went well today, and
let the one thing go‟. I try to let things go, and if there
is something I can‟t let go of, I ask myself why and
what can I do to rectify the situation. It is important to
be able to do this. When the going gets difficult, I
think about the past successes and the good times. It
does not help matters to become negative.”
3 Emotional control and
self-awareness
P2 shared the importance of
maintaining emotional composure and
the harm that women do to their
reputations and relationships by
becoming over-emotional, ―making a
scene‖ and coming across as irrational.
“Being passionate and being over-emotional is
often classified by men as the same thing.
Especially because they tend to be less passionate
than women are.”
“I find that if there is a difficult situation, my male
colleagues are more likely to back off and try to
deal with it later, whilst women push and push the
issues, which just makes everybody uncomfortable.
Then when they don‟t get the reaction they were
looking for, they tend to get emotional, which only
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makes matters worse. It‟s important never to make
a scene in a group and to try and prove your point
at all costs.”
“If something really upsets me, I try to stand back
from the situation before I react. There are times
when I say to myself, this is your issue, not mine. I
think that this comes with maturity. Men often think
that being emotional is the same as being
irrational, and it‟s not. Men are quick to label
women as emotional and irrational, so it‟s really
important to manage and understand your
emotions.”
“Tears in the workplace don‟t work for a woman.
Self-awareness and self-control are crucial.”
4 Nurturing relationships and
the needs of others
The main areas which came through on
this construct were 1) having a support
structure; 2) creating time to build
relationships and socialise with
colleagues; 3) focusing on the needs of
others and helping them achieve their
goals.
“Its always important to remember that “its not
about you”. Whether its your CEO or your
subordinates or your clients, they dont care about
what you want, its about how you can help them
achieve what they want. Woman who always ask
“whats in it for me”, “how will this impact on me?,
will struggle to succeed in the long run. You
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An element of selflessness and putting
others first also came through. In this
interview a strong sense of nurturing of
others came through.
succeed through others...”
“…Because women have to rush home after work
to sort out kids and cook food, and… and… and…,
we don‟t make enough time for socialising at work.
Sometimes the interaction between men is easier
and more relaxed. That‟s why I make it a priority to
make time to build my relationships with my male
and female colleagues at every opportunity.
Because I have such little time to do it, I need to
consciously use the time I have”.
“…I‟ve tried to formalise a social network for
women, but I saw that some of my colleagues were
uncomfortable with this, so now I simply do it
informally. I have a quick coffee with a female
colleague and we chat about dogs, kids and
handbags and then also about the challenges we
face at work. This really makes things easier and
creates an informal support structure, which men
typically seem to be so good at providing each
other, with such ease”.
“People must want to do things for you. You have
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to be likable and you have to give back. I know
that I can ask something out of the ordinary from
others and they will do it. But I dont take advantage
of this.”
5 Stress Management and
dealing with adversity
The participant described being able to
identify women who are perpetually
stressed and not coping with what is
required of them. She went on to
described how these women are
perceived negatively by the
organisation and not entrusted to deal
with gruelling or difficult assignments.
“I cope with stress well. I think women who derail
are always stressed. You can clearly see that they
are not comfortable with what they are doing,
where they are, the time they have to do things,
and the level that is required from them”.
“It is ok to be disappointed and it is ok to not like
being a failure, but some women cannot handle the
disappointment so they either leave or they
become so demoralised that they don‟t do a good
job anymore, or they are actually negative in the
workplace”.
6 Managing demands of
multiple roles
She is a mother of two young children
and described the on-going challenges
that this brings, particularly from a
practical perspective when required to
travel for business which she does quite
extensively.
“Many women derail because they cannot manage
the multiple demands of being a mom, a wife and a
successful exec. I know I almost did. It sometimes
felt completely overwhelming.”
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7 Understanding behaviour
and dealing with conflict
P2 spoke of protecting the self-esteem
of colleagues and being sensitive to the
consequences of injuring the pride of
others.
The participant also described the
importance of having insight into one‘s
own emotional triggers and the
perceptions that one creates through
one‘s behaviour.
“I never use a team environment to confront
someone on his opinions. I explore why his
opinions differ from mine and if I can see that we
are not going to see eye to eye or resolve the
situation, I take it offline, and set up a one-on-one
meeting where we can tackle eachother. Men are
very sensitive about this and protect each other
from what they percieve as being bitchy behaviour.
Your actions within a group setting are extremely
important”.
“It is important to think about how you are being
perceived , to have an awareness of how you are
coming across. People are sensitive and you need
to be aware of this at all times. Men especially talk
amongst each other and if you don‟t conduct
yourself correctly, next time you raise an issue their
backs are already up, and it‟s so much worse. I can
actually see in meetings how when certain women
talk, the men just switch off.”
“Self awareness is crucial. Know what things
trigger you and ensuring that you respond
correctly. One inappropriate response, bursting into
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tears once for whatever reason, has the potential to
do enormous damage.”
“Its important to read a situation and always to
respect someones image. If you embarass him
once amongst his colleagues, he will never forgive
you.”
8 Success driven Participant 2 was unashamed and
transparent in describing her desire for
success and doing what is required to
achieve success. I reflected this back to
P2, who then stated that women feel
that they cannot say out loud that they
wanted to be successful, which impacts
on their ability to be so.
“I like to be successful, bottom line. I will thus make
sacrifices in the team environment and
accommodate others to a point that is reasonable. I
am always willing to be the one who works the
hardest in the team. For me it‟s about continuously
striving for success but also realising that I need to
make concessions for people and situations along
the way.”
9 Accepting and giving
recognition for
achievements
The participant spoke about the positive
impact of the recognition for her
accomplishments which she received
from her parents as a child, had on her,
and how the recognition from significant
others today continues to help her
succeed.
“The recognition of achievement is something
which is often underestimated. People try to have
the aura about them that they do not need
recognition, but everybody does. I think part of
being a successful leader is accepting and giving
recognition, and also being able to give it to those
around you. It‟s a basic human need.”
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10 Confidence to take risks She shared her perception that the
women who derail are those who are
reactive and fear taking risks. She
shared that one has to trust one‘s
judgement when making decisions for
which the outcome is not always clear.
“I have just got a perception that if I don‟t take the
risks, nothing is going to happen. I associate risk
with reward. When I have stumbled in my career, it
is because I have been waiting for permission from
somebody, instead of just doing it. I reached a
point in my career when I realised that nobody was
going to give me the permission I was looking for.
Now if I‟m unsure, I say to myself, “ K, you have my
permission and I trust your judgment”
11 Identity as a women as
part of leadership identity
P2 expressed the view that her role as
a woman is integral to her role as a
leader and, as the only woman on the
executive team, very much forms part of
her identity as a leader.
“What I never do is try to pretend I don‟t play a
woman‟s role, I talk about being a mother, I talk
about being a wife, a good or bad hair day and with
that they don‟t see me as a male colleague, they
do see me as a female colleague, but it is ok, its ok
to be different.”
12 Dealing with gender
inequality
She was quite open about the fact that
sometimes being a woman leader is
difficult. However her approach is not to
dwell on this and take issue with it, but
rather accept the reality, and to do what
is required to succeed in the
“I work in a team that is mostly male. I must mix in
with their world. This is not an issue for me. I dont
try to be like a man, but dont go out of my way to
make gender an issue. I think sometimes its more
of an issue for women than it is for men.”
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environment she finds herself in.
This participant expressed distaste for
women who take unnecessary issue
with gender
“Some women try so hard to achieve, stand out
and be recognised in their own right, that they
forget that they are part of a team. Then they are
suprised when they dont get support.”
“The reality is that as a woman, you sometimes
have to work harder and longer than your male
colleages. That is unfortunately the way it is and if
it becomes an issue for you then you become
emotional. There is really no point.”
“I think you have to understand, first of all that life
isn‟t fair. You probably have to work a little bit
harder than your male colleagues, to get
credibility… so be it.”
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Table 4.3: Constructs: Participant 3 (P3)
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
1 Confidence in abilities and
ability to assert self
The participant shared her sense of
confidence in herself and her
consequent confidence in her opinions
and the right to have her needs met.
“I guess I‟m quite confident in my abilities, both
academically and as a professional within the
organisation, so I kind of feel like I can hold my
own.”
“I believe I am as entitled to an opinion as anybody
else is. Too many women don‟t do this. I think that
some women feel like they have to ask for
permission, or behave in a manner until somebody
notices what they want or need. So they don‟t take
stuff, they need permission. I‟m not like that.”
2 Positive and calm
approach
She discussed her ability to have a
positive and calming influence on
others, which she believes differentiates
her from women who have derailed.
“I tend to come across as quite positive and try not
to let people feel like „oh no, here comes trouble‟. I
try to keep people positive and I think that my
positive approach to life spills over. I‟m also
inclined to ensure that people stay calm about
things.”
“My philosophy on life is if you have a pessimistic
view of things, then you feel negative and then
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things start going downhill.”
3 Emotional awareness and
control
Participant 3 described the high
emotionality of derailed women leaders,
but holds the belief that appropriate
emotion in the workplace, especially
when linked to organisational initiatives
which have a potential negative impact
on others, is acceptable.
She further shared that her ability to
emotionally detach, when required.
“My view is that there is place for emotion in the
workplace, because it makes you human. I think
that when you make the tough decisions, it does
affect you and that‟s ok. Sometimes you are
forced to say: „this is going to be tough but we are
going to bite the bullet but we are going to go with
it‟. I think it‟s also the motivation to keep it together
for other people.”
“If a guy is having a bad day or a fight with the
wife, he‟ll take one of the guys out and go and
have a drink and talk about, and it‟ll all be ok.
Women don‟t do that, and as a result they end up
manifesting strange behaviour which nobody
understands, and then having a total blow out.
Women perceive that it is not acceptable to
actually have a life outside of work, and this is not
the case.”
“I think that women who derail, well that I have
seen, definitely tend to display a high level of
emotional behaviour. I don‟t think I have seen
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somebody who is highly emotional, who hasn‟t
derailed at some point.”
“Sometimes as a leader, you have a goal which
you have got to implement at all costs, for
example restructuring the organisation. If there
happen to be casualties or difficult decisions on
the way they have to be made because there is an
end goal in mind and if you don‟t make those calls
you are not going to actually get there. I think that
sometimes women tend to get too emotionally
stuck in tough decisions. I have the ability to
emotionally detach myself when I have to”
4 Cultivating networks This participant shared a number of
examples where her ability to make use
of her networks has helped her meet
difficult organisational challenges.
She also shared that this is something
she has had to teach herself as few
women tend to focus on building their
networks.
“I think that building networks is a big thing. That
doesn‟t exist in unsuccessful women, as they tend
to shy away from it. That is something I have
learnt and taught myself.”
“The realization that cultivating my networks is
invaluable in widening my sphere of influence and
in giving me the ability to call on resources when I
need them, has certainly helped me reach the
organisation‟s goals more effectively.”
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5 Resilience P3 shared her experience of her father
committing suicide when she was 18
years old and how this impacted on her
sense of identity.
Having been very close to her father,
she regards his suicide as being the
single biggest life changing event which
she has faced, forcing her to review her
sense of self and her view of the world.
She shared that her struggle to come to
terms with his death has equipped her
to cope with her challenges as a leader
and has armed her with a sense of
belief in her to cope with any challenge.
“I actually think I have become more resilient since
my father committed suicide. I think that sort of
trauma was the final clicking in of my survival instinct.
I think that prior to his death; I was less resilient and
far more reliant on him and the family…”
6 Self-Discipline to balance
multiple roles and
demands
This participant shared the challenges
she experienced in managing all the
roles which she is required to fulfil. Her
success in doing so was due to having
the self-discipline to use her limited time
constructively, making sacrifice and
managing time (e.g. not going to all
“The only way to get it right is if you can practically
manage things. This takes self-discipline, sacrifice,
time-management and boundaries. Self-discipline
is more difficult for some than for others. One
forgets all the sacrifices one makes along the way,
and how hard it actually is. Especially now that my
children are a bit older.”
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school functions, waking up extremely
early), and boundaries (learning to say
no).
7 Analysing, interpreting and
responding to behaviour of
others
Participant 3 described the importance
of and her ability to garner support
though understanding the behaviour of
others.
“I have the ability to analyse someone‟s behaviour
so I am able to react the right way. - It is almost
intuition and the understanding of the people
around me and why they are reacting in a particular
way. I am then able to respond in a way that helps
me get their support.”
“I think I‟m relatively good at getting my position
across, or getting my point across in a way that
other people feel comfortable with.”
8 Achievement drive and
perseverance
She also described her persistence and
doggedness. She also referred to the
importance of enduring rather than
escaping difficult situations.
“People already know, if I ask them to do
something, it‟s better to say yes upfront, because I
don‟t give up and will keep pestering them until
they say yes (laughs). It‟s important to respect
other people‟s priorities and to pick your battles,
but if I set my mind to something, I don‟t give up
until I succeed.”
“If you experience difficulties, it‟s the wrong thing to
always go to a different company. The right thing is
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actually to say, „well let‟s see what I can do in this
company to make things work‟, because I think
particularly for women, having longer periods of
work at the same company is actually beneficial,
and don‟t be like me and work at the same
company for 27 years, that is really not necessary,
but if you move to a different company every two
years, you find it very difficult to build up enough
credibility.”
9 Recognition from
significant others
The participant described the
importance of recognition from her
family and her lack of expectation from
receiving it in the work environment,
despite its positive impact.
“I think recognition from the significant people in my
life is important to me. I want my husband and my
children to be proud of my accomplishments.”
“Early on in my career, I had a boss who said that
„if you don‟t hear from me, you are doing well‟, so I
guess I‟ve just not expected recognition from
people in the workplace…as a leader though, I
have seen how well others respond when I give
them recognition, in whatever form, and how it
helps to build them.”
10 Confidence to take risks
and be flexible
Participant 3 described that as a senior
leader, she is required to take risks and
“I think that the more confident one is, the easier it
is to take risks and to trust your own judgment. As
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that she consciously practices doing so.
She links this to confidence, good
judgment and flexibility.
a leader in the organisation, that is precisely what I
am paid to do…”
“In my mind, risk taking, self-confidence and
flexibility go hand in hand, and like any muscle in
the body, need to be regularly trained in order to
perform optimally.”
11 Appreciation for gender
differences
She expressed having an appreciation
for the world-view and differing
contributions of different genders. This
has contributed to her success.
“I‟m married to a very manly man, so I‟m aware of
what is going on in that world. I know who won the
Grand Prix and the rugby over the weekend and
so, especially when I‟m in unfamiliar
circumstances, this becomes an easy point of
commonality.”
“I dont try to pretend that I am less of a woman, but
understanding and showing an appreication for
their (a man‟s) world, goes a long way to being
sucessful in it.”
“There are certain aspects that a woman leader
brings to the table which men enjoy. The
relationship is a different one. Whilst you have to
be tough enough to have the diffuclt convertations,
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you can also be soft enough to ask how their sick
child is doing, because their male colleagues won‟t
ask this.”
12 Realistic worldview P3 appears to have a very realistic view
of what she can achieve. In describing
this, she did not appear to experience
any negativity or resignation, but merely
expressed it as a statement of fact. She
believes that acceptance of this reality
has enabled her not to derail.
“I have come to accept that I will never be as good
a housewife as a woman who does not work, I will
never be as good at work as someone who does
not have a family and can dedicate more of her
time to work, I will never be able to be there as
much for my husband as a woman who does not
work.. I accept that.”
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Table 4.4: Constructs: Participant 4 (P4)
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
1 Self-belief and -confidence P4 shared her strong belief in herself
and her identity of ―being the best‖. This
also implies the pitfalls of women
believing that they are not as good as
men.
“I mean I work in a very male dominated
environment and for that you need to be strong in
many respects and I mean not physically but
mentally you have to be very strong. You also have
to believe in yourself as a woman and a person.”
“It sounds funny, I went to a tiny school, 300 people
from sub A to Matric, so what helped me a lot
which gave me a lot of confidence and not
everyone can have it but in that school I was
always pretty much the best, It didn‟t matter what I
did and in the big school I may have disappeared! I
never thought of myself as not being the best.
From the day I started there until the day I left I was
one of the best. That confidence I think I took with
me for the rest of my life.”
“I think the biggest shortcoming that women have, I
am generalizing, is that we don‟t believe in
ourselves enough, we still think, I don‟t know if we
are brought up like that, there is a small bit in some
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of us that we just think that we are not as good as
men, simply that we are not good enough.”
“Believe in yourself, find out what it is that you want
to do then go for it, I mean if you told me 15 years
ago, which is not that long ago, that I would be sitting
here today and I would just have laughed and said
„that is not me‟.”
2 Positive outlook The participant shared her belief that
derailed women have a sense of
unhappiness and dissatisfaction, whilst
she sees herself as being a positive
individual.
“I have found that women whose career derail are
generally unhappy about where they are, what they
are doing, tend to blame other people for all the
bad things or even the good things that are
happening to them, but they don‟t see that they are
good. They are just dissatisfied, is probably a
better word.”
“I regard myself as a very positive person.”
3 Aversion to emotional
displays and use of
emotion as a tool
She expressed dislike for either men or
women who are ―drama queens‖ and for
people who use their emotions for their
own ends. She reports that he
inappropriate use of emotions impacts
“Men don‟t feel comfortable with emotion, I have
found the once or twice I have indulged in a bit of
emotion. It makes them very uncomfortable,
sometimes you do need to make them
uncomfortable, and then it works, but if I am a
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on one‘s credibility in that people stop
listening.
drama queen here every day, people will just stop
listening to me.”
“Personally I also don‟t like women who act like a
drama queen, just like I don‟t like men who act like
a drama queen…”
“One needs to step away a little bit from your
emotions in the workplace I think. I mean I see
them coming from a mile away, if they are trying to
manipulate me with their emotions. I ignore politics
as well which is the male equivalent of a drama
queen.”
4 Taking cognisance of
others opinions and needs
P4 shared the importance of obtaining
input and caring for others as a tool for
her success.
“I think women listen better, again generalizing, you
find women who can‟t listen at all, but I think we
listen better because we not so convinced that we
are always right. I think we are more able to say,
“Maybe that person has got a point, let me listen to
them and adjust my strategy to reflect that”
“I really like doing things for other people.”
5 Tolerance for stress “I must say that I don‟t stress easily. I worry but I
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don‟t stress. There is a difference I guess and I
accept that I can‟t fix everything, you also have to
do that, but I also take responsibility for the things I
can. I think and maybe I understand that when I
have done everything I can, I have worked really
hard, then that is ok, but not everyone can do that”.
“I think that I have the ability to cope well when
things go wrong, and relatively quickly too.”
6 Ability to deal with
disappointment/failure and
adversity
She shared some of her
disappointments and how her ability to
deal with them helped prevent her from
derailing. It could be seen in her sharing
of these experiences, specifically with
regards to her studies, that these had
affected her deeply, at the time.
“I recovered quickly enough from the
disappointment of doing poorly in my studies and
about a month or two after hearing that I failed one
of my exams, I forced myself to get back on the
horse. I make it sound easy now, but at the time it
was really difficult to pick myself up. I remember
telling myself: „you are better than this, this does
not define you‟.”
“In my career, there have been times when I
thought I am next in line for a promotion and it
didn‟t happen, sometimes it went to a male and it
should‟ve come to me. If you want to be successful
in the corporate environment you need to take
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these disappointments. How you handle the
disappointments in your life, is almost more telling
to people who eventually make decisions about
your career than how you handle the good things
that happen in life.”
7 Balancing responsibilities
and roles
Throughout my interaction with P4, I
was overwhelmed by her humility and
almost self-effacing approach, despite
her underlying air of confidence and
success. She attributes this to not
taking herself too seriously and taking
time to step away from her role of CEO
at times.
“When I get home I try as much as possible to step
away from the work, even if it is only for two hours.”
“So I must say what has helped me a lot is having
a family, if you have a baby at home or a one-year-
old, the moment you get home that person doesn‟t
know that you are the CEO at all, and that person,
or people and your husband demands attention
from you, so that helped me to escape a little bit
from the stress of the corporate environment so
that has really helped me a lot.”
“…and maybe that is a part of not taking yourself
too seriously, I didn‟t mind coming down to come
and fetch you. Some of my colleagues would see
that as far beneath them to do.”
“I don‟t think I take myself too seriously. I don‟t
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think I am different than other people; I am still to
me a little girl who went to a little school and grew
up on a farm.”
8 Realistic self-image This participant showed a willingness to
introspect and be honest about her
flaws.
“I think one must, first of all, actually be very honest
with yourself, because we all have potentially an
inflated idea of what we possibly do, that is just like
that. We all think we are better than we are; we
tend to gloss over our own faults a bit.”
9 Drive for success P4 expressed her sense of tenacity,
drive, perseverance, competitiveness
and need to win.
She also shared the importance of
being goal- and results-orientated
“I think one of the things that have contributed to
my success is that I hate not winning, I am very
competitive. I really don‟t give up easily. I also have
to be strong enough to admit that I can lose. But
generally, any problem I believe has a solution to it.
I firmly believe that you eat the elephant bite by
bite. Every little bit of effort gets you ultimately
towards your goal. For me it‟s about wanting to be
the best, in whatever you have chosen to do.”
“I think I am as competitive as any other human
being, but in general what I see with women
around me is that they are just not that driven to
get to the top. They feel they are a success when
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they have sort of reached middle management.”
“I think you have to be very results driven. Make
sure that you reach goals that are set for you, and I
am talking about the corporate world. With
corporate world it is pretty much results driven,
they are going to forget you are a woman, they are
going to forget you are young, if it is an age thing,
because that is also the same problem with
younger people, or they are going to forget you are
old. It is all about results. And it doesn‟t matter how
friendly you are, or how good-looking you are, or
how sporty you are, if you don‟t get the results,
eventually it will count against you in the corporate
world. It is about getting the right results.”
10 Need for Recognition Participant 4 provided a useful insight
about using her need for recognition to
drive her success.‖
I have always wanted my family to be proud of me.
Well I mean initially my parents, now my daughter
and husband, maybe it is a need for people to really
appreciate me, I don‟t know. I have just always
wanted people to be, don‟t most people want them
to be proud of them.”
“I think it must be very, I think every human being,
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well most normal human beings have got a desire
for other people to like them and actually think they
are not so bad. Mine is just maybe a bit stronger
developed than other people. Or maybe I am just
more, I am fortunate to have the ability to get
something more out of it, I don‟t know.”
11 Risk Taking and Openness
to Change
She expressed the importance of taking
risks, seizing opportunities and not
being rigid in one‘s expectations.
“Stretch yourself, and then use an opportunity
when it comes along, even if it scares the hell out
of you. I know that if I don‟t use the opportunity,
somebody else will and then it will be too late.”
“I mean I was thrown in the deep end many times,
you learn to swim. But if you are scared and you
don‟t jump in you won‟t get there, so you have to
take risks sometimes, and I think women are
inherently different than men, we are less likely to
take risks and you have to take risks.”
“To be a successful leader you cannot be
absolutely rigid in your expectations, because life
is fluid around you and you need to go with
wherever life is taking you.”
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12 Mature and pragmatic
approach to gender
inequities
The participant shared her view on the
gender inequities which exist. She
appears to have a mature and
pragmatic approach to these.
“Double standards exist. My male colleagues can
go out on a heavy night together and still respect
each other as colleagues the next day. You cannot
be one of the boys tonight and a professional
woman the next day. It‟s not fair, it‟s not right, but
I‟m not going to lose any sleep about it. I accept
those sorts of things. That‟s it, that‟s the way the
game is, play the game the way it is…”
“I don‟t have hang-ups about gender discrimination
issues. Yes I need to deal with some difficulties
from my male colleagues at times, but they also
need to deal with an absent me when I have been
on maternity leave for 6 months, so there are
different issues.”
“If you are so busy fighting gender issues, how can
you focus on your job? Two thirds of men are on
the same page as you anyway, and you eventually
just end up irritating everyone. We are all here to
work and I think that that is where the focus should
be. I suppose there must be women in an
organisation who fight the necessary fights, but
that‟s just not me.”
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13 Accepting compromise Participant 4 displayed a realistic
acknowledgment of compromises and
decisions which she had to make in her
career.
“It‟s also about your definition of success. I had the
opportunity to run a company in India, which I am
fully capable of doing, but chose not to, due to my
family situation. This does not make me any less
successful than my colleague who has recently
accepted the offer. It makes me someone who has
exercised a personal choice and I think you have to
believe in yourself. I cannot deny that I sometimes
think about opportunities that I have missed, but I
don‟t dwell on it and remind myself why I have
made the decisions which I have.”
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Table 4.5: Constructs: Participant 5 (P5)
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
1 Self-belief She shared her perception of women
who do not have sufficient self-belief
and how this can derail them.
“I have a strong belief in myself. I thus don‟t have
the need to continuously prove myself. Women
who are continuously fighting and telling you how
good they are and that they aren‟t being noticed or
given a chance, speaks to me of someone who
does not believe in herself, or her own opinions or
that she deserves to be listened to.”
2 Seeking positive meaning
in events
This participant shared her belief in a
positive future and finding meaning in
the events that occur.
“One needs to be able to let go of the past and
move on. I try to be positive about the future and I
think this is important. I am a glass half full type of
person. It works for me and makes me feel good. I
always look for the reason in things and believe
that things will work out”.
3 Emotional control P5 shared her ability to put her
emotions aside and display an ability to
deal with situations calmly and in a
stable manner.
“My husband is extremely unemotional and I think
that this has rubbed off on me. I tend to sit back
and think things through a bit before I get
emotional. I am able to put my emotions aside and
think „is it really worthwhile to stress about this?‟
and then I just move on. This has definitely
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contributed to my success.”
“Because of the perception, and sometimes reality,
that women are more emotional than men, it is
important for me to show that I can think calmly
about things and behave in a stable manner. You
can‟t come to work in a bad mood because you
have had a fight with your husband.”
4 Trusting relationships The participant displayed an innate
belief in the good in human nature. She
also expressed the ability to build
deeper and trusting relationships with
colleagues, whilst being able to
maintain a professional relationship with
them.
“I‟m very inclined to give people the benefit of the
doubt or a second chance if they have hurt or
disappointed me. I‟m not naïve, I know what I am
letting myself in for, but I always try to see the best
in human nature.”
“Working relationships are very important. I have
become friends with many of the people I work with
and it‟s important to be able to separate with work
from the personal relationship. To have a meeting,
disagree and treat each other with professional
respect and then still to be friends afterwards.”
5
Sponsorships in the
workplace
“What has helped me a lot is that I have been able
to identify people in the organisation who I trust
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and who trust me. I have people who I can test my
opinions with, and even become emotional with,
but then afterwards I am better able to deal with
things. Sometimes other people view things
differently or have better insight into certain
circumstances”.
6 Resilience and dealing
with adversity
She described her emotional resilience
and ability to learn from past mistakes.
“I am mentally quite strong. You take the knocks in
life and carry on and you actually learn from it rather
than let them define your life in a negative way. For
some reason or the other I can do that. I don‟t think
it is something that can be taught, but I think it is
something that can be encouraged, so if there is an
element of that in an individual, I think you can
develop it and encourage it. If someone is just prone
to not deal well with whatever happens in life, then I
am not sure that you can teach that, I don‟t think
so”.
7 Balancing Multiple Roles
and Demands
The participant expressed the
psychological and mental strength
required to deal with the challenges of
multiple roles without allowing it to
derail her career.
“One of the biggest challenges for me personally
has been my family versus my career. They are
sometimes in conflict and there are always issues
around it. I think it is natural for a woman to ask, „am
I being the best mother, wife, career woman I can
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be‟? It‟s difficult to balance them all because you
can be doing great in one department but poorly in
another. If you feel like you are not being a great
mom, it does spill over into your work…”
“…I continuously ask myself the questions, how are
my decisions going to impact in the long term on my
children, my marriage, and my work? You have to
be unselfish because you have very little time for
yourself, yet you feel selfish all the time because
you work. It‟s really tough.
8 Self-insight and self-
awareness
She expressed having insight into
herself, but also displayed insight into
the behaviour of others.
“I think I know myself pretty well. I am aware of my
behaviour, am aware of my strengths and
weaknesses and try to manage those. For me it‟s
important to recognise that other people try to often
look at someone else as the problem and not
themselves. I try to have empathy with them rather
than getting angry or defensive.”
9 Passion and drive to
succeed
P5 spoke with passion about her pro-
active, almost obsessive engagement
with the world around her. She
expressed that this has helped her
“I was born with the drive to succeed. I only fully
understand that now that I have children. I
participated in everything at school. If there was
netball, I played netball, if there was a choir; I wanted
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succeed in her career, where others
have been unable to.
She also specifically highlighted the role
of perseverance in her success.
to sing in the choir. I look at my daughter who often
says she is not in the mood to take part in her extra-
mural activities. I was never like that. I would
participate and do my best in everything that I could.
Since I was young I had this drive to try new things
and to try everything I could lay my hands on.”
“I want to add another word and that is
perseverance. Just don‟t give up, it is tough but don‟t
give up.”
10 Sincere and genuine
recognition for
achievements
The participant shared that because
recognition is a part of the
organisational culture, it can sometimes
come across as ―institutionalised‖ and
that this has the opposite effect to
recognition which is experienced as
sincere and genuine.
“It is very much part of our organisational culture to
recognise each other‟s achievements. I‟m not sure
that I need any more or less recognition than my
colleagues, but if I think about it, many of my female
colleagues, and women managers at other levels in
or organisations really appear to thrive on it.”
“For me recognition must be sincere and genuine. I
know that my efforts are valued in the organisation,
even if I‟m not told. I must admit though, it‟s nice to
hear it sometimes, especially if I‟ve dealt with a
particularly difficult project or been able to drive
implementation of a particularly important strategy.‖
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11 Flexibility and open-
mindedness
She expressed her enjoyment in having
opportunities to experiment with new
undertakings and improvements,
despite the discomfort it causes. She
highlighted the importance of flexibility,
and how it contributed to her success.
“I was born as someone who always wants to try new
things. I can‟t sit still and am always on the lookout
for new ways to do things better. It‟s also the
realization that the world will not end if something
was a flop. It‟s actually good and enjoyable to be put
outside of your comfort zone and to feel a little shaky
and nervous about a new venture. The more it
happens the better you learn to handle it.”
“The ability to cope with things that have not worked
out the way I yesterday thought they would is
important. Nothing works out the way you thought it
would. Things always change and there are always
new balls to juggle. If you are not flexible and cannot
deal with change, you will absolutely derail.”
“I‟m a very flexible person, I‟m not sure why. We
recently underwent some Executive Coaching and
discussed this a lot, I guess it‟s just the way I am put
together.”
12 Realistic approach and
compromise
P5 expressed the importance of the
need to compromise and of being
realistic within the context of being a
“Women who I have seen derail are not realistic
about what they do or where they stand in terms of
their challenges. I think that a woman who says I
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woman leader. can be the CEO, and have a fantastic family life
and a husband who also has a fantastic job as a
CEO, is smoking something. There are very few
such scenarios. As husband and wife in that
scenario, you both have to have very specific
personalities if that is going to work, because
somebody has to compromise, and it‟s usually the
woman…”
13 Dealing with gender
differences
The Participant acknowledged that
differences in gender exist, especially in
terms of credibility being assigned
based on gender. She further
described how she deals with it.
“I still think that it is still a bit more difficult, not as
difficult as it used to be, but a bit more difficult for
women leaders to get on the same level of
credibility, I always say men always get the
credibility and they have to lose it, women have to
earn the credibility, once they have earned it they
don‟t lose it so easily.”
“I had to earn my credibility here. Some men come
in with it, but as I said sometimes they lose it, but
they almost get it automatically, if they have the
experience and education, they come in with the
credibility, I and some women have to earn that.”
“Sometimes it does feel awkward to be the only
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woman in a meeting with 11 other men, but I try not
to think about it like that. I don‟t think about the fact
that I‟m the only woman there, or be worried that
my opinion won‟t count. It‟s unnecessary to make
yourself feel more different than you are. “
“I‟m not afraid to put my opinions on the table.
More and more, over time my colleagues respect
my opinion. A woman brings a different perspective
to a discussion and an extra angle that sometimes
men don‟t think about, and this sometimes makes a
massive contribution which my male counterparts
value and appreciate.”
“I think that a big part of my success is that I am
not busy fighting the whole day. The thing is those
women who are so incredibly bitchy and always
moaning about everything…it does not work…
They are defensive. They are always trying to
defend their abilities or their competence, not their
work. That‟s the perception that I have. In meetings
some women first spend ages explaining why they
are entitled to their opinions, rather than just giving
their opinions. Express your opinion and that‟s that.
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It immediately places a question mark over that
person for me.”
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4.2.1 External factors which support the development of characteristics that prevent derailment
Of interest to me is that all the participants described their upbringing and home environment as having played a
pivotal role in developing certain personality characteristics which come to bear in preventing derailment. The findings are
outlined in table 4.6 below:
Table 4.6: External factors supporting the development of characteristics preventing derailment
No Construct Description Supporting quotes
P 1
1 Exposure and recognition
when growing up
Participant 1 ascribed her ability to
avoid derailment to her upbringing.
“I certainly think that it‟s got to do with your
upbringing and I think it‟s got to do with exposure in
your family life as a child…My parents recognised
my achievements. As kids we grew up with a
certain amount of freedom, without there being
chaos in the house and each of us was treated as
individuals”
2 Stability in areas of life
other than work
A well-managed personal life was
described by P1 as being instrumental
in helping to prevent her own
derailment.
“I think that your current personal situation when
you are in a position like this plays a very big role –
I think that if there is disaccord within your family,
emotional life, or personal situation it is going to
play out into your career. You are susceptible to
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failure and derailing. Your personal life needs to
be managed.”
P 2
1 Sense of confidence
instilled by parents
P2 ascribed her ability to avoid
derailment to her upbringing.
“I grew up with a sense of “I‟m okay” and I don‟t
have to outperform everybody and be the best at
everything to be okay. I know my parents are proud
of my achievements and that carries me every day”
2 Support of life partner She further shared the importance of
the role her husband played in her
success as a leader.
“My husband forces me to keep my feet flat on the
ground but is also very proud of my achievements.
He is so supportive of me, and I know that I would
not have been able to achieve what I have if he
was not in my life.”
P 3
1 Sense of confidence
instilled by parents
P3 ascribed her ability to avoid
derailment to her upbringing.
“The confidence I have in myself comes from the
very strong positive reinforcement that I received
as a child.”
2 Nurturing received from
mother as adult
This participant also shared details
about the strong bond she has with her
mother and the nurturing role which she
plays in her life.
“It‟s terrible to say this, I am almost 50, but I still run
to my mother when I have a really big stressful
situation be it work or family related. That is
comfort for me, I just go to her and I sit, she cooks
for me. She just treats me like a baby, she mothers
me. I can‟t really put a value to that. I don‟t think
she realised how much she has actually
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contributed to my career, just by being there.”
P 4
1 Role modelling by parents P4 described her parents as role
models for her on gender equality and
support of spouses for each other.
“I think that cultural upbringing is massive in terms
of the role of the woman within the family. In my
environment, it was very much my dad who was
the head of the house, but my mother had a career,
she had a strong role to play. My dad completely
supported her; he didn‟t feel threatened by it so it
was all ok”.
2 Strong role of mother in
moulding self
She further ascribed her ability to be a
successful leader to the role of her
mother whilst growing up.
“My father was an observer. He loved us terribly,
but he wasn‟t a talker. So our attitude, outlook on
life and the way we did things came from my
mother. My mother was definitely the caregiver in
the house. I have an unbelievably close
relationship with my mother.”
3 Practical support
mechanisms
This participant described the practical
support mechanisms which she has put
in place to provide her with the support
she needs to succeed.
“Being a working mother, it is really important for
me to have a good structure at home, so I have
always had a full-time au pair, so I don‟t worry
about being a good housekeeper, or cooking. My
husband knew what he was getting into when he
married me and my poor child didn‟t, she can cook
for herself if she wants to.”
P 5
1 Support and Participant 5 ascribed her ability to “I think it has lot to do with your upbringing. I grew
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encouragement from
parents as child
avoid derailment to her supportive
upbringing.
up in an average home, my parents earned an
average income, and I was an average child whose
performance was average, but my parents always
supported and encouraged me. I wanted to make
them proud.”
2 Strong role of supportive
stay-at-home-mom as a
child.
She also ascribed her ability to be a
successful leader to the supportive role
of her mother whilst growing up.
“The fact that my mother didn‟t work I think helped
me to be what I am. She was always there for me
100%. My mom was not competition for me. She
was just my mother. There is a very big role for
that, maybe as a society we would be a better
place if we had more stay at home moms”.
3 Role of mentor or role-
model in workplace
In addition, she shared the details of
some of the mentors she has worked
with and how they influenced her ability
to remain successful over time.
“Everywhere that I have worked and been able to
succeed, I‟ve had the benefit of a mentor or
somebody that I‟ve connected with or aspired to
work with. I‟ve always tried to find someone who I
can look at and say “this is what success looks
like”.
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4.2.2 Derailment experiences
During the research each of the participants shared experiences in their careers which could have led to their
derailment. I utilised these experiences as a point of departure to begin exploring the constructs which the participants
expressed as having prevented them from derailing.
Table 4.7: Derailment experiences
No Construct Supporting quotes
P 1
Participants 1 described the situation where a project team was put
together to deal with a specific project which was a few years in
duration. She was the most senior person on the project team and
when the project was complete, the rest of the team was absorbed
back into the normal organisational structure.
Because of her seniority, for her, there was no position available.
She was told that the organisation could ―create‖ a position for her,
which would encompass ad-hoc duties to assist the CEO. She
experienced this as very difficult and as if she was being side-lined.
She seriously considered leaving the organisation and had to struggle
immensely with herself.
“The respect that this earned me within the
organisation is immeasurable...I think my long-term
view and willingness to experience short-term
discomfort in exchange for potential long-term
benefit is what prevented my career from derailing
at that point… I discussed my disappointment with
my CEO but continued to deliver my best, which I
think was also important… I had to confront myself
on a daily basis…. and I had to learn to forgive…”
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Eventually she opted to fill a position at a lower job grade and for two
years reported to someone who had previously reported to her.
P 2
This participant reported the challenge of being appointed in the
organisation due to employment equity requirements of the business,
which placed pressure for the appointment of a woman.
In addition to this, she reported that the view of the organisation was
that her role as General Manager: Human Resources, is traditionally
a woman‘s role. She reported that both these factors present a
number of challenges that she continuously has to deal with.
She stated experiencing that she continually has to prove herself,
even after years in the position. She believes that if she did not have
the personality and approach that she does, this could easily have
derailed her career.
“Questions exist amongst my colleagues about
whether I was appointed into this position because
I am a woman or because I am good at what I do. It
is a continuous challenge to be able to dispel that
myth amongst my colleagues.”
“I think the point of entry into your position is
important. It‟s an issue of legitimacy, so that you
don‟t have to fight that aspect as well. You start on
the back foot if that has not happened.”
P 3
This participant‘s challenge was not imposed on her by an external
situation but rather by herself. P3 had to overcome aspects of her
own personality which she believes would have led to her derailment.
“I had to learn that I was sometimes too confident
and I often didn‟t know when it was appropriate to
play the strong and confident role that I needed to
play.”
“This can seriously rub people up the wrong way
and I still have to watch myself all the time, even in
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my current position.”
P 4
She described failing her actuarial exams a number of times, whilst
being employed in her current organisation, as almost derailing her
career in the financial sector.
This had consequences for her career progression and the perception
of decision makers of her.
“When I started working here I started with my
actuarial studies, and qualified as an actuary after
quite a lengthy period, 6 to 7 years.”
“When I didn‟t pass all of my subjects, it felt like my
world ended, It was terrible it was like I couldn‟t
believe that it was happening to me…”
P 5
P5 described reporting to a CEO whom she experienced as difficult
and unreasonable in terms of the demands which he placed on her
and in terms of his own personality and behavioural style.
She believes that her career would have been derailed had he not
been forced to resign from the company.
“He was a control freak and would treat his
executive team like children, often belittling us or
criticising our work publicly.”
“I thought of resigning several times and my
confidence was at an all-time low.”
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4.2.3 Participants definitions of derailment
The participants were asked to describe their personal definitions of career derailment as it applies to women
leaders. The findings are outlined in table 4.8 below:
Table 4.8: Definitions of derailment
No Construct Supporting quotes
P 1
When, due to
discrimination, a women‘s
success is undermined as
a result of being forced to
play a specific role in order
to be recognised as an
equal
“When discrimination is inherent in the people that you are interacting with… the role that you
take on is sometimes „more in your face‟, or forceful than it would be, because you need
recognition as an equal.”
“This can impact on the success of a woman. I also think that in some work environments
there are stronger…external (discrimination) factors at play than in others…”
P 2
Women blaming
discrimination for not
meeting career
expectations
"I think us women find it easy to blame discrimination or the glass ceiling for not getting where
we want to be, and sometimes it is, but I would say in 25% of the cases it actually is, 75% of
the cases we actually discriminate against ourselves.”
P 3
Women who make “The thing is, rightly or wrongly, if women are always hammering on the fact that they do not
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excuses for their own lack
of success
have fair opportunities, one starts to wonder if she would have deserved it in the first place.”
“If a woman is busy telling you the whole time how men are putting stumbling blocks in her
path, then I think she is busy making excuses for herself.”
“I ask myself, why I have not experienced this, because I work in the same organisation as the
women who tell me these things.”
“I‟d be interested to know how many successful women have given you examples of not
having had opportunities because they were women. I hear many women say that, but I place
them in the category of “I also would not have given her the position”.
P 4
Self-stereotyping and
believing that women are
less successful
“Women who derail are those who Stereotype themselves.”
“Like creating the role in their own head of: „women never get anywhere‟. I have never felt like
that in my life, that I‟m not going to get anywhere because I am a woman. I‟ve never felt like
that.”
P 5
Not meeting the
expectations that you set
for yourself
I think for any person, women or men, your career has probably derailed when you are not
meeting the expectations that you set for yourself... it is when you have the ability and the
desire to do something and you don‟t do it. …Sometimes you have the desire and not the
ability, so that for me is heading for derailment, because if you really don‟t have the ability,
you don‟t have the ability…
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4.2.4 “Opting Out” and “Voluntary Separation” as they relate to derailment
Based on the findings of the current study, it appears that under certain circumstances―Opting Out‖ and ―Voluntary
Separation‖ can be linked to, or even seen as a form of derailment. The findings in this regard are outlined in table 4.9
below.
Table 4.9: “Opting out” and “voluntary separation” relating to derailment
Participant Opting out and derailment Supporting quotes
P 1 This participant viewed opting out or voluntary
separation as derailment if the choice to leave
was not truly ―voluntary‖. I.e. a women is forced
to leave an organisation due to internal push
factors or external pull factors‖
Well for me it (choosing to leave an organisation) isn‟t really
derailment… but it is derailment if it is not your choice”
“…and then the derailment is probably because there is a
husband that says you have to (leave the organisation) or
something in the organization is pushing you.”
“…but if it is a choice then I don‟t see it as derailment,
because I don‟t think there is anything wrong with that
(choosing to leave an organisation)”.
“If, and I have friends who are stay at home mothers who
are highly educated, two/three Degrees, it is what they really
want to do, good for them. They have a much easier life than
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I have, but it is what they chose to do. If it makes them happy
it is not a derailment, if it makes them unhappy it is a
derailment.”
P 2 P2 expressed the view that some organisational
cultures were more ―tough‖ for women than
others and that these organisations would
always struggle to retain top, competent women.
In this event opting out and voluntary separation
from these organisations could be linked to
derailment.
“I have a friend who worked at (company name). She is really
good at her job and had performed well in all her previous
companies, but she was so unhappy at (company name) and
felt that like she was always hitting her head against a brick
wall. Eventually she decided to leave. She is now working for
(company name) and is again at the top of her game, fulfilled
and happy”.
P 3 Participant 3 expressed the view that very often
women who don‘t have the ability to face their
own shortcomings opt out or leave
organisations. In this instance opting out and
voluntary separation could be regarded as
derailment.
“They leave their jobs with a long list of reasons why the
organisation or their family did not allow them to succeed.
Sometimes this is the case, but it‟s also sometimes a
convenient excuse.”
P 4 She stated that if women opt out or leave an
organisation because they doubt the likelihood
of their being successful because they are
women and thus chose not to (or believe that
they need not) compete with men, have
“We all need to deal with our own insecurities and not use the
fact that we know there are only a limited number of women
who are successful in senior positions, to immediately start
saying „what chance do I have of being successful?‟ In some
women there is almost a (sense of), „I don‟t need to be equal
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derailed.
to any of my male counter parts‟.”
P 5 P5 postulated that women, who make excuses
to opt out or leave an organisation because they
have given up, have derailed.
I see many women just giving up actually, and maybe it is
because you have the easy way out of well "I am married, I
have kids and I need to go sort out that.”
4.3 Conclusion
In this chapter the results of the research were outlined. The participants‘ personal definitions and experiences of
derailment, as well as their views of the leadership landscape and their view of themselves as leaders were discussed.
Trends regarding external factors which support women leaders as well as their views regarding opting out and voluntary
separation were also elaborated on.
In Chapter 5, an interpretation and synthesis of the results above will follow. In addition, findings and interpretations
will be discussed in the context of the relevant literature. Finally, an integrated framework of characteristics which prevent
career derailment of women executives, based on the emerging themes, will be presented.
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CHAPTER 5
INTERPRETATION AND SYNTHESIS OF RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
The primary aim of this study is to gain an in-depth understanding of the
characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders. A secondary aim is to
reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of leadership
derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women, themselves. This exploration
was undertaken making use of grounded theory.
In addition to the above, during the study, participants‘ experiences of how the
external environment has either supported them in developing the characteristics which
prevent derailment, as well as their views regarding ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary
separation‖ as these concepts relate to derailment, were also explored.
In Chapter 4, the constructs and themes that emerged from the participants‘
interviews were reported. The constructs were made sense of and categorised
according to the various themes which they represent. In this chapter, the interpretation
and synthesis of major findings are undertaken; whereafter an integrated framework of
characteristics which prevent career derailment of women executives will be
constructed.
Eleven main themes emerged from the data. Each of these will be discussed and
interpreted within the context of personal construct theory as well as existing literature
on derailment. This is followed by an interpretation of external factors which support the
development of characteristics that prevent derailment, ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary
separation‖ as they relate to derailment, and finally, leadership derailment as it is
experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders.
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5.2 Interpretation of themes
5.2.1 Contextualizing personal construct theory
As discussed in Chapter 3, personal construct theory is primarily a theory of
examining how humans continually construct meaning in a continually changing world
(Epting & Paris, 2006). Individuals give meaning to their world and experiences by
creating an unspoken theoretical framework, which personal construct theory refers to
as a personal construct system. It is thus within this system that individuals anticipate
the future and engage with their environment.
Personal construct theory is a psychological theory, but unlike other
psychological theories, it postulates that individuals display certain behaviours and
develop certain characteristics based on their personal construct system.
Epting and Paris (2006), demonstrate how divergent Kelly‘s theory of Personal
Constructs was from other dominant psychological theories, by describing nine
exclusions in the positioning of his theory. These are briefly described below.
The theory has no concept of self or ego, but rather of core constructs
which involve meaning-making as the foundation of personality.
Constructs deal with the process of invention rather than a process of
discovery (of the self). The process of meaning-making is relational, in
that an individual evolves core constructs in the context of seeing
himself through his interactions with others.
The theory has no concept of psychological dynamics or of motivation as
being an important component of the human psyche. Kelly rejects that an
underlying activating entity serves to push or pull human behaviour, but
rather that humans are already in motion and deciding in which
direction to go. In addition, the direction they are going in is an
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elaboration of what they are already doing, based on how they construe
things.
There is no concept of a human going through developmental stages.
Rather, constant change takes place and humans formulate their own
view of themselves and the world, given their particular age and
circumstances.
There is no typology of traits which slot people into categories. Rather, the
theory makes provision for giving guidelines to assist humans in
understanding the constructive process (or process of construing), and
how it differs from person to person.
The theory does not rely on establishing cause and effect relationships to
gain psychological understanding of an individual. Rather, Kelly tries to
understand the individual’s context, how he construes his context
and what he is trying to accomplish. Kelly is interested in the individuals
own constructions of cause and effect, but not in a search for underlying,
real causal relationships.
There is no concept of psychopathology, but rather of how individuals get
stuck. Stuckness is constructed by the individual (not an attribute of
the individual), and can therefore be deconstructed, to move from
stuckness to mobility.
The theory does not separate thoughts, feelings and actions to be
explained in their own right (as does cognitive-behavioural theory).
Construction is an embodiment of all three simultaneously, in a kind
of gestalt.
The theory does not postulate a set of basic needs inherent in individuals.
Rather, individuals live in an interdependent context and it is important
to understand how they go about gaining what they need.
The theory excludes the notion of an ―unconscious‖, rather it describes
characteristics of the constructive process, which may be at low levels
of awareness. The focus is thus on how aware individuals are, rather than
on a ―mysterious‖ unknown part of themselves.
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Based on the above, it can be seen that the characteristics possessed by women
leaders that prevent their derailment are based on their “meaning-making”, in other
words, how they construe themselves, their world and the leadership milieu. By
understanding the ―meaning-making‖ or constructions of these women who have not
derailed, other women leaders can be assisted to reformulate their own constructions of
themselves and the world. By assisting them in understanding the constructive process,
we are able to help them to ―deconstruct‖ certain unhelpful constructions which lead to
derailment.
Gaining insight into and exploring the constructs of women leaders who have not
fallen prey to derailment, makes a significant contribution to our understanding of
leadership derailment amongst women leaders and enables the empowerment of
women through the investigation of alternative constructions, which may lead to more
success within the leadership realm.
Fransella, Bell and Bannister (2004, pp. 5-6) comment as follows:
In Kelly‘s terms we are ‗scientists‘ who derive hypotheses (have
expectations) from our theories (our personal construing). We subject
these hypotheses to experimental testing (we bet on them behaviourally,
and we take active risks in terms of them). We observe the results of our
experiments (we live with the outcomes of our behaviour), we modify our
theory (we change our minds, and we change ourselves), and so the cycle
continues.
In the context of the current research, by understanding how women executives
who have not fallen prey to derailment, derive hypotheses (have expectations) from
their theories (their personal construing/ internal personal construct system), we are
able to obtain a deeper understanding of how the manner in which they subject their
construing to experimental testing (through their behaviour), leads to specific outcomes
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(within their work environment and roles as leaders), which prevent their derailment, or
assist them in overcoming it.
Kelly (1969, p. 293) describes a personal construct as being like a:
―…reference axis. A basic dimension of appraisal, often unverbalised,
frequently unsymbolised, and occasionally unsignified in any manner
except by the elemental process it governs. Behaviourally it can be
regarded as an open channel of movement, and the system of constructs
provides each man with his own personal network of action pathways,
serving both to limit his movements and to open him up to passages of
freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent.
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5.2.2 Themes related to constructs
Based on the interpretation and integration of the constructs identified in Chapter 4, certain themes have been
developed. These are presented in table 5.1 below:
Table 5.1: Categorisation of constructs into themes
P Construct Frequency Theme
P1 Self-confidence 5 Self –Confidence and Self-Efficacy
P2 ―I‘m okay‖
P3 Confidence in abilities and ability to assert self
P4 Self-belief and -confidence
P5 Self-belief
P1 Positivity 5 Positive Outlook/Optimism
P2 Positive Thinking
P3 Positive and calm approach.
P4 Positive Outlook
P5 Seeking positive meaning in events
P1 Emotional awareness 5 Emotional Maturity and Managing own
emotions P2 Emotional control and self-awareness
P3 Emotional awareness and control
P4 Aversion to emotional displays and use of emotion as a tool
P5 Emotional control
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P1 Team work 7 Building Relationships, personal and work
networks P1 Relationship focus
P2 Nurturing relationships and the needs of others
P3 Cultivating networks
P4 Taking cognisance of others opinions and needs
P5 Trusting relationships
P5 Sponsorships in the workplace
P1 Resilience and Coping Mechanisms 6 Resilience and Coping
P2 Stress management and dealing with adversity
P3 Resilience
P4 Tolerance for stress
P4 Ability to deal with disappointment/failure and adversity
P5 Dealing with adversity
P1 Work-life balance 5 Balancing Multiple Roles
P2 Managing demands of multiple roles
P5 Balancing Multiple Roles and Demands
P3 Self-discipline to balance Multiple Roles and Demands
P4 Balancing responsibilities and roles
P1 Responsiveness to own and other‘s behaviours 5 Insight into Behaviour of self and others
P2 Understanding behaviour and dealing with conflict
P3 Analysing, interpreting and responding to behaviour of others
P4 Realistic self-image
P5 Self-insight and self-awareness
P1 Passion and drive 5 Achievement Drive and Perseverance
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P2 Success driven
P3 Achievement Drive and Perseverance
P4 Drive for success
P5 Passion and drive to succeed
P1 Recognition for and Reinforcement from others for
contributions
5 Receiving recognition from significant
others
P2 Accepting and giving recognition for achievements
P3 Recognition from significant others
P4 Need for Recognition
P5 Sincere and genuine recognition for achievements
P1 Risk taking and following one‘s instincts 5 Risk Taking and Openness to Change
P2 Confidence to take risks
P3 Confidence to take risks and be flexible
P4 Risk Taking and Openness to Change
P5 Flexibility and open-mindedness
P3 Realistic worldview 8 Pragmatic approach to gender issues and
willingness to make concessions P4 Accepting compromise
P5 Realistic approach and compromise
P1 Understanding and capitalising on gendered behaviour
P2 Dealing with gender inequality
P3 Appreciation for gender differences
P4 Mature and pragmatic approach to gender inequities
P5 Dealing with gender differences
P2 Identity as a women as part of leadership identity
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From table 5.1 above it can be seen that 11 themes or overarching constructs
have been developed based on the research findings. Within the framework of personal
construct theory, these constructs can be categorised as being either personal
constructs or core constructs.
5.2.3 Themes related to personal constructs
Kelly (Fransella, Bell & Bannister, 2004), defines a personal construct as a way
of transcending the obvious, as when new abstractions are made about events (in other
words, we begin a new process of construing); we escape the limitations what can
easily be seen to be ―fact‖ based on previous constructions.
In addition, personal constructs allow us to make predictions about the future, as
it is through our constructions of reality that we make sense of the world and anticipate
events within it. Thus by understanding and exploring an individual‘s constructs, we are
able to understand the predictions they are making (Fransella, Bell & Bannister, 2004).
The predictive nature of a construct differentiates it from a concept (Warren, 2001).
From the above table, it can be seen that in this study, the following themes
relating to the personal constructs of women who have not derailed were explored.
Pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions
Insight into Behaviour of self and others
Positive Outlook/Optimism
Building relationships, personal and work networks
Each of these will be discussed in more detail below:
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Pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions
The participants appeared to have realistic and pragmatic constructions of their
environment and of their functioning within it. P1 shared her acceptance of the fact that
she would never be as good a housewife as a woman who does not work, or as good at
work as someone without family commitments. P4 shared a career opportunity which
she had to compromise due to family commitments. P5 too, spoke poignantly of the
need to make concessions in order not to derail. This pragmatic construction and
mindset of making concessions appears to have assisted the participants on focusing
their energy positively within their contexts rather than focusing their energy on an
unattainable ideal.
Construing that ―life isn‘t fair‖ and that sometimes women have to work harder
and longer than their male counterparts, and to earn credibility, appeared to be a given
assumption amongst the participants. Whilst this may be viewed as somewhat sad, it
appears that the participants have moved beyond being ―stuck‖ on the need for fairness
and are working constructively within their contexts, despite inequities which may exist,
rather than attempting to fight them. In so doing, they have attained and sustained
success rather than derailing. P4 stated that ―it‘s not fair, it‘s not right, but I‘m not going
to lose any sleep about it…that‘s the way the game is…play the game the way it is‖ P2‘s
comment of ―so be it‖, sums up the construction of the participants in this regard, quite
succinctly.
As the researcher, I feel that although it remains unfortunate that women leaders
function in an environment where they are forced to make concessions and accept a
certain amount of inequality and unfairness, I find myself greatly respecting the
participants of this study for their tough-mindedness, maturity and ability to forge
forward without taking issue with the concessions and inequities which they face.
In addition to the above, the participants in the study appeared to share a sense
of their identity as a women being intermingled with their identity as a leader. However
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their construction of how this impacts on them as leaders appears to be neither to
overplay nor underplay their ―womanness‖. P2 shared how she does ―not make gender
an issue‖, whilst P3 stated that ―I don‘t try to pretend that I am less of a woman‖. P4
displayed an awareness of gender issues, but regarded focusing on ―the job‖ as
superceding these.
In addition the participants appeared to display an appreciation for their male
counterpart‘s worldview and have an awareness of the positive aspects that their
gender differences bring. They even go so far as expressing an understanding of some
of the frustrations which male colleagues may have with their female counterparts. P3
reported that ―understanding and showing an appreciation for their world, goes a long
way to being successful in it‖. She also shared the construction of a woman ―bringing
something to the table‖ which is different and valued. This view was also strongly
expressed by P5, who stated that ―a woman brings a different perspective to the
discussion and an extra angle that men sometimes don‘t think about, and this
sometimes makes a massive contribution which my male counterparts value and
appreciate‖.
P4, for example displayed a sensitivity and maturity in her construing of issues
which her male counterparts deal with from women, just as women have issues to deal
with from their male counterparts. So again, reality is construed as ―as differing genders,
we have our respective issues to deal with‖, rather than: ―as women, we have issues to
deal with‖
P1 reported how she construed the fact that her male colleagues sometimes
treat her differently, as positive, and consequently is able to use this to her advantage.
She described understanding why her male colleagues adopt specific behaviour
towards her, and sometimes viewed her as inherently needing to be protected at times,
based on her gender. She further described how she played to this behaviour rather
than feeling antagonised by it. She also consciously adopts an attitude of ―let it go and
move on‖. As the researcher, I wonder whether ―benevolent sexism‖, which may inhibit
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a women‘s progress within an organisation, may be advantageous once a women
reaches executive level.
In addition, a further interpretation may be that women with the necessary self-
confidence and self-knowledge will have their own definition of success and will be
sensitive to understand if, where and how this may differ from the views of the people
around them. It appears that they may ―play‖ this knowingly, which is quite shrewd. The
ability to be positively shrewd, rather than naïve may thus also contribute to the success
of women who do not derail.
Upon deeper analysis of the theme of pragmatic approach to gender issues and
willingness to make concessions, it appears that the ability to hold this construction
originates from a deeper core construct, in other words, how the participants construe
themselves, which lead to their realistic construction of the world. This is further
discussed in below.
When considering the lack of literature available on leadership success or
derailment amongst women leaders in relation to their approach to gender issues, the
findings of this study could be considered to be amongst its contributions. In addition,
this aspect could be considered for further exploration and research.
Positive outlook/optimism
The participants in the study appear to share the construction of positivity about
the future and an optimistic view of the world. P1 described that in her position as a
senior executive being negative is not an option if she wishes to succeed. She shared
the awareness that negativity has the tendency to spread to all areas of one‘s life, and
has thus consciously adopted the construction of positivity. P2 further shared how she
consciously stops herself from thinking in a negative manner, and how she refocuses
her energy positively, again displaying the conscious constructing of reality in a
particular manner in order to prevent derailment. The same was true for P3 who shared
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her approach of projecting positivity and the consequences of allowing oneself to feel
negative. P4 and P5 too shared their construction of being satisfied, happy and positive
about life and taking accountability of these feelings rather than attributing both positive
and negative events to others.
As the researcher, I left felt upbeat and positive, after completing each interview.
Upon reflection, I realised that this was due to the fact that the participants not only
projected positivity and energy throughout my interaction with them, but that these
feelings were infectious.
From the above, it can be concluded that women who do not derail or who are
able to overcome derailment, appear to construe the world in a positive manner and
assist those whom they encounter, to do the same. Those who are likely to derail, or
who are unable to overcome derailment, however, may thus tend to have a more
negative construction of life and tend to be less satisfied with their lives.
The construct of optimism appears to have a link to the positive psychology
construct of dispositional optimism (Nolen-Hoeksema & Davis, 2002). Snyder, Rand
and Sigmon (2002; p. 257), further link optimism to hope, which is also seen as ―a
member of the Positive Psychology Family‖ and define hopeful thoughts as reflecting
the belief that one can find pathways to desired goals, and that these thoughts can
motivate individuals to use these pathways. It would thus appear that women leaders
possessing characteristics which are linked those typically associated with positive
psychology, may be less likely to derail.
Insight into behaviour of self and others
In the current study, participants displayed insight into the behaviour of others.
They further displayed a realistic self-image as well as insight into their own behaviour
and how this affects others. P5 stated the importance of being honest with oneself,
which requires a level introspection and accurate insight. P1 described being alert to the
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emotional cues and responses from others and adapting behaviour accordingly, whilst
P2 also shared this sensitivity, as well as the importance of being aware of one‘s own
emotional triggers. She emphasised that ―It is important to think about how you are
being perceived, to have an awareness of how you are coming across. People are
sensitive and you need to be aware of these at all times.‖ P3 described this ability as
being almost on an intuitive level.
The ability to the participants‘ ability to accurately construct and act upon the
behaviour of others as well as themselves, implies a high level of insight into deeper
human motives and desires and highlights the vital importance of the accuracy of one‘s
constructions. Inaccurate constructions will ultimately lead to inappropriate behaviour,
which will ultimately lead to derailment.
Whilst personal construct theory is not interested in the factual accuracy of
constructions, it is interested in their consequences (Epting & Paris, 2006). In the
context of leadership derailment, inaccurate constructions and insights into human
motives and desires, have dire consequences for leaders. As was seen in Chapter 2
research has found that low self-awareness, lack of interpersonal shrewdness and
insensitivity are all characteristics linked to derailed leaders (Eichinger & Lombardo,
2003; McCall & Lombardo, 1983).
Building relationships, personal and work networks
All of the participants in the study construed the building of relationships as
fundamental to their success and further construed their ability to build relationships as
important in preventing them from derailing. They appear to share the belief that those
leaders who do not construe building relationships as important are at risk of derailing,
regardless of many other useful constructions that they may hold.
P1 reported on the importance of being able to work within a team and of building
relationships and respecting those around you. P2 and P5 shared the importance of
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genuinely caring about others and their needs, listening to others, as well as the
importance of building social networks with other women for support. P3 stated that
often the ability to build and cultivate networks is crucial in reaching organisational
goals. She also highlighted the importance of widening one‘s sphere of influence as a
woman leader.
Of interest, whilst all of the participants construed the building of relationships as
central to their success, they also shared that building and cultivating networks is
difficult, requires significant energy and is not necessarily within the comfort zone of
many women leaders. P2 shared that many women were uncomfortable with being
seen as attempting to build ―formal‖ women‘s networks, or what some may consider to
be ―girls clubs‖, whilst P3 stated that, she had to teach herself networking skills as she
had not seen role-modelled by many other women leaders. P2 shared the time
constraints that women are faced with. She also revealed the insight that interaction
between men is sometimes is easier and more relaxed than it is amongst women.
Difficulties in building relationships and networks appear to correlate with
derailment. Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found a lack of support networks as being one of
the greatest barriers to the success of women leaders. In addition, research has shown
that the inability to build a cohesive team, problems with interpersonal relationships,
inability to build relationships with a network of contacts and poor political skills, are all
linked to leadership derailment in general (McCauley & Lombardo, 1990; Bentz, 1985a;
Eichinger & Lombardo, 2003 and Lombardo et al, 1988). Lombardo and Eichinger
(2002) found that having weak relationships and networks lead to executives being
fired, whilst lack of relationship building and networking was also found by Schmidt
(2009) to be a career derailment theme linked specifically to women.
Based on the above, it appears that constructions around building and cultivating
networks are important for success and requires active and continuous cognitive
engagement from women leaders to ensure that their constructions lead them to
effective behaviours, especially because current constructions may fall short of what is
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required for success. These constructions, in Kelly‘s words, will open them up to
―passages of freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent‖ (Kelly,
1969, p. 293).
5.2.4 Themes related to core constructs
In the same way individuals construct meanings about their world, they construct
meanings about themselves. Core constructs are, according to Kelly (1995), higher
order constructs, which govern the maintenance of a person‘s identity. ―Such constructs
lie fundamentally at the heart of the individual‘s sense of self, guiding each anticipatory
choice, action and stance they may take.‖ (Butler, 2006, p. 27). Core Constructs remain
stable over time, leading individuals to preserve a core belief about themselves, even in
the face of invalidating evidence (Rowe, 2003).
According to Butler (2006), experiences which fail to validate the self, lead to
emotion. McCoy (1977) contests that love and happiness result from the validation of
core constructs, and that invalidation leads to sadness, guilt, and other negative
emotions.
Alternative constructions may be …‖avoided in our everyday thought processes
because of the incompatibility with the rest of our life‖ (Epting & Paris, 2006, p. 26).
According to Rowe (2002), we attempt to preserve the core beliefs we have about
ourselves, rather than seeking an alternative construction of the self. Thus invalidation
of core constructs (belief about one‘s self) represents a profound threat for an individual,
is difficult to accept and leads to negative emotions. However without invalidating or, at
the very least, testing, our core constructs, which is a painful process (leading to
sadness, guilt, and other negative emotions), no growth, reaching of new insights, or
learning of new behaviours can take place.
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Core constructs (beliefs about one‘s self) exist at a low level of awareness,
making them difficult to identify and analyse (Leitner & Thomas, 2003; McWilliams,
2004).
The role of the researcher within the personal construct theory paradigm is to
respect research participants and see them as active collaborators, rather than impose
any artificial frames of reference on them. The researcher is required to attempt an
understanding of the participants‘ world, rather than have the participant attempt to
understand the researcher‘s frame of reference (Jahoda, 1988, Adams-Webber &
Mancuso, 1983). As the researcher, I experienced the process of uncovering the core
constructs of the participants as quite challenging. However, it was equally satisfying
seeing the participants experience ―ah ha‖ moments in the process of exploring
constructions that were previously at a low level of awareness.
Through a collaborate approach, and by making use of grounded theory
principles, the following themes relating to the core constructs of women who have not
derailed were explored:
self-confidence and self-efficacy;
resilience and coping;
emotional maturity and managing own emotions;
Receiving recognition from significant others;
achievement drive and perseverance;
risk taking and openness to change;
balancing multiple roles.
Each of these will be discussed in more detail below:
Self-Confidence and Self-efficacy
Based on the findings, all of the participants in the study hold the Core Construct
of Self-confidence and Self-efficacy. As noted in Chapter 2, self-efficacy refers to an
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individual‘s convictions (or confidence) about his or her abilities to mobilise the
motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a
specific task within a given context (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).
My personal experience of the participants was that they were ‗quietly confident‖
with no need to boast about, or underplay their achievements and ambitions. It is my
experience that such individuals are able to suspend concerns for their own ego and
create a leadership environment of congruence, unconditional positive regard, and
empathic understanding, which allows their subordinates and those around them a safe
environment in which to grow.
In the study, not only did the participants share how the core construct of self-
confidence and self-efficacy has prevented them from derailing, but also shared how
their levels of self-confidence and self-efficacy translate to a sense of assertiveness,
which allows them to express their needs and desires with comfort. P1 described her
confidence in her organisational role. P1, P2 and P3 reported feeling comfortable
confronting issues and situations that they are not comfortable with and believing that
they are as entitled to their opinions as their male colleagues, without having to ask for
―permission‖. P4 described how her construction of herself as being confident and self-
efficacious was developed from childhood and from developing an image of ―being the
best‖ throughout her schooling. This suggests that not only does the sense of self-
confidence and self-efficacy develop during childhood, but through being exposed to a
number of experiences of success.
Based on the findings of this study, it appears that the construction of self-
confidence and self-efficacy may thus prevent derailment amongst women leaders. The
participants also shared their experiences of the low levels of self-confidence and self-
efficacy, which exist in women leaders whom they have seen derail. P 5 shared how
derailed women are defensive due to their poor self-confidence and thus continuously
attempt to defend their abilities, competence and opinions, with negative consequences
for their careers. P2 shared the following insight:
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I think that when you don‘t have a sense of ―I‘m okay‖, you tend to take
things up sensitively at work. One can immediately see when a woman
does not feel okay about herself, because she cannot deal with criticism.
This correlates with research on derailed leaders by McCall and Lombardo (1983), as
well as Morrison, White and Van Velsor (1987), which found that ―having a poor image‖,
was unique to women who had derailed, and did not appear to be a characteristic of
men who had derailed.
As noted previously, deeper analysis of the theme realistic approach and
willingness to make concessions appears to be correlated to the core construct of self –
confidence and self-efficacy. It appears that women leaders who have not derailed do
not exhibit defensive behaviour and do not see the world as a fearful and threatening
place against which one needs to defend oneself, but rather as a place where they can
confidently mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed
to succeed. This in turn creates an environment where others can do the same.
Resilience and coping
Resilience can be defined as ―a pattern of psychological activity which consists of
a motive to be strong in the face of inordinate demands‖ (Strümpfer, 2002a, p.8). It can
thus be seen that construing oneself as being resilient (in other words, possessing the
core construct of resilience) and construing resilience as being beneficial to preventing
derailment (in other words, the personal construction of resilience), is within the realm of
control of leaders.
My experience of the participants was that they possess strong ego-strength, and
are thus able to approach challenges with a sense that they can overcome internal and
external stressors and even grow from them.
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P1 shared the belief that she considers herself as coping well and recovering
quickly when confronted with difficult or stressful situations. This construction is shared
by P4 who also discussed her construction of it being acceptable not to become
stressed and saying: ―it‘s okay‖ when ―I have done everything I can‖. She further
appears to be able to separate her construction of stress, from her construction of
herself, holding the belief that: ―you are better than this, this does not define you‖ when
confronted by stressful or disappointing situations. This participant further reported on
her ability to deal with stress by maintaining balance and perspective by focusing on
areas in her life other than work. P5 defined herself as being mentally strong and not
allowing the ―knocks in life‖ to define her life in a negative way.
P2 shared her experience of women who derail, as being perpetually stressed
and being unable to cope with the demands placed on them. She further stressed the
role of her ability to deal with disappointment, in preventing derailment. P3 shared that
she did not initially possess a core construct of herself as being resilient, but that this
developed because of a traumatic event in her life. Now that she considers herself to
be resilient, she is of the belief that she can overcome any challenge.
Based on the above, it can be seen that the construct of resilience appears to
have a vital role to play as a characteristic preventing derailment. It further appears that
the construing of resilience is an active and deliberate cognitive process exhibited by
participants. In addition, it is a construction, which can be learnt. This is confirmed by
Strümpfer‘s (2002b) fortological view that physical, emotional and social trials can
stimulate growth and strengthen capacities.
Emotional maturity and managing own emotions
Research has shown a high correlation between characteristics such as being
excitable, being prone to melodrama, having poor emotional control, having a high level
of volatility, being overtly emotional, and allowing one‘s emotions cloud one‘s judgment,
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with career derailment (Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Rasch, Shen,
Davies & Bono, 2008; Lombardo et al, 1988; and Bentz,1985 a).
The above was also corroborated by the participants in the current study. They
appeared to share the view that women have a tendency to become more emotional in
the workplace than their male counterparts. They further reported the discomfort that
men feel with emotionality in the workplace (P1; P4; P5). Whether highly emotional
behaviour is due to being passionate or due to poor emotional control, the participants
expressed an aversion to this type of behaviour and report that it correlated highly with
derailment of women leaders.
P1 expressed the belief that individuals who over-internalize experience difficulty
managing their emotions. P3 advised against ―making a scene‖, whilst P3 reported that
women tend to get too emotionally stuck in tough decisions. P4 shared in detail the over-
emotionality of derailed women and their inability to step back from emotions, or even
worse, attempting to use emotions within the workplace to manipulate outcomes.
The participants further expressed their belief that their construction of
themselves as being emotionally mature and consequently appropriately managing their
emotions has prevented their derailment. P1 discussed the importance of understanding
and controlling one‘s impulsive or emotional responses to situations as well as
exhibiting emotional maturity. P3 reported that her ability to emotionally detach, when
required has helped prevent her derailment. P5 reported having learnt to step back from
and analyse her emotions. She also described the high value she places on thinking
calmly and behaving in a stable manner.
Based on the above it can be seen that the construction of the self and
consequent behaviour of emotional maturity and managing own emotions is a personal
characteristic which prevents derailment amongst women leaders.
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Receiving recognition from significant others
It appears that the core construct of receiving recognition from significant others
plays a strong role in preventing the derailment of the participants in this study. P1
reported the strong role that recognition from significant others played during her
childhood as well as an adult. She reported a positive response towards reinforcement
and recognition of achieved deliverables. P2 expressed the belief that recognition is a
basic human need and is often underestimated. P3 stated that whilst she did not require
recognition in her work environment, recognition of her achievements by her family
members is important. P4 shared the opinion of P2 and P3, going on to state that her
construction of recognition may be stronger than others and that she has been able to
construe recognition in such a way so as to have gained significant benefit from it. P5
stated the importance of sincere and genuine recognition, if it is to be of benefit.
Based on the above it can be concluded that the ability to positively construe
genuine recognition from others, appears to play a role in preventing derailment. There
appears to be paucity in the literature on the link between recognition and success as
well as recognition and preventing derailment. This aspect may thus warrant further
exploration and research.
Achievement drive and perseverance
All of the participants in the study appear to possess a strong achievement drive
as a core construct. They all reported being passionate, having high levels of drive and
a strong desire to grow, learn, achieve, and seek new challenges. It appears as if this
internal driving force has led to long-term success overtime and has prevented their
derailment. It further appears that they had created their own definition of success and
were able to deal with the different views of what those around them may have of what
success for them should be. As the researcher, I was struck by the achievement drive of
the participants, as well as their level of comfort with being ambitious and driven.
Despite this obvious drive, the participants did not come across as over-aggressive or
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overly-competitive in their need to achieve, but rather as possessing healthy levels of
drive and perseverance.
P1 admitted that it has always been important for her to do well. P2 reported that
it was important for her to succeed and that she ―likes being successful‖. P3
emphasised the importance of persistence and never giving up until you have
succeeded. P4 states that she is competitive and enjoys winning. P4 further appeared
to have a core construct of herself as being results driven and ascribed her success to
this, stating that other factors such as gender or age become irrelevant in the fact of
producing the required results. P5 stated that she was born with the drive to succeed
and was thus actively engaged in numerous activities as a child.
With regards to women leaders who have derailed, P2 stated that women feel
that they cannot say aloud that they desire success, which influences their ability to be
so. P4 stated that women who derail are not as driven as those who don‘t derail and
feel they have attained success when they have reached middle management. It is
interesting to note that research by Lombardo et al (1988) and McCall and Lombardo
(1983) suggest that being overly ambitious leads to derailment. In this regard P2
highlighted the importance of making concessions and accommodating ―others to a
point that is reasonable.‖
Risk taking and openness to change
As noted in Chapter 2, research lists lack of initiative, relying on outdated
strategies and tactics, being unable to adapt to a boss with a different management
style, and excessive caution, amongst the characteristics of derailed leaders (Zenger &
Folkman, 2002; Hogan & Hogan, 2001; Dotlich & Cairo, 2003; Finkelstein, 2003; McCall
& Lombardo, 1983). In addition to the above, research conducted by Morrison et al
(1992) revealed that the inability to adapt was one of the serious flaws perceived to be
causes of female derailment. Conversely, Grzeda (1999) reports that adaptability,
flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty, contribute positively to career changes.
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The above was confirmed by the research undertaken here, which suggests that
the core construct of risk taking and openness to change prevent the derailment of
women leaders. The participants in the study described their approach towards change
and to taking risks as follows: P1 reported the vital importance of risk-taking in not
derailing, reporting that the longer she had been in her role, the more comfortable she
felt taking risks. She further reported that she had reaped the benefits of this as well as
from learning to follow her instincts and acting upon them. P2 similarly shared the
importance of trusting her own judgment and further stated that she associates risk with
reward. Interestingly, she reported that the times she was not successful in her career,
was those times where she held back on trusting her judgment and taking action, rather
waiting for ―permission‖ from others to act.
P3 associated taking risks and trusting one‘s judgment with having confidence
and links risk-taking, self-confidence and flexibility, stating that these need to be
regularly exercised. P4 stressed the importance of stretching oneself and taking
opportunities before others do, and they become lost to you. She shared that women are
less comfortable taking risks than men. With regards flexibility and openness to change,
she stated the importance of not being rigid in one‘s expectations of life if one is to
succeed.
It may further be interpreted that successful leaders ―plan for failure‖ rather than
being surprised by it. The more one accepts failure as a possibility and plans how one
will deal with it when it happens, the less risk aversive one can be.
Balancing multiple roles
All of the participants shared the immense challenge presented by the multiple
roles required of them. They further expressed the difficulties experienced in dealing
with these challenges on an on-going basis. The effusive manner in which the
participants shared their experiences of the practical and psychological challenges of
dealing with this, leads me to believe that this is an important construct to be explored
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within the context of derailment. As the researcher, I could see from the emotion with
which the participants spoke, that it deeply affects them.
P2 expressed the view that many women derail because they cannot manage
the multiple demands placed upon them. This is supported by a McKinsey study (2010),
which identified one of the main barriers for the success of women leaders as being the
―double-burden‖ syndrome, where women have to balance domestic and work
responsibilities.
P1 described the guilt associated with feeling that she at times falls short of
meeting the demands placed on her by her role as a leader, mother, wife, and daughter.
P2 described sometimes feeling overwhelmed by the challenges presented by the
multiple roles, which she plays, whilst P5 discussed how the various roles required of
her are in conflict and how she feels selfish because of her career, even though she
makes sacrifices and compromises on a daily basis and has little time truly for herself.
Despite the challenges faced by the participants concerning balancing multiple
roles, they appear to have construed this as an accepted aspect of being a senior
woman leader and have incorporated being able to successfully manage the demands
placed upon them, as part of their identity.
P1 described the importance of allowing oneself to nurture the different facets of
oneself as a women leader in order to manage the challenges, which multiple roles
require. P3 reported that when construing balancing multiple roles, she puts practical
solutions in place to manage demands such as pre-preparing meals for children at
home, having lists of responsibilities for each of the children, coordinating schedules
with her husband on a weekly basis and delegating effectively to subordinates. She
further has a support network of family, colleagues and friends, in place. In addition, P3
reported that having self-discipline, good time-management, making sacrifices and
creating boundaries, have been instrumental in not allowing the demands she faces to
derail her.
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The construction of the self as being competently able to deal with this aspect
appears to be linked to three core constructs of self-confidence and self-efficacy,
resilience and coping, and emotional maturity and managing own emotions. Balancing
multiple roles will thus be considered to be a secondary, rather than a primary theme for
the purposes of the exploration of characteristics that prevent derailment in this study.
However, as mentioned above, it appears to warrant further exploration in the context of
derailment.
5.3 External factors preventing derailment
Whilst it was not the aim of the current study to explore the external factors which
support the development of characteristics that prevent derailment, this emerged as a
recurring theme throughout my interviews, with all the participants holding the belief that
this could not be completely separated from the discussion on internal characteristics
that prevent derailment. It was their belief and experience that these external factors
were, and in many cases, remain integral to their constructions of the world, the
leadership landscape and of themselves as leaders who have been able to overcome
derailment whilst others have not. I therefore as the researcher felt that the discussion
warranted further exploration in relation to core and personal constructs held by the
participants.
Based on this exploration, it firstly, it appears that the development of the core
construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy amongst women leaders is correlated to
the sense of confidence instilled during their upbringing. The participants shared
experiences during their childhoods, and related how their achievements were
recognised by their parents, the sense of pride that their parents had in them, growing
up with a sense of being accepted and being worthy whilst not having to outperform
others, receiving positive reinforcement for their achievements and successes, as well
as receiving support and encouragement. The importance of a childhood which
supports the development of the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy can
thus be seen.
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Secondly, it appears that a strong and nurturing mother figure, both during
childhood and during adulthood may contribute to the development of characteristics
that prevent derailment. All participants reported the strong bond they have with their
mothers as well as the nurturing, caregiving role played by their mothers. They further
reported that their mothers played a leading role in the household whilst they were
growing up. P4 reported how her outlook and attitude to life was largely shaped by her
mother, rather than her father. P5 reported that having a stay-at-home mother who
devoted all of her time to raising her, played a pivotal role in her success. P3 shared
how, to this day, she seeks her mother out to play a nurturing and caring role, when she
is undergoing a particularly stressful period. It thus appears that the core construction
of a woman leader is linked to her relationship and experience of her mother as creating
a space of safety, nurturing and strength. It is my belief that this in turn leads to a core
construction of a women leader as being worthy of and also possessing these same
characteristics of the ability to provide safety, nurturing and strength for herself and
others, which aids in preventing derailment.
Thirdly, the importance of stability in areas of life other than work and, the
support of a life partner, as well as, practical support mechanisms, appear to have
allowed the participants the time and space to focus sufficiently on themselves and their
careers in order to develop healthy and useful personal as well as core constructions. In
addition, this supports the development of the core construct of self-worth and the
personal construction of the faith and belief of others in their ability to succeed and not
derail. This, in turn, positively influences the behaviours they are able to exhibit over
time.
Finally, it would appear that role modelling, either by parents exhibiting support of
each other and modelling behaviour of genders being equal, or of a mentor in the
workplace modelling successful behaviour which is aspired to, has played a role in the
development of characteristics that prevent derailment.
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From the above, it can be seen that the importance of the role of external factors,
need to be taken into account when considering the development of core and personal
constructs and thus characteristics that prevent derailment amongst women leaders.
5.4 “Opting out” and “voluntary separation” in derailment
As discussed in Chapter 2, Cannon (2009) defines opting out as the
phenomenon of the conscious decision to leave a position as a senior leader. Research
has found several reasons for opting out. Whilst opting out and voluntary separation are
concepts which are not traditionally linked to derailment, it appears, that under certain
circumstances, a link may indeed exist.
Based on the current study, the participant‘s beliefs and experiences of opting
out very much support the findings of the existing literature by Cannon (2009), Hewlett
and Luce (2005) and Deutch (2005). Participants were of the opinion that opting out and
voluntary separation could be considered to be linked to derailment when a woman is
forced to leave an organisation due to internal push factors or external pull factors, and
not really of her own free will, when organisational cultures were not supportive, or were
more ―tough‖ on women than on men, when women leave an organisation rather than
confronting their own shortcomings, and when women doubt the likelihood of being
successful because of their gender, and thus decide to no longer compete or to give up.
The above suggests that there may be a link between opting out/ voluntary separation,
and derailment, which could be further explored.
The findings however also suggest that in addition to the traditional reasons
given for derailment, additional factors, linked more to a women leader‘s construction of
the world, the leadership milieu and herself, may also play a role in her ultimate decision
to leave an organisation.
Firstly, opting out and voluntary separation appears to be linked to the core
construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, where women lack the belief in
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themselves to confront and take responsibility for their shortcomings. They thus exhibit
the behaviours as described by the participants in the current study, including
defensiveness, oversensitivity, inability to deal with criticism, bemoaning the lack of
opportunities, as well as justifying and defending their opinions. Ultimately, they may
derail by opting out of the organisation due to their inability to face their shortcomings,
rather than build the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, needed to
overcome their shortcomings. In the context of personal construct theory, confronting
their shortcomings and developing alternative constructions represents a profound
threat for an individual and may force them to invalidate their current construction of the
self, which leads to negative emotion and thus in many instances, avoidance.
Secondly, opting out and voluntary separation may be linked to the personal
construct of pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions,
where women leaders see the world as an unfair, fearful and threatening place against
which one needs to defend oneself, and in which one cannot mobilise the motivation,
cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to succeed. In addition, women
leaders may become stuck on the unfairness or lack of equity, which they experience.
They thus derail by opting out, rather than construing reality in such a way that allows
them to compete and display self-efficaciousness without the need for the world or
leadership environment to be fair.
5.5 Leadership derailment
Whilst the primary aim of this study is to explore the characteristics that prevent
the derailment of women leaders, it was also the aim of the study to reach a more
integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of leadership derailment.
It appears that paucity exists in the research of exploration of derailment as it is
experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders, who are confronted with
derailment. Rather, research has focused on the experience of others of these leaders
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or on externally identified characteristics and behaviours which these leaders possess
or fail to possess.
Existing research on derailment, defines derailment as occurring when an
individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability to be successful in this
role, is fired, asked to resign, forced out of the organization or has their career plateau
below expected levels of achievement. Their careers are seen to have been thrown off
course or to have deviated from the path set for them, with the executive being unable
to move forward. Existing research further defines derailment is involuntary, punitive,
and unexpected (Lombardo & McCauley, 1988; Schmidt, 2009; Furnham, 2010).
The participants in the current research shared their derailment experiences,
which included:
being side-lined and placed in a position at a lower job grade after being involved
in project put together to implement a specific business strategy;
failing to complete professional studies within the required field;
being appointed in the organisation due to employment equity requirements and
thus being undermined;
reporting to a highly problematic CEO; and
elements of her own personality.
Based on their own experiences as well as their experience as executive leaders,
and of female colleagues who have derailed, the participants of the current study define
derailment as including:
having one‘s success undermined due to the role one is required to play within
the organisation;
not meeting one‘s own internal expectations of one‘s career; and
failing to take responsibility for own failures by blaming things such as
discrimination or lack of opportunities; and
buying into existing stereotypes of women not being able to reach success.
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In addition, from the discussion in the sections above on balancing multiple roles,
external factors supporting the development of characteristics that prevent derailment,
as well as opting out and voluntary separation, the definition of derailment as it relates
to women executives can be further extended to be as follows:
When an individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability to be
successful in a role, lacks specific personal characteristics, and thus unexpectedly:
opts out of the position;
is fired;
is asked to resign;
is forced out of the organization;
has their career plateau below the levels of achievement expected by themselves
and others;
is undermined because of a specific role they are forced to play;
is unable to effectively overcome or deal with issues of gender discrimination or
other inequities;
is unable to balance multiple roles required, due to lack of support structures and
then fails to take responsibility for failure in the role by blaming external factors,
in the event of it being of their own doing.
5.6 Towards an integrated framework
Based on the results of this study, it appears that the characteristics which
prevent derailment can be construed as developing as a result of useful and supportive
personal and core constructs which women leaders hold. These constructs
subsequently influence their behaviour in a relatively consistent manner. In addition,
should women be aware of less useful constructions, and be exposed to experiences
which invalidate these constructions, they will have the opportunity to develop
alternative constructions thereby leading to growth, reaching of new insights, and
learning of new behaviours.
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It further appears that it is not the existence of a particular personal construct or
group of personal constructs, nor the existence of a particular core construct or group of
core constructs in isolation, but rather the combination of a set of personal and core
constructs in the form of an unspoken theoretical framework, or personal construct
system, which impact of behaviour and thus characteristics which prevent derailment.
In the study, women leaders who have not derailed appear to possess the
following set of personal constructs:
pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions;
insight into behaviour of self and others;
positive outlook/optimism; and
building relationships and networks.
In addition, they appear to possess the following set of core constructs, which are
higher order constructs, impacting on their sense of identity:
self-confidence and self-efficacy;
resilience and coping;
emotional maturity and managing own emotions;
receiving recognition from significant others;
achievement drive and perseverance; and
risk taking and openness to change.
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The above thus represent an integrated framework of characteristics which
prevent career derailment. This framework is graphically presented in figure 5.1:
Figure 5.1 Characteristics preventing derailment
Based on the above, exploring the characteristics that prevent the derailment of
women leaders in the context of personal construct theory and based on their personal
construct system (interacting set of core and personal constructs) may provide new
insights into the intrinsic factors at play in women leadership derailment.
It is hoped that the framework above will assist women, CEOs, human resources
practitioners, policy makers and other organisational stakeholders in opening new
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―passages of freedom which otherwise would be psychologically non-existent‖ (Kelly,
1969, p. 293), in the continuing drive for more women leaders to take their rightful place
within organisations.
5.7 Conclusion
Chapter 5 covered the interpretation and synthesis of the major results of the
research. The personal and core constructs which resulted in the development of
characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders were discussed. This was
followed by a discussion of women leaders‘ definitions of leadership derailment, their
constructions of external support factors preventing derailment, as well as their
constructions of the concepts of ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary separation‖ as they relate to
derailment. The chapter was concluded by presenting an integrated framework of
characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders.
This framework could provide insight into the study of leadership derailment and
assist in making women aware of what may cause derailment, prepare them better to
deal with it and to develop the characteristics and behaviours required to avoid or
overcome derailment. It is my belief that this will contribute greatly to the worldwide
gender parity and transformation agenda at senior organisational levels.
Chapter 6 will provide a summary of the research undertaken and give
recommendations for further research.
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CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
Leadership derailment amongst women remains topical in the context of the
scarcity of women in senior and executive leadership positions. Several studies have
shown the benefits of better representation of women leaders in business, which include
higher return on equity, superior sales, and higher return on investment (ROI). Despite
this, statistics reveal that female directors make up only 16 % of company boards
across the European Union, 20% of senior executives in U.S. companies, and 19.1% of
top and 28.2 % of senior managers in South African companies.
The on-going challenges faced by women leaders in the workplace such as
gender stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination, organisational practices and culture,
the ―glass ceiling‖ phenomenon and more recently the ―glass cliff‖ phenomenon, remain
problematic. Of interest to me, was that some women executive leaders do not derail or
are able to overcome derailment, despite the barriers and potential derailers they face.
The study thus undertook an in-depth exploration of the intrinsic characteristics which
prevent, or assist women executives in overcoming career derailment.
It was thus the primary objective of the study to explore the intrinsic
characteristics possessed by women executives, who have not fallen prey to
derailment, or who have overcome it, which act as preventative measures against
derailment. Based on this exploration, an integrated framework of characteristics which
prevent career derailment of women executives was developed. A secondary aim of the
study was to reach a more integrated and holistic understanding of the phenomenon of
leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women executive leaders,
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themselves. The context and background of the study, the intended contribution and
motivation for the study as well as the study objectives were outlined in Chapter 1.
6.2 Approach to the research
The research was approached giving regard to relevant literature, which defines
leadership derailment as being when an executive who is placed in an executive role in
an organization and was judged to have the ability to be successful in this executive
role, is fired, asked to resign, is forced out of the organization, demoted, or has their
career plateau unexpectedly.
The study of leadership derailment began in the 1960‘s with the most prominent
thought leaders over time being Bentz, McCall and Lombardo, Morrison, White and
Van Velsor, Lombardo, Ruderman and McCauley, McCauley and Lombardo, Van
Velsor and Leslie, Hogan and Hogan, Eichinger and Lombardo, Dotlich and Cairo,
Finkelstein as well as Rasch, Shen, Davies and Bono. Based on their research, a
number of factors, personality characteristics and behaviours, were identified as being
causative of derailment amongst leaders in general. These were presented in Table
2.10 in Chapter 2 and include, amongst others: problems with interpersonal
relationships, avoiding conflict and people problems, poor task performance, difficulty
making tough choices, insensitivity, inability to think strategically , poor emotional
control, poor planning, organisation and/or communication, being overly ambitious and
failure to build a team.
In addition to personality characteristics and behaviours which were linked to
derailment in general, researchers also found that there were specific barriers and
potential derailers which were unique to women executives. Various studies also
focused on the internal as well as external factors leading to the derailment of women
executives, in particular. External factors leading to derailment were shown to include
gender stereotyping, tokenism, discrimination and sabotage. Internal factors included,
amongst others, leadership style and behaviour, the inability to adapt, inability to learn
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from mistakes, and lack of initiative. These, as well as others were presented in Table
2.12 in Chapter 2.
As it was my belief that the phenomenon of opting out merited further exploration
and consideration in the context of the derailment of women leaders, literature in this
regard was also reviewed. Opting out was defined as the phenomenon of the conscious
decision to leave a position as a senior leader, with the ―opting out revolution‖ being
characterised by well-educated professional women leaving the workforce altogether.
The research showed that there are a number of reasons why women executives opt
out. These reasons were broadly grouped in four categories, being organization
reasons; career reasons; family reasons and personal reasons and were discussed in
more detail in Chapter 2.
In order to address the objectives of the study, I decided to adopt a qualitative
research approach, whilst making use of grounded theory methodology. In particular, I
felt that the following features of qualitative research were suited to the exploration I
wished to carry out:
it focuses on naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings, and creates
a view of what real life is like;
it has richness and is conducted within a framework of holism, with strong
potential for revealing complexities. Qualitative data provide rich, vivid
descriptions, nested in a real life context;
the fact that qualitative data are typically collected over a sustained period makes
it powerful for studying any process;
the inherent flexibility of qualitative studies gives further confidence that what has
been going on is really understood;
it is the best strategy for discovery, exploring a new area and developing
hypotheses;
it allows the researcher to become familiar with the area(s) of interest, to explore
the field and consider the dimensions involved; and
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the adaptability of qualitative methods allows for a reasonably flexible plan of
action that may evolve with the researcher‘s experiential learning and
development.
I believe that grounded theory was particularly suitable for the purposes of this
research as the objective of grounded theory is the development of theory that is
grounded in data and focuses on generating theory based on the study of social
situations. In addition, it provides a specific, highly developed, rigorous set of
procedures for producing formal substantive theory.
Purposeful and snowball sampling was decided upon and yielded five case
studies. In-depth interviews were conducted with research participants, which were
digitally recorded and subsequently transcribed. The interpretation of interview data, in
conjunction with data from my personal diary and project journal as well as memos and
field notes, were analysed during a specific data analysis process, which was outlined in
Table 3.3 in Chapter 3. The process included firstly getting an idea of the whole by
reading all the transcripts and jotting down ideas, proceeding to each transcription and
understanding the broad meaning it conveys and the main categories and topics which
emerge, applying line by line analysis to data in each transcription and code the data
line-by-line and comparing and integrating the emerging categories to the categories
already found from the previous analysis, and finally, applying theoretical coding to the
established categories as a basis for the development of a theoretical framework.
In addition to the qualitative approach and methodology outlined above, I further
approached the analysis of the data within the context of personal construct theory, as it
is my belief that this would facilitate greater understanding of the characteristics that
prevent the derailment of women leaders. As discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 5,
personal construct theory is primarily a theory of examining how humans give meaning
to their world and experiences by creating an unspoken theoretical framework, or
personal construct system, within which they anticipate the future and engage with their
environment. A personal construct system is made up of personal constructs and core
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constructs. It is through personal constructs that reality is construed and events
anticipated, whilst core constructs are higher order constructs, which govern the
maintenance of a person‘s identity and core beliefs about themselves.
Working within the context of personal construct theory allowed for greater
understanding of the mental representations and constructions of meaning held by the
participants, which lead to their learnt behaviour and ultimately development of
personality characteristics which prevent derailment.
6.3 Summary of the major results
Eleven main themes emerged from the data. Each of these were discussed and
interpreted within the context of personal construct theory as well as existing literature
on derailment. This was followed by an interpretation of external factors which support
the development of characteristics that prevent derailment, ―opting out‖ and ―voluntary
separation‖ as they relate to derailment, and finally, leadership derailment as it was
experienced and defined by the research participants.
The research identified several core constructs, which were further integrated
into themes. The findings with regard to these are as follows.
6.3.1 Core constructs
Self-confidence and Self-efficacy
Findings of the study showed that all of the participants hold the core construct of
self-confidence and self-efficacy, defined as an individual‘s convictions about his or her
abilities to mobilise the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to
successfully execute a specific task within a given context. This further translates into
the assertiveness required to have needs and desires met. The results further indicate
that this core construct is developed during childhood and linked to personal upbringing
and experiences.
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It appears that the absence of the core construct of self-confidence and self-
efficacy leads to viewing the world as threatening, general defensiveness, as well as a
tendency to defend abilities, competence and opinions.
Resilience and coping
The participants in the study possessed the core construct of resilience and
coping, resilience being defined as a pattern of psychological activity which consists of a
motive to be strong in the face of inordinate demands. This is linked to coping with
disappointment and unexpected eventualities. The findings suggest that the construing
of resilience is an active and deliberate cognitive process and one which can be learnt.
This is confirmed by Strümpfer‘s fortological view, which states that physical, emotional
and social trials can stimulate growth and strengthen capacities.
Emotional maturity and managing own emotions
The findings of the study showed that women leaders who do not derail display
high levels of maturity and the ability to manage their emotions. They further have a
self- identity of self-control and consequently manage their emotions appropriately.
They understand and are in control of their impulses, are able to emotionally detach,
and are able to step back from and analyse their emotions.
In addition, participants value calmness and stable behaviour whilst they express
an aversion to the display of highly emotional behaviour. This supports research showing
a high correlation between being excitable, being prone to melodrama, having poor
emotional control, having a high level of volatility, being overtly emotional, and allowing
one‘s emotions cloud one‘s judgment, with career derailment.
Results further indicated that women leaders who derail over-internalize,
experience difficulty managing their emotions, are known for ―making a scene‖, get
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emotionally stuck in tough decisions, are unable to step back from emotions, and use
emotions within the workplace to manipulate outcomes and others.
Receiving recognition from significant others
The study found that the core construct of receiving recognition from significant
others plays a role in preventing derailment. This appears to stem from childhood and is
regarded as a basic human need. It appears plausible that participants‘ construction of
recognition may be stronger than others and that this contribute to the prevention of
derailment.
Achievement drive and perseverance
Participants in the study possessed a healthy achievement drive, are passionate,
and possess a strong desire to grow, learn and seek new challenges. The findings
show that for women who do not derail, doing well, succeeding, persevering, enjoying
healthy competition and being results driven, are all seen as an important part of their
self-identities. Researchers suggest that being overly ambitious leads to derailment,
which emphasises the importance of a healthy achievement drive, rather than an
obsessive, all-encompassing one.
Risk taking and openness to change
The results of the study suggested that the core construct of risk taking and
openness to change prevents derailment. Participants regard the development of
responsible risk-taking behaviour, seizing opportunities, flexibility, openness to change,
and trusting ones judgment as being important in preventing derailment.
Research has shown that adaptability, flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty,
contributes positively to career changes and lists lack of initiative, relying on outdated
strategies and tactics, being unable to adapt to a boss with a different management
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style, and excessive caution, amongst the characteristics of derailed leaders. In
addition, research found that the inability to adapt was one of the serious flaws
perceived to be causes of female derailment.
Balancing multiple roles
The final core construct explored during the research was that of balancing
multiple roles. However, as this construct appears to be linked to three core constructs
of self-confidence and self-efficacy, resilience and coping, and emotional maturity and
managing own emotions, it is regarded in the current study as being a secondary
theme.
Results in this study confirmed research which identified one of the main barriers
for the success of women leaders as being the ―double-burden‖ syndrome, where
women are required to balance domestic and work responsibilities. Derailment appears
to occur when women are unable to balance these responsibilities sustainably over
time. Feelings such as guilt, being overwhelmed, and being conflicted were
experienced, also require management over time if derailment is to be prevented.
Successful management of multiple roles includes nurturing the different facets
of oneself, putting practical solutions in place, coordinating schedules with spouses, and
having a support network of family, colleagues and friends, in place. In addition, self-
discipline, good time-management, making sacrifices and creating boundaries, are
important.
6.3.2 Personal constructs
This research identified several personal constructs, which were further
integrated into themes and are outlined below.
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Pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions
Results indicated that women leaders who do not derail have realistic and
pragmatic constructions of their environment and of their functioning within it. This
allows them to focus their energy constructively. The construction of ―life isn‘t fair‖ is a
given assumption and allows women leaders to beyond being ―stuck‖ on the need for
fairness. They possess a tough-mindedness, maturity and ability to move forward
without taking issue with the compromises and inequities which they face.
In addition, participants shared a sense of their identity as a woman and their
leadership identity being interwoven without overplaying or underplaying their
―womanness‖. Whilst displaying an awareness of gender issues, they do not make
gender an issue. They further display an appreciation for their male counterpart‘s
worldview and have an appreciation of the positive aspects of gender differences and
the unique contribution that women make. Their reality is construed as ―as differing
genders, we have our respective issues to deal with‖, rather than: ―as women, we have
issues to deal with‖. Findings further confirmed that this construct may be linked to the
core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy.
Positive outlook/optimism
The construct of optimism is linked to the positive psychology construct of
dispositional optimism. In addition this is linked to hope, with hopeful thoughts reflecting
the belief that one can find pathways to desired goals, and that these thoughts can
motivate individuals to use these pathways.
Women leaders who do not derail share the construction of positivity about the
future along with an optimistic, hopeful worldview. The realisation of the importance of
maintaining a positive outlook, leads to the conscious construction and on-going
reinforcement of a positive outlook and behaviour. Successful women leaders hold the
construction of being satisfied, happy and positive about life and taking accountability
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for their feelings rather than attributing both positive and negative events to others. On
the contrary, the research further suggests that women who are likely to derail, or who
are unable to overcome derailment, have a negative construction of life and are less
satisfied with their lives.
Insight into behaviour of self and others
Research has found that low self-awareness, lack of interpersonal shrewdness
and insensitivity are all characteristics linked to derailed leaders.
Findings of the study indicated that insight into the behaviour of others, a realistic
self-image, and insight into own behaviour and how this affects others, is linked to the
prevention of derailment. Women who do not derail engage in critical self-appraisal, are
alert to the emotional cues and responses of others, are able to adapt their behaviour,
are aware of their emotional triggers and are aware of how they are perceived by
others. Whilst personal construct theory is not primarily concerned with the factual
accuracy of constructions, but rather in the consequences of constructions, in this
instance, women who do not derail have a high level of insight into deeper human
motives and desires and are able to form accurate constructions and subsequently,
appropriate behaviours, with positive leadership consequences.
Building relationships, personal and work networks
Research shows that difficulties in building relationships and networks correlate
with derailment. Deloitte and Forbes (2010) found a lack of support networks as being
one of the greatest barriers to the success of women leaders, whilst research has also
shown that the inability to build a cohesive team, problems with interpersonal
relationships, inability to build relationships with a network of contacts and poor political
skills, are all linked to leadership derailment in general. In addition, weak relationships
and networks lead to executives being fired, whilst lack of relationship building and
networking is a career derailment theme linked specifically to women.
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The current study appears to indicate that those leaders who do not construe
building relationships as important are at risk of derailing, regardless of many other
useful constructions that they may hold.
Leaders who do not derail construe the building of relationships, working within a
team, respecting those around you, genuinely caring about others and their needs,
listening to others, as well as the importance of building personal and work networks, as
fundamental to their success. The study further suggests that the ability to build and
cultivate networks is crucial in reaching organisational goals and widening one‘s sphere
of influence.
Findings further reflect that many women experience building and cultivating
networks as difficult, requiring significant energy, and being outside of their comfort
zone. Networking skills thus need to be learnt, practiced and nurtured, in order to
prevent derailment. This requires active and continuous cognitive engagement from
women leaders to ensure that their constructions lead them to effective behaviours.
6.3.3 External factors preventing derailment
In addition to the core constructs and personal constructs identified in the
research, certain themes relating to factors within the external environment that prevent
derailment emerged. These are broadly categorised into themes related to upbringing,
the role of the mother during upbringing, the role of the mother during adulthood,
external support factors as adults. The constructs identified within each of these themes
were as follows.
Upbringing:
Exposure and recognition when growing up
Sense of confidence instilled by parents
Role modelling by parents
Support and encouragement from parents as child
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Role of the mother during upbringing:
Strong role of mother in moulding self
Strong role of supportive stay-at-home-mom as a child.
Role of the mother during adulthood:
Nurturing received from mother as adult
External support factors as adults:
Stability in areas of life other than work
Support of life partner
Practical support mechanisms
Role of mentor or role-model in workplace
The results suggested that several external factors exist which assist in the
development of the characteristics which prevent derailment. The findings further
indicated that these external factors need to be considered in conjunction with the
characteristics presented by women leaders, if one is to obtain an integrated
understanding of what prevents their derailment.
6.3.4 Opting out and voluntary separation in derailment
Based on the results of the research, opting out and voluntary separation were
be considered to be linked to and be a form of derailment. Whilst extensive literature
has explored the concepts of opting out and voluntary separation, the study found that
opting out and voluntary separation may be experienced as a form of derailment when
women are forced to leave an organisation due to internal push factors or external pull
factors, and not of their own free will, when organisational cultures do not support, or
are ―tougher‖ on women than men, when women leave an organisation rather than
confronting their own shortcomings, and when women decide to no longer compete in a
leadership role due to doubt about the likelihood of being successful based on their
gender.
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The results further indicated that opting out and voluntary separation are also
linked to the core construct of self-confidence and self-efficacy, as well as the personal
construct of pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions.
It was shown that women may opt out of an organisation because they do not have the
self-confidence and self-efficacy needed to overcome their shortcomings and are
unable to compromise and tend to become stuck on the unfairness or lack of equity,
which they experience. These women may opt out as they are unable to construe reality
in such a manner which allows them to compete and display self-efficaciousness
despite an inequitable environment.
6.3.5 Leadership derailment
A secondary aim of the study was to reach a more integrated definition of
derailment, which includes the definitions and experiences of women leaders as well as
other emerging themes in the research. The derailment experiences shared by
participants included:
being side-lined within the business;
not completing professional studies within the required field within the specified
timeline;
appointment being due to employment equity requirements;
difficulties with reporting CEO; and
elements of own personality.
Researchers‘ traditional definition of derailment is conceptualised as being when
an executive is:
fired;
asked to resign;
forced out of the organization;
demoted;
having their career plateau unexpectedly.
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Based on the results of this study, possessing certain personality characteristics,
opting out or voluntarily leaving an organisation, being unable to deal effectively with
issues inherent in the leadership landscape (which include balancing the demands of
conflicting roles, dealing with issue of gender discrimination, and dealing with other
issues of inequity based on gender, overcoming being undermined as result of a
particular role which one is forced to play), and failing to take responsibility for failure,
were also found to make up the definition of derailment.
Thus, based on the results of the study, a more integrated and inclusive definition
of derailment is reflected below:
When an individual in an executive role who was judged to have the ability
to be successful in a role, lacks specific personal characteristics, and thus
unexpectedly opts out of the position, is fired, is asked to resign, is forced
out of the organization, has their career plateau below the levels of
achievement expected by themselves and others, is undermined because
of a specific role they are forced to play, is unable to effectively overcome
or deal with issues of gender discrimination or other inequities, is unable to
balance multiple roles required, due to lack of support structures, and then
fails to take responsibility for failure in the role by blaming external factors,
in the event of it being of their own doing.
6.4 Contribution to the body of knowledge
The characteristics which prevent derailment were conceptualised as a
theoretical framework where women leaders who have not derailed were shown to
possess the following set of personal constructs:
pragmatic approach to gender issues and willingness to make concessions;
insight into behaviour of self and others;
positive outlook/optimism; and
building relationships and networks.
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In addition, they were shown to possess the following set of core constructs:
self-confidence and self-efficacy;
resilience and coping;
emotional maturity and managing own emotions;
Receiving recognition from significant others;
achievement drive and perseverance; and
risk taking and openness to change.
The specific higher order constructs (core constructs) which they possess,
govern the maintenance of their identity and lie at the heart of their sense of self as
leaders, whilst the personal constructs they possess, guide their sense-making of the
leadership landscape, anticipation of events within it and the predictions they make
about the future. This particular set of core and personal constructs, make up their
personal construct system, and guide the actions they take, the behaviours which they
consistently display over time, and ultimately the characteristics which they possess
which prevent their derailment.
In general, the study found that personal constructs, and to an even larger
extent, core constructs lie at a low level of awareness. It is only through a collaborative,
in depth interviewing process utilizing techniques such as laddering that they were
accessed and that the process of exploring them and the impact which they have on
leadership behaviour, could begin. The specific set of core and personal constructs
held by the participants of the study and uncovered could be of assistance to other
women leaders in preventing their derailment.
The study showed that whilst many external barriers and factors leading to
derailment exist, there are also a number of internal factors at play which may
predispose women leaders to derailment. It is only through the exploration and
recognition of unhelpful constructions and the willingness to engage in debate and
adopt alternative constructions that a more useful pattern of behaviour and beneficial
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leadership characteristics can develop. For many women, however, much more
organisational and professional support may be necessary to develop or enhance
characteristics which prevent derailment.
Based on the results of the study, useful recommendations for CEOs, human
resources practitioners, policy makers, drivers of organisational change and women
themselves, include the following:
Coaching and mentoring activities of women both in the executive pipeline as
well as within executive positions, should take cognisance of the findings of this
study in order to explore the constructs held by women, and compare them to
those identified in this study. This can from the basis of developmental
discussions and better insight into the behavioural consequences of constructs
held and the alternative constructions available, which could better serve women
leaders.
Organisational interventions should be made available where existing women
leaders as well as women in the executive pipeline can increase self-awareness,
as well as reflect and learn from other women, and men. Initiatives within
organisations should be focused specifically on providing opportunities to
enhance the development of the characteristics highlighted in this study. These
should include experiential learning interventions such as role-plays and group
discussions where certain behaviours are elicited and dealt with, grounded in
scenarios applicable to the organisation and which women are likely to be
confronted with within their positions.
The characteristics identified within this study should be built into the culture and
value system of organisations. Group interventions which build and reinforce the
organisational values should be held, whilst organisational systems such as
performance management and discipline should be linked to rewarding
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behaviour which enhances the development of these characteristics and learnt
behaviours, not only in women, but in men as well.
Selection and recruitment processes for senior leadership positions within
organisations should be structured to effectively screen for the characteristics
and behaviours highlighted in the study. Interviewers should then be trained to
conduct these interviews. This will go a long way to increasing the likelihood of
success of women placed within executive positions, who would then in turn act
as role models for younger recruitees within the organisation.
It is not intended that the above recommendations should by any means replace
existing gender initiatives within organisations, but rather support them. As there may
be a stigma in many organisations associated with women leaders being trained
differently, it is recommended that these interventions be interwoven with
developmental actions for all leaders, both male and female.
Senior and executive women leaders are likely to benefit from one-on-one
coaching interventions to assist them in remaining successful and dealing appropriately
with the realities and potential derailers they face. Younger women, on the other hand,
may benefit more from being sensitised and being made aware of the characteristics
required as well as being provided with opportunities to develop the necessary
characteristics.
6.5 Limitations of the study
The study also has its limitations, which may include the following:
As this was a qualitative study, it focused more on depth than on width; the
constructions of only 5 participants were explored. A larger sample size may
have allowed for the improved generalisation of the findings to the rest of the
population of women leaders in South Africa.
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The focus of the study was on the internal characteristics held by women leaders,
taking cognisance of the existing literature on derailment. However, broader
political, economic and social factors which may further influence the development of
characteristics of women leaders, was not taken cognisance of. In future studies,
these broader aspects may be further considered, for an even more inclusive model
of derailment.
Whilst the primary aim of the study was not to explore opting out and voluntary
separation, it emerged during the study that these concepts may indeed be
linked to the derailment of women leaders. A possible shortcoming of this study
is that this was not explored in sufficient depth in order to make a meaningful
contribution and generate new insights into opting out and voluntary separation.
The study was qualitative in nature, and whilst the exploration yielded valuable
findings, it is believed that the utilization of a mixed-method methodology may
have led to deeper understanding of the constructs explored. The quantitative
elements of a mixed method approach would have allowed for an exploration of
the correlation between various constructs as well as for a larger sample size
with which to test the constructs under exploration.
The nature of a qualitative study is for the researcher to collaborate with the
participants and interpret and assign meaning to the experiences of the
participants. As such, meaning-making and interpretation by their very nature
are somewhat subjective. It is possible that new or different core and personal
constructs could have been identified, had the research been conducted by
another researcher. Different interpretations may open up different themes for
exploration. In addition, further exploration could have led to certain themes
being combined due to similarities in the constructs which they represent.
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6.6 Recommendations
It is recommended that the following areas be considered for future research:
The characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders can be further
explored in the context of positive psychology as many of the personal and core
constructs explored appear to be related. Snyder and Lopez (2002) edited the
―Handbook of Positive Psychology‖, and identified constructs such as creativity,
well-being, optimism, hope, self-efficacy, goal-setting, humour and toughness as
being part of the positive psychology paradigm. Other positive psychology
constructs which could further be studied further in the context of leadership
derailment may include: sense of coherence, meaning-as-comprehensibility and
meaning-as-significance, forgiveness, dispositional optimism, positive illusions,
constructive thinking, subjective vitality, and resilience.
Whilst opting out and voluntary separation as they relate to leadership derailment
were not explored in depth in this study, a correlation between these concepts
appears to exist, which may warrant further research and exploration.
Of interest to me as the researcher was the role played by external factors in
developing characteristics which prevent derailment amongst women leaders. In
this regard, the following areas may merit further exploration and may be
interesting areas of study:
o the link between the core construction of a woman leader and her
relationship and experience of her mother and how this prevents
derailment;
o the role of parents exhibiting support of each other and modelling
behaviour of genders being equal, in preventing derailment; and
o the role of a mentor in the workplace modelling successful behaviour
which is aspired to, in preventing derailment.
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The experience that women leaders have of balancing multiple roles and dealing
with responsibilities outside of work may very well be linked to their age. The
research participants were between the ages of 38 and 53 and it would be
interesting to explore the experiences of younger executives who function in a
context where there is a more equal gender distribution in the sharing of parental
and household responsibilities between partners. An exploration of the
differences between the experiences of babyboomers, generation X, generation
Y and millennial women leaders could yield useful findings.
6.7 Conclusion
The objective of the study as set out in Chapter 1 was primarily to explore the
intrinsic characteristics that prevent the derailment of women leaders. A further
objective of the study was to reach a holistic understanding of the phenomenon of
leadership derailment as it is experienced and interpreted by women leaders. The
personal construct systems of leaders who have not derailed were explored, within the
framework of grounded theory and personal construct theory.
The findings of the study revealed that women leaders who do not derail possess
a specific set of core and personal constructs which they have developed over time and
which govern their sense-making of the leadership landscape, guide the actions they
take, the behaviours they display, and ultimately the characteristics which they possess.
The framework developed in this study could contribute to a broader
understanding of the personal characteristics in preventing derailment, and provide new
insights into the alternative constructions available to women leaders, thus resulting in
the complete unleashing and unlocking of leadership potential in women executives.
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Annexure 1: Request for Participation
Dear XXXX
My name is Michelle. I‘m an Industrial Psychologist and am currently doing my PhD
though UJ on Women Leadership and what makes some women leaders so successful,
whilst others have had their careers derail.
XXXXX recommended that I contact you as you are a very successful in your role of
XXXXXX and may be willing to assist me with my research. I would really appreciate it if
you would be willing to spend some time with me, at a time that is convenient to you.
You and I will need to spend approximately 1 ½ hours to 2 hours at the most, and will
be engaging in an informal discussion about your experience as a women in a senior
role and the factors that have influenced your success, and ability to overcome potential
failures thus far.
With your consent, the discussion will be tape-recorded and transcribed. This will then
be returned to you to modify and review if necessary. The total time commitment for this
study will not exceed 2 ½ hours including a possible follow-up telephone conversation
should any issues need to be clarified and the time taken for you to review the transcript
should you wish to do so.
Our discussion will be completely confidential and your name or any other names you
may mention will not be disclosed to a third party. I will ask you to select a pseudonym
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
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for inclusion in the final dissertation. All transcripts and recordings will be safely locked
away and destroyed after the completion of the study.
I will be meeting with 4 or 5 participants and if you would be interested in the findings of
the final thesis, I will happily provide this to you.
Your participation in this study will help to develop a better understanding of the factors
involved in making women leaders successful despite the barriers they face, which can
be used as a tool to guide and empower women into the future. I would really
appreciate your time. If you have any questions about any aspect of this research,
which may make it easier to decide whether you would be willing to be involved or not,
please feel free to contact me at any time.
I‘m looking forward to hearing from you and hopefully getting to know you better.
Warm Regards
Michelle Nobre
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Annexure 2: Participant Details
Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Participant 5
Organisation A financial services
group listed on the
JSE Stock
Exchange
An independent
financial services
company, delivering
a broad range of
financial services.
A manufacturer of a
large range of
lighting products.
The group also
includes a
renewable energy
brand including
micro-wind turbines.
A large timber
organisation that
grow, harvest and
process pine
products for use by
the building and
furniture industry
across Southern
Africa.
A Golfing resort,
comprising three
18-hole golf
courses, two hotels,
a spa, three
restaurants,
conference and
event facilities and
a real estate
portfolio
Age 42 47 53 49 38
Title Head: Personal
Finance
Chief Operating
Officer
Chief Executive
Officer
Executive Manager:
Human Resources
Chief Executive
Officer
Number of direct
reportees
5 4 6 3 6
Length of time in
position
12 Years 3 years 6 years 4 years 5 years
Length of time in
company
21 Years 29 Years 27 years 4 years 5 years
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Annexure 3
Informed Consent Form for _________________________________ (Name and
Surname)
Introduction
My name is Michelle. I‘m an Industrial Psychologist and am currently doing my PhD
through UJ on Women Leadership and what makes some women leaders so
successful, whilst others have had their careers derail.
Purpose of the research
Women remain underrepresented in senior management positions within organisations.
It is purpose of this study to explore the characteristics possessed by women executives
who have not derailed, or who have overcome derailment, which act as guards to
possible derailment.
Type of Research Intervention
This research will involve your participation in an interview that will take about 1 ½ to 2
hours.
Participant Selection
You have been approached to participate in this research as you are successful senior
manager and your experience as a woman in a senior role and the factors that have
influenced your success, are extremely valuable.
INFORMED CONSENT - EXPLORING CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT THE
DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
245
Voluntary Participation
Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. If at any stage, you choose to no
longer participate, even subsequent to the interview having taken place, any information
provided by you will not be used in the research study.
Procedures
During the research, you will be asked to participate in an interview with myself in an
appropriate venue of your choosing. If you do not wish to answer any of the questions
during the interview, you may say so and I will move on to the next question. No one
else but the interviewer will be present unless you would like someone else to be there.
The entire interview will be tape-recorded.
Duration
The research takes place over 3 months in total. During that time, we will have one
interview which will be approximately 1 ½ hours to 2 hours at the most. The total time
commitment for this study will not exceed 2 ½ hours including a possible follow-up
telephone conversation (or face-to face interview, should you consent) should any
issues need to be clarified. This includes the time taken for you to review the transcript
of our interview should you wish to do so.
Risks
The possible risks to you are minimal. There is a small chance that you may experience
some discomfort, if, for example, the interview brings up past memories and
experiences that are not pleasant. All efforts will be made to keep any discomfort to a
minimum and post-interview support will be made available to you, in the form of referral
to an Executive Coach, to assist you in working through new insights or uncomfortable
memories.
CHARACTERISTICS THAT PREVENT DERAILMENT
246
Benefits
A possible benefit to you may be the development of a greater awareness and new
insights into yourself as a leader. Your participation in this study will help develop a
better understanding of the factors involved in making women leaders successful
despite the barriers they face, which will be used as a tool to guide and empower
women into the future.
Confidentiality
The interview will be completely confidential and your name or any other names you
may mention will not be disclosed to a third party. I will ask you to select a pseudonym
for inclusion in the final dissertation. All transcripts and recordings will be safely locked
away and destroyed after the completion of the study.
Sharing the Findings
I will be meeting with 4 or 5 participants and should you be interested in the findings of
the study, these will be provided to you.
I have read the foregoing information, or it has been read to me. I have had the
opportunity to ask questions about it and any questions I have been asked have
been answered to my satisfaction. I consent voluntarily to be a participant in this
study.
Print Name of Participant: ___________________________
Signature of Participant: ___________________________
Date: ___________________________
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Annexure 4
Interview Guide for _________________________________ (pseudonym)
Introduction
Outline purpose of study, as per ―Request for Participation‖ form and ―Informed
Consent‖ form.
_____________________________________________________________________
Background to research Participant
Age:
Title:
Number of reportees:
Length of time in position:
Description of roles and responsibilities of position:
Length of time in company:
______________________________________________________________________
Core Construct – Construct of self
How would you describe yourself as a leader?
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
What factors do you believe have made you successful as a leader?
INTERVIEW GUIDE - EXPLORING INTRINSIC CHARACTERISTICS GUARDING
AGAINST DERAILMENT OF WOMEN LEADERS
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248
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
______________________________________________________________________
Personal Experiences of derailment
How would you define career derailment as it relates to Women executives?
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
Please describe your experience of of factors that could have led to your derailment? /
A particular situation?
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
Could you describe the events that led up to this experience?
Could you tell me about your thoughts and feelings at the time?
How did you deal with the situation?
What helped you to do this? (Internal & External things)
Could you describe the most important lessons you learnt through the experience
What helps you to manage/ deal with these situations? How have our thoughts and
feelings about being a women leader and derailment changed since this experience?
How have you grown as a person as a result of being confronted with …
______________________________________________________________________
What are some of the pitfalls that women fall into, which could contribute to their
derailment?
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
______________________________________________________________________
Explain “Opting Out” and “Voluntary Separation”.
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Please share your view of if and how ―Opting Out‖ and ―Voluntary Separation‖ are
related to derailment?
PROBE & APPLY LADDERING
_____________________________________________________________________
Is there anything else that you think I should know to understand … better
Thank-you & next steps