Copyright 2017, Sun Yong Hwang

The Value of a Person-Centered Approach

for Teaching and Learning in Piano Lessons

By

Sun Yong Hwang, BM. MM

A Document

In

Piano Pedagogy

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

Dr. Carla D.Cash

Co-Chair of Committee

Dr. William Westney

Co-Chair of Committee

Dr. David Forrest

Committee Member

Mark Sheridan

Dean of the Graduate School

December, 2017

Texas Tech University, Sun Yong Hwang, 2017

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT… ................................................................................................................. iii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... iv

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 1

2. AN INTRODUCTION TO PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH......................... 3

Understanding person-centered education .............................................................. 4

The role of teachers in person-centered education ................................................. 5

Interaction of teacher, students, and music ............................................................. 7

3. CONSIDERATION OF LEARNERS’ COGNITION ............................................. 9

Cognitive growth of the learner ................................................................................ 9

Learning itself .......................................................................................................... 14

What do students learn in a piano lesson? ............................................................ 15

What is critical thinking? ........................................................................................ 16

Why does critical thinking really matter in the piano lesson? ............................ 17

Questions by teachers help students develop critical thinking skills .................. 18

Socratic questions .................................................................................................... 19

Considerations when crafting effective questions ................................................. 23

What is reflection? ................................................................................................... 24

Reflection in the practice room .............................................................................. 25

4. EMOTION ................................................................................................................. 31

The role of emotion in the learner and their learning .......................................... 31

Teachers can inspire a joy of learning ................................................................... 31

Empathy, congruence, and positive regard ........................................................... 32

Empathy of the Teacher .......................................................................................... 37

Modeling empathic behavior .................................................................................. 39

5. LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................... 43

Teacher-centered learning environment ............................................................... 43

Person-centered learning environment .................................................................. 45

6. CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 50

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 52


iii

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this document is to present the person-centered approach to piano

teachers instructing in one-on-one and group piano settings. All teachers face the

distinctive challenge of communicating effectively with their students while leading them

repeatedly to higher levels of facility, confidence, and enjoyment in music making. In this

document I suggest a person-centered approach, developed by American psychologist

Carl Rogers. The person-centered approach in teaching recognizes and trusts human

potential and involves teachers’ use of empathy, congruence, and positive regard to

facilitate change and learning in students. In person-centered education, Rogers also

stresses that the role of emotion is critical in the learning process. In this document I

explore how to teachers can implement elements of person-centered education and

become effective facilitators in leading students to success as piano learners and

performers.


iv

L

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Cognitive growth of learners. ............................................................................. 10

Table 2: Explanation of cognitive growth of learners. ..................................................... 12

Table 3: Three types of reflection in piano music. ........................................................... 27

Table 4: Comparison of psychological impact on students from

teachers’ empathy .............................................................................................. 33

Table 5: Findings regarding person-centered education in the USA and Germany ......... 36

Table 6: Empathy scale. .................................................................................................... 38


1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this document is to present a person-centered approach to

teachers who want to incorporate the principles of modern humanism into their piano

pedagogy, whether they are currently teaching one-on-one lessons or group classes in

which the opportunity to interact with and provide feedback to individual students

regularly exists.

Piano instruction seeks effectiveness in at least two main areas: (a) facilitating

learning about music, its technique and practices, and (b) coaching the student to become

a good performer.

Communicating effectively with students is a distinctive challenge facing all

teachers. Of the many challenges confronting piano instructors, perhaps the most relevant

for this study is the tendency for instructors to mimic the way in which they themselves

were taught. Often this is an issue with instructors who do not have any specific

knowledge or perspective on what represents effective pedagogy. In teacher-centered

instruction—an authoritarian type of teaching method—the teacher sets the goals based

on the students’ learning process, chooses the content, and selects the methods and

repertoire with little discussion with students. In the teacher-centered piano lesson, the

interpretation of music and technique by the teacher outweighs the students’ autonomy.

In other words, this style of teaching (teacher-centered instruction) tends to neglect the

most fundamental aspect of instruction: the self-growth of the learner in the intelligence


2

and affective spheres, which Carl Rogers, a prominent American psychologist and

philosopher, refers to as the person-centered approach.1

The person-centered approach views the teacher as a facilitator who promotes

self-regulated learning and strong interactions with students by acknowledging their

emotions. This approach is based on non-directiveness, empathy, congruence, and

unconditional positive regard.

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was an influential proponent of a movement in

psychology known as humanism. Person-centered education is not new to the field of

education. However, at the time of this document’s writing, no studies integrating Rogers’

ideas of humanism into piano pedagogy existed.

In this document, I argue that a person-centered approach enables the piano

instructor to become a more effective facilitator for students in the learning of music and

the acquiring of necessary performance skills and techniques. To support my argument, I

investigate research about the learner’s cognitive development, learning process, critical

thinking, questioning, reflection, emotion, and empathy from the general and music

education literature and psychology field and suggest ways to apply such concepts to the

piano lesson by providing self-generated examples of how one might do so. These

examples are enhanced by my own observations from over 15 years of teaching piano. In

addition, I discuss the two types of learning environments which are teacher-centered

learning environment and person-centered learning environment to promote more

effective piano lessons with students.

1. Carl R Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Merrill, 1969).


3

CHAPTER 2

AN INTRODUCTION TO PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH

The person-centered approach is the idea that humans can recognize their own

problems and act on their own to find solutions.2 The major proponent of the person-

centered approach was Carl Rogers, a renowned American psychologist and educator.

The person-centered approach came about as a response to behaviorism, which focused

on natural human behavior and largely discounted the emotions of humans.3 The major

proponent of behaviorism was B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist and behaviorist

from the 1940s. While Skinner looked toward behavior to identify his clients’ issues,

Rogers recognized the therapeutic importance of human emotion and that his clients were

“in the best position to understand and evaluate their own experiences,”4 an important

part of humanistic psychology. Given this, Rogers’ person-centered approach emphasized

three core aspects: congruence, empathy, and unconditional positive regard.5 Though this

approach is primarily practiced by psychotherapists, studies have shown that it is also

effective in other fields such as education and business.6

2. Carl R Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Merrill, 1969)

3. "Difference Between Humanism and Behaviorism." Difference Between. November 22, 2014.

Accessed September 16, 2017. http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-humanism-and-vs-

behaviorism.\

4. Tiffany Frye, "Carl Rogers' Theories: Overview," Study.com, accessed September 23, 2017,

http://study.com/academy/lesson/carl-rogers-theories-lesson-quiz.html.

5. Carl R Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Merrill, 1969)

6. Jeanne M. Plas, Person-centered leadership: an American approach to participatory

management (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage., 1996); Beth Freire, “Person-Centred/Experiential Therapies Are

Highly Effective: Summary of the 2008 Meta-analysis” , WAPCEFC accessed May 05, 2017,

https://www.pce-world.org/about-pce/articles/102-person-centredexperiential-therapies-are-highly-

effective-summary-of-the-2008-meta-analysis.html.

http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-humanism-and-vs-behaviorism./



http://study.com/academy/lesson/carl-rogers-theories-lesson-quiz.html


https://www.pce-world.org/about-pce/articles/102-person-centredexperiential-therapies-are-highly-effective-summary-of-the-2008-meta-analysis.html





4

Understanding person-centered education

Recognizing that his person-centered approach could be extended to education,

Rogers applied it by explaining his understanding of learning and describing the teacher’s

role as facilitator. Rogers, in his book Freedom to Learn, asks the following questions:

“How does a person learn? How can important learning be facilitated? What basic

theoretical assumptions are involved?”7 Rogers notes 10 basic principles of learning.8

1) Human beings have a natural potentiality for learning.

2) Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by students as having

relevance for their own purposes.

3) Learning, which involves a change in self-organization (in the perception of oneself) is

threatening and tends to be resisted.

4) Those learning which are threatening to the self are more easily perceived and assimilated when

external threats are at a minimum.

5) When threat to the self is low, experience can be perceived in differentiated fashion and

learning can proceed.

6) Much significant learning is acquired through doing.

7) Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process.

8) Self-initiated learning, which involves the whole person of the learner—feelings as well

intellect—are the most lasting and pervasive.

9) Independence, creativity, and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-

evaluation are basic, and evaluation by others is of secondary importance.

10) The most socially useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of

learning, a continuing openness to experience, and incorporation into oneself of the process of

change.9

The role of the teacher comes into play in facilitation, described below in Rogers’

work.10

1) The facilitator has much to do with setting the initial mood or climate of the group or class

experience.

2) The facilitator helps to elicit and clarify the purposes of the individuals in the class as

well as the more general purposes of the group.

7. Rogers, Freedom to Learn, 157.

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid, 157-164.

10. Ibid.


5

3) Here lies upon the desire of each student to implement those purposes that have

meaning for him as the motivational forces behind significant learning.

4) He endeavors to organize and make easily available the widest possible range of

resources for learning.

5) He regards himself as a flexible resource to be utilized by the group.

6) In responding to expressions in the classroom group, the facilitator accepts both the

intellectual content and the emotionalized attitudes, endeavoring to give each aspect the

approximate degree of emphasis that it has for the individual or the group.

7) As the acceptant classroom climate becomes established, the facilitator is increasingly

able to become a participant learner, a member of the group, expressing his views as

those of one individual only.

8) The facilitator takes the initiative in sharing with the group his feelings as well as his

thoughts, in ways which neither demand nor impose but simply represent a personal

sharing, which students may take or leave.

9) Throughout the classroom experience, the facilitator remains alert to the expressions

indicative of deep or strong feelings.

10) In functioning as a facilitator of learning, the leader endeavors to recognize and accept his own

limitations.11

The role of teachers in person-centered education

In person-centered education, Rogers emphasizes that the role of emotion is

significant to make learning real in a student’s life.12 In turn, Rogers urges that the

education of the “whole person” should be accomplished through the merging of

“feelings with cognitive functions.”13 Rogers likens teachers to learning facilitators who

empower students to be responsible for their own learning as much as possible and

facilitate learning through acknowledging the emotions of the student.14 The teacher must

recognize the subtleties of different forms of expressions like facial expressions, body

language, behavior, and speech.

In the book, On Becoming an Effective Teacher, Harold Lyon and co-contributors

Carl Rogers and Reinhard Tausch support Rogers’ ideas. According to them, teachers

11. Ibid, 164-166.

12. Rogers, Freedom to Learn.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.


6

should assume that students possess the intrinsic wish to learn and grow. To experience

growth through self-directed, self-discovered and self-initiated learning can affect

behavior in a lasting way.15 One way for teachers to notice this is to ask, “Where does

significant learning take place?” For students to maximize their experience, the teacher

must create a safe and warm learning environment. The teacher supports risk-taking and

failure, and the student becomes able to accept even negative feedback if offered in a

supportive learning environment. The environment can affect the emotions of the learner

either positively or negatively.16

Rogers identifies the traits possessed by the most effective therapists and teachers

as congruence, empathy, and unconditional positive regard for clients and students.

How are these three traits apparent in teachers?

Genuineness/congruence. Congruence, otherwise recognized as genuineness, is

the most important attitude in building relationships with others. The meaning of

congruence is showing, as Cecil Holden Patterson says, “what a person is truly feeling.”17

If a teacher has negative feelings about a student’s performance, behavior, or thinking,

the teacher should express their genuine feelings and reasoning in a good manner. In

addition, Rogers, Lyon and Tausch describe genuineness as “an ability to be a human

15. Carl R. Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, Jr., and Reinhard Tausch, On becoming an effective teacher:

person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues with Carl Rogers (London: Routledge,

2014).

16. Ibid.

17. Cecil Holden Patterson, "CARL ROGERS AND HUMANISTIC EDUCATION" in

Foundations for a theory of instruction and educational psychology (The University of Michigan,

Michigan: Harper & Row, 1977).


7

being with strengths and weaknesses, to be authentic with students. This means not trying

to be a perfect teacher who always knows the right answers.”18

Empathy. Simply put, teachers enter relationships with students by being

themselves and without assuming any roles, such as a facilitator. The empathizing teacher

shows the ability to view the learning process from the student’s point of view.19

Non-judgmental acceptance/unconditional positive regard/prizing. According to

Rogers, “if the teacher accepts the entire range of feelings exhibited by the learner,

whether positive or negative, the optimal conditions for learning will be in place.”20 An

accepting teacher understands that learners are human beings who will typically

experience frustration, disinterest, or similar emotions that may interfere with the

learning process.21 Thus, in the person-centered environment, teachers should

acknowledge their students’ feelings instead of placing the attention on themselves.

Interaction of teacher, students, and music

In applying person-centered education to music learning settings, the teacher

should normally prioritize the student over the music. The teacher creates an atmosphere

of open and honest communication, trust, and acceptance of viewpoints and emotions.

This practice allows students’ to be motivated which can in turn leads to self-initiated,

successful piano study.

18. Rogers, Lyon and Tausch, On becoming an effective teacher.

19. Ibid.

20. Rogers, Freedom to Learn.

21. Ibid.


8

The basic belief of person-centered education is that each student has the inherent

potential for positive self-growth. Using Rogers’ goals, teachers can expect students to

become more willing to take risks, and succeed and fail on their own, therefore,

developing a positive, optimistic outlook on their futures which cause them to believe

their dreams can come true. Students develop creativity, which can improve problem-

solving, in such ways as interpreting a passage of music and solve their own technical

problems.


9

CHAPTER 3

CONSIDERATION OF LEARNERS’ COGNITION

Because the person-centered approach places emphasis on the learner, teachers

should look more closely at both the learner and the learning process itself for better

understanding to develop more creative ideas and to promote more effective teaching. In

this chapter, I explore the typical intellectual development of learners and the meaning of

learning in general—especially in the piano lesson. The chapter continues to provide

information about cognitive development and discusses how teachers facilitate students’

learning by encouraging critical thinking skills and using indirective teaching methods.

Indirective teaching methods may include using questions in the place of directives and

prompting students to actively reflect on what they are learning.

Cognitive growth of the learner

In one-on-one piano lesson or group piano classes, teachers meet many students

who have different learning styles and cultural backgrounds. However, I believe that

teachers must first recognize where students are in regard to their intellectual

development so that the teacher can better assist them to the next step of learning.

To better visualize this, Table 1 provides a summary from Barbara K. Hofer and

Paul R. Pintrich’s Model of epistemological development in late adolescence and

adulthood.22 This table contains four research references regarding beliefs about the

22. Barbara K Hofer and Paul R Pintrich, "The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs

About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning." Review of Educational Research 67, no.

1 (1997): 88-140.


10

nature of knowledge and knowing as well as students’ thinking.23 Each research reference

is taken from Intellectual and Ethical Development by William Perry, Women’s Way of

Knowing by Mary Belenky, Blythe Clinchy, Nancy Goldberger and Jill Tarule,

Epistemological Reflection by Baxter Magolda, and Developing Reflective Judgment by

Patricia King and Karen Stohm Kitchener. Even though the subjects of this research are

college students, I believe that these observations could apply to students of all ages.

Table 1 show that intellectual developments of students are divided into 4 levels with

each stage eliciting different ways of thinking.

Table 1: Cognitive growth of learners

Title of

Research

and

researcher

Intellectual

and

Ethical

Development

(Perry)

Women’s Way of

Knowing

(Belenky et al.)

Epistemological

Reflection

(Baxter Magolda)

Reflective

Judgment

(King and

Kitchener)

General

formulation

position

Epistemological

Perspectives

Ways of knowing

Reflective

judgment stages

Level 1

Dualism

Silence

Received Knowledge

Absolute Knowing

Pre-reflective

thinking

Level 2

Multiplicity

Subjective knowledge

Transitional knowing

Quasi-

reflective

thinking

Level 3

Relativism

Procedural Knowledge

1)Connected Knowing

2)Separated Knowing

Independent Knowing

Level 4

Commitment

within

relativism

Constructed

Knowledge

Contextual Knowing

Reflective

thinking

Source: From Barbara K Hofer and Paul R Pintrich. "The Development of Epistemological Theories:

Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning." Review of Educational Research

67, no. 1 (1997), table 1.

23. Ibid.


11

Table 2 describes behaviors and ways of thinking of students in each of the four

different intellectual development stages, in general.


12

Table 2: Explanation of cognitive growth of learners

Level 1: dualism, received knowledge, absolute knowing, pre-reflective thinking

1. There are right or wrong answers and truths or falsehoods by which students acquire knowledge

through hard work and obedience.

2. Students at this developmental level recognize new knowledge as absolute truth from absolute

authorities. If professors disagree with them, students become uncomfortable.

3. Students focus on the acquisition or achievement of knowledge from authorities.

4. Knowledge is certain or temporarily uncertain but is obtained through observation or from

authority figures.

Level 2: multiplicity, subjective knowledge, transitional knowing, quasi-reflective thinking

1. Students consider all opinions from others to be equally valid.

2. Students believe that all knowledge is a matter of opinion.

3. Students realize that some knowledge is hard to accept if it is not certain.

4. Students focus on understanding and processing knowledge rather than memorizing.

5. Students begin to have a sense of their own voice and to utilize experiential knowledge so that they

focus on understanding and processing knowledge.

6. The student’s primary learning technique is comprised of listening and observing.

7. Students use their feelings to make judgments so they believe that an idea is right if it feels right. If

they receive low grades, they may think that the teacher dislikes them.

Level 3: relativism, procedural knowledge, independent knowing

1. Students recognize that knowledge is relative and that teachers or authorities cannot always

provide the right answers.

2. Students recognize that opinions or solutions are supported by evidence.

3. Students realize that knowing requires careful observation and analysis; they become aware of

their own thinking and learn to refine it.

4. Students are able to not only detach themselves from others’ ideas in order to argue with them but

also take advantage of other people’s ideas.

5. Students begin thinking for themselves and creating individualized truths.

Level 4: commitment within relativism, constructed knowledge, contextual knowing

1. Students consider that knowledge is constructed from a variety of sources. 2. Students construct their own frame of reference that questions, examines, and analyzes more

complex ways of knowing.

3. Students focus on engagement and responsibility in their learning.

4. Students are able to justify their beliefs by comparing different opinions and analyzing evidence

from different perspectives.

5. Students make commitments and have experiences that merge into other areas of their lives beyond class or school.

Source: Adapted from William Rapaport, "William Perry's Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical

Development," WILLIAM PERRY'S SCHEME OF INTELLECTUAL AND ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT,

September 26, 2013, , accessed September 27, 2017,

https://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/perry.positions.html; Anne-Louise Brookes et al., "Women’s Ways

of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind," Curriculum Inquiry 18, no. 1 (1988); Sarah

Henderson, "Theories of Cognitive Development and the Teaching of Argumentation in First-Year

Composition.," ERIC - Education Resources Information Center, February 28, 1994, , accessed September

27, 2017, https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED369094;

https://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~rapaport/perry.positions.html

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED369094


13

The following information depicts, from my observation, the behaviors and ways

to think of students in each of the four different intellectual development stages in the

piano lesson.

Level 1: dualism, received knowledge, absolute knowing, pre-reflective thinking

In the piano studio at the Level 1 stage, most students show unconditional

obedience to their piano teacher, and they often ignore the opinions or teaching of others

if they differ from the opinion of their teacher. In the group piano class at the Level 1

stage, students focus on memorizing, and tend to feel uncomfortable with open-ended

discussions or improvising without a clear model.

Level 2: multiplicity, subjective knowledge, transitional knowing, quasi-reflective

thinking

In the piano studio and group piano class at the Level 2 stage, students try to

understand their teacher’s instruction and accept others’ opinion. For example, students

discover on their own how their arm movements relate to creating different kinds of

sounds and they try to understand why they prefer certain music.

Level 3: relativism, procedural knowledge, independent knowing

In piano class at the Level 3 stage, students begin to understand more fully why

the teacher wants them to think about things in a certain way. They begin to support their

opinions with data rather than merely providing what they perceive to be the right

answer. Students can create a story with music—whether through discovering their

feelings, what lies in the score, or learning the historical context in which the music was

composed.


14

Level 4: commitment within relativism, constructed knowledge, contextual knowing

At the Level 4 stage, students can communicate with others based on their

knowledge of music and their own commitment as independent musicians beyond the

piano class. In addition, they can collaborate with other musicians, giving their opinions

and taking others’ opinions if they find these to be supported by reasonable points. Older

students, as mature autonomous musicians, can become mentors and even role models for

younger students.

Learning itself

By understanding the cognitive development of each individual student, a teacher

can better assist a learner with moving to the next cognitive level. However, how do

learners acquire new information and skills and make these skills their own?

Students learn by acquiring new information, knowledge, and skills not only

through direct but also indirect experiences. I agree with the constructivist approach that

suggests that knowledge is constructed by each person.24 Educator Ken Bain describes

the process of humans learning in his book What the Best College Teachers Do from the

perspective of a constructivist: “We see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. We begin connecting

all those sensations in our brains to build patterns of the way we think the world works.

So, we mold our brains into our unique storage and processing units.”25

According to Bain, when we are introduced to or experience new tasks or new

information, we integrate our existing mental models to understand. Understanding is not

24. Ken Bain, What the Best College Teachers Do (Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard

University Press, 2004), 26.

25. Ibid, 23-31.


15

just accepting transmitted facts or answers from one’s memory; understanding also

involves acknowledging how each part of learning relates to others in various ways,

which can be understood by how each part functions, how things work, how to try, how

to simplify, how to clarify, and what could go wrong.26

Piano students should learn how to best use their bodies. Among other things,

they should learn how their body movements relate to the level of sound they wish to

produce; how to analyze harmony and understand form; how to count and feel rhythm;

how to understand music in a contextual way; how to listen to music critically and how to

make their own musical interpretations.

Learning piano is not just blindly following a teacher’s interpretations and body

movements. It is not just copying sounds and gestures from a recording. Performance

poise is the result of well-constructed understanding within the person, enabling that

person to focus on the sound and be in the moment.

What do students learn in a piano lesson?

Piano learning has two basic components:

Knowledge (Knowing that)

Analytical knowledge

Music history and cultural influence

Self-knowledge of mental and muscular functions

Self-awareness of emotional states

Skill (Knowing how)

26. Ibid.


16

Performance poise

Memorization

Decision-making and analytical skills

Aural and perceptive skills

Skill in verbalizing internal responses

Interpretive decisions

Physical technique, virtuosity

How to communicate with others

Students should understand how to combine their knowledge and skills as needed in

playing the piano. In addition, they should learn self-efficacy, which forms the basis of

the confidence necessary to create independent musical interpretations.

What is critical thinking?

To grasp the knowledge and skills needed in learning to play the piano, students

should possess critical thinking skills. Many scholars have written on critical thinking;

out of these scholars, perhaps the best quote for the purposes of this document comes

from R. Paul and L. Elder:

Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored and self-corrective

thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use.

It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to

overcome our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.27

In addition, May Kokkidou defines critical thinking by citing a collaborative

study with Michale Scriven and Richard Paul, “Critical thinking is an intelligent,

27. R. Paul and L. Elder, The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools

(Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2001), 4.


17

disciplined, active process through which the individual skillfully takes in, applies,

analyzes, puts together and /or evaluates the data that he or she has gathered from his or

her observation, experiences, reflections, judgments and interaction with others.”28

According to Kokkidou, the final goal of developing critical thinking by students

in general education is to prepare them to become more conscientious and responsible

and more independent problem-solving citizens who can deal with future challenges.29 In

addition, Kokkidou supports the idea that critical thinking should be taught in daily

instruction because it is not necessarily an “innate process.”30

Why does critical thinking really matter in the piano lesson?

Piano studios and piano classes provide the ideal places for investigation,

discovery, and imaginative inquiry. The main purpose of learning the piano is to allow

the learner to express herself creatively and artistically, which affects the emotions and

stimulates the senses. Therefore, students must know how to listen to music critically,

how to think critically, and how to talk about their music and other’s music critically. If

we admire someone’s musical interpretation, we can use that as a measurement to assess

how and what that performer has done.

In addition, the goal of musicians should be to establish their own voice and their

own personal sound. To become creative musicians, critical thinking could be a good

means for evaluating and offering, as Kokkidou notes, “alternative approaches to musical

28. May Kokkidou, "Critical Thinking and School Music Education: Literature Review, Research

Findings, and Perspectives." Journal for Learning through the Arts 9, no. 1 (2013): Journal for Learning

through the Arts, 2013, Vol.9 (1).

29. Kokkidou, “Critical Thinking and School Music Education,”

30. Ibid.


18

activity through classification, comparison, problem-solving techniques, reflective

processes, and the appraisal of activities.”31

Because sound constitutes an important aspect of interpretation and creativity,

both the student and teacher should strive to make an informed sound. To support unique

interpretation and creativity, both teacher and student should analyze and adjust so that

the performance can approach an imagined musical ideal. Also, both teacher and student

should accommodate any challenges they encounter, even if that means changing the

framework.

Kokkidou insists that music is evaluated in both cognitive and affective ways that

are informed by experience. Given this understanding, to become an effective critical

music thinker, a student should possess (a) an understanding of music elements; (b)

conceptual knowledge of music based on the historical and cultural features of time

periods and composers; and (c) a rich exposure to music, which should enable them to

evaluate music affectively and cognitively. Finally, critical thinkers must know how to

apply informed decisions to new situations, thereby establishing their own creative

environments.

Questions by teachers help students develop critical thinking skills

This document draws on Socratic questioning, which consists of open-ended

questions that represent a workable solution from the perspective of person-centered

education. Socratic questions function not only to elicit responses from students but also,

31. Kokkidou, "Critical Thinking and School Music Education,”


19

as Maxwell notes, to “stimulate thought-provoking analysis.”32 Consider, for example,

the construction of any subject. The Socratic Method is a dialogue between a student and

a teacher who carefully listen to each other. The teacher’s role is important in examining

the cognitive process of the learner. In addition, questions engage students in their

learning and enable them to participate with wonder.33 The goal of the Socratic Method is

not to obtain an answer to a posed series of questions; rather, the goal is to evoke more

questions because students realize that their current knowledge is insufficient. There is

more difficulty and, thus, more importance for the teacher to facilitate the needs of

students, especially with regard to listening critically to their own playing rather than

simply correcting mistakes.

Socratic questions

Two scholars, R.W. Paul and Linda Elder, suggest six types of Socratic questions

in their book, The Thinker’s Guide to the Art of Socratic Questioning.34 Below is a

description of their six types of Socratic questions and self-generated feasible questions

that can be posed in piano lessons

Question of clarification

32. Max Maxwell, "Socratic Method Research Portal," Socratic Method Research Portal, accessed

September 27, 2017, http://www.socraticmethod.net/.

33. Richard Paul and Linda Elder, The thinkers guide to the art of Socratic questioning (Dillon

Beach, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2007).

34. R. Paul and L. Elder, The Thinker's Guide to the Art of Socratic Questioning (Foundation for

Critical Thinking, 2006).

http://www.socraticmethod.net/


20

This first type of question involves three parameters: information, verification,

and clarification of the main idea and, as such, students should provide the information,

rephrase the content, and explain why they made a statement:35

What are you hearing?

How would you describe the form of this piece?

How does this music relate to the title of the piece?

Could you transpose the piece to the minor key from the major key?

Questions that prove assumptions

These questions are for clarification, explanation, verification, and reliability of

the assumptions from the student. In addition, they identify any substitute assumptions

that can be applied to a case.36

Do group piano lessons really have less benefit than one-on-one piano lessons?

How can you verify your assumption that etudes are meant to show off only

technique in Chopin’s and Liszt’s music?

Why did you put a staccato mark in this passage?

Questions that probe reasons and evidence

The third type includes questions that probe, ask for evidence, prompt additional

examples, and encourage reasons for making statements. During this process, students

can make their own beliefs or change their minds about an issue:37

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.


21

Given your body type, how should you sit at the keyboard?

Can you think of three interesting ways to play that phrase?

Why did you use a syncopated pedal on this passage?

What is some possible pedaling?

How does this historical information apply to the Romantic era’s piano music?

Questions about viewpoints or perspectives

The fourth type includes questions that make students find alternative

perspectives on some issues. Students should analyze how other people respond or argue

using a certain perspective, or compare the similarities and differences between two

opposing perspectives:38

What are the strengths and weaknesses of having big hands or small hands?

Would you explain why it is necessary to use the pedal on the modern piano for

Baroque era music?

How is ornamentation similar in the Baroque and Romantic eras?

Explain the different philosophies of arm-weight techniques.

Questions that probe implications and consequences

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid.


22

The fifth type includes questions asking the student to describe and discuss the

implications of what is being done or said, the effects which might result, the alternatives

which might be practicable, or the cause-effect of action:39

How do your emotions affect your body movements?

Once you can maintain your relaxed body, can you also control your mind?

What is an alternative to memorization? Would analyzing harmony improve

memorization?

When you say Bach’s music puts you to sleep, what are you implying?

What can we do to make your muscles more responsive?

Questions about the question

The sixth type of question, as Paul and Elder note, “determines the main point and

identifies the question at hand.” 40 This narrows the content down to specific issues and

stimulates students to evaluate their ideas and perspectives:

Why do you think music is important for you?

What can it mean for the audience?

Why do you think I asked this question?

What is the point of this question?

39. Ibid.

40. Ibid.


23

Considerations when crafting effective questions

The various examples within this method are endless; however, teachers should

keep in mind that appropriate questions and appropriate timing are as important as

creating good questions. Poor questions or overwhelming questions that are inappropriate

for a student’s cognitive level can cause confusion, intimidating students and interrupting

creative thinking. Because questions address different cognitive levels and domains of

knowledge, to match a student’s cognitive level, a teacher can reference B.S. Bloom’s

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom notes that there are hierarchy questions

which address high and low cognitive levels.

These hierarchy questions can be categorized based on the Cognitive Dimension and are

considered to be lower-order questions if questions evoke responses in remembering

(Knowledge), understanding (Comprehension) or Applying (Application). In contrast,

higher-order questions elicit responses in analyzing (Analysis), Evaluating (Evaluation),

Creating (Synthesis) are considered as Higher-order questions.41

In piano class, the teacher can ask questions about low-level key concepts that

students should understand regarding the elements of music such as tempo, dynamics,

simple melody, rhythm, timbre, and performance concepts. These elements relate to the

basic elements of music such as good tone quality, intonation, ensemble, and expression.

The teacher can also ask students questions relating to high-level key concepts such as

comparing, improvising, performing, critiquing, and creating music. This involves greater

comprehension of numerous performance variables. Effective questions about either low-

or high-level concepts must be clear and precise. In addition, the teacher should offer, as

Tofade notes, a “psychologically safe learning environment” for students by giving

41. B.S. Bloom, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals (D.

McKay, 1956).


24

sufficient “waiting time,” paying attention to facial expressions and body language, and

not repeatedly asking similar questions, which might intimidate students.42

What is reflection?

Often teachers ask, “How does a teacher maximize a student’s learning?” When

they do, one of the strongest answers might be: Reflection. Confucius, who was a

renowned teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period of

Chinese history, noted about learning: “By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by

reflection, which is noblest; second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third, by

experience, which is the bitterest.”43 As Confucius says, reflection in learning is the

noblest method; it is a high-level thinking process.

The process of reflection is meant to impart meaning to a person’s own

experience, knowledge, and skills.44 By doing so, people can construct and design their

own learning framework. Many teachers use reflective thinking to improve their own

instruction in class. However, teachers tend to neglect facilitating students’ own

reflective thinking. Learning is not just affected by what the learner has come to know.

True learning occurs when students internalize knowledge and skills within their own

learning frame. Memorizing, which is surface or passive learning, is not reflection.

42. Toyin Tofade, Jamie Elsner, and Stuart T. Haines, "Best Practice Strategies for Effective Use

of Questions as a Teaching Tool," American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 77, no. 7 (2013): ,

doi:10.5688/ajpe777155

43. Martin Webster and Ben Says, "Why Self-Reflection Is the Key to Effective Leadership,"

Leadership Thoughts, February 11, 2016, accessed September 21, 2017,

https://www.leadershipthoughts.com/why-self-reflection-is-the-key-to-effective-leadership/.

44. David Boud, Rosemary Keogh, and David Walker, Reflection: turning experience into

learning (London: Kogan, 1988).

https://www.leadershipthoughts.com/why-self-reflection-is-the-key-to-effective-leadership/



25

Reflection should transform how students understand the nature of knowing. According

to John Dewey, reflection provides the opportunity for students to be aware of and

“control their learning by assessing what they know, what they need to know, and how

they bridge the gap during learning situations.”45 Hence, “reflection enables students to

explore their experiences to lead to new understandings and appreciations.”46

Furthermore, Bransford, Brown, and Cocking stated that reflective thinkers “actively

monitor their learning strategies and resources and assess their readiness for particular

tasks and performances.”47

Reflection in the practice room

Learning continues not only in lessons with the teacher but also in the students’

practice room. In the practice room, students might experience and view themselves as

innovators, historians, actors, dreamers, editors, great musicians, inventors, or losers, as

well as hopeless, inferior, isolated, depressed, jealous, or passionate. The practice room is

a place where unlimited capacity is initially hidden, waiting to be revealed.

Practicing non-reflectivity might mean:

Trying to do what the teacher instructs (in terms of technique and interpretation)

Memorizing notes or simply building muscle memory

Practicing repetitive scales or techniques

45. John Dewey, How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative

process (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998). Quoted in Satjatam Porntaweekul and Sarintip Raksasataya,

"The Development of Reflective Thinking Instructional Model for Student Teachers," PsycEXTRA Datase:,

doi:10.1037/e667652012-051.

46. Boud, Keogh, and Walker, Reflection

47. Bransford, John D. ed., Ann L. Ed. Brown, and Rodney R. Ed. Cocking, How people learn:

brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington: National Academy of sciences, 2000.


26

Keeping the dynamics or pedal use as written without critical thinking

Copying styles from recordings

More reflective modes would be:

Recalling experiences, knowledge, and skills acquired from lessons with teachers

Using analytical techniques along with repetition to secure memory

Exploring levels of sounds according to dynamic indications

Discovering how to set expressive levels based on basic music components

Communicating with others and listening to their opinions about one’s music

making

Listening to others’ performances for comparison with one’s music

Applying techniques based on historical issues

Examining form and harmony and exploring how to apply theoretical information

as a tool to understand a composer’s intention in constructing a compositional

work

If teachers want students to truly learn during independent practice, they should

encourage students to reflect on their learning. Teachers can help students be aware of

their strengths and weaknesses as learners and musicians. Jack Mezirow, who developed

transformative learning theory, offered the reflective frame. He said that “reflection is the

process of critically assessing the content, process, or premise of our effort to interpret

and give meaning to an experience.”48 Mezirow categorized reflection into three types:

“Content reflection, which describes the content or description of a problem; Process

48. Patricia Cranton, Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide for

Educators of Adults, (MI: The University of Michigan, 1994), 48-51.


27

reflection, which checks on the problem-solving strategies that are being used; and

Premise reflection, which occurs when the student questions the problem itself, leading

the individual to a transformation of meaning perspectives”49 I believe that these three

types of reflections could provide a guideline for teachers and students in studying piano

music. Table 3 shows the application of three types of reflection to a musical idea from

my perspective.

Table 3: Three types of reflection in piano music

Reflection

Piano music

Technique Theory, history Performance

Content What is a problem on my

shoulder when I play double

notes in fast passage?

What makes Chopin’s

rubato different from

the general rubato

technique?

What makes me

nervous on the stage?

Process Do I feel good using my

forearm on long phrases

instead of just using fingers?

How can I make different

sounds on predominant

chords and dominant chords?

How I can memorize

this passage in a

meaningful way?

How can I adjust

using the pedal in

chamber music?

between the voice and

instrument music.

Premise Why Liszt’s La Campanella

was assigned to me, even

though my hands small.

Do I need to change

my technique

whenever I change

my teacher?

Did I communicate

with the audience?

Source: Adapted from Patricia Cranton, Understanding and Promoting Transformative Learning: A Guide

for Educators of Adults, (MI: The University of Michigan, 1994), 51.

In addition, below is a list of suggested questions from self-generated examples

which are appropriate with all three models. These examples encourage students to

reflect on their behaviors during their practice sessions.

After a lesson with the teacher

What did I learn?

What were the teacher’s comments?

49. Ibid.


28

Did I figure out the purpose of the teacher’s comment?

Did I enjoy the lesson? What did I like? What did I dislike?

How was my mood during the lesson with the teacher?

What problems did I encounter while I was playing this piece? How did I solve

them?

How did the teacher help me solve the problem?

While practicing

What resources did I use while working on this piece? Which ones were

especially helpful? Which ones would I use again?

Have I played a similar piano piece in the past?

In what ways have I gotten better at playing scales, successive octaves, double

notes, etc.?

In what ways do I think I need to improve?

How do I feel about this piece? What part of it do I particularly like? Dislike?

Why? What did I enjoy about this piece or work?

What was my goal for this piece?

Did I meet my goal?

Did my goals change as I worked on it?

How’s feeling right now?

What was satisfying to me? Sound? Relaxed body? Can I explain how I made it?

Can I make it again now and later?

What was frustrating to me?

Did I change any ideas I used to have on this subject (e.g., rote to note)?


29

Find another piece of work that I did in the past and compare or contrast with this

one. What changed?

How did these changes come out?

What does that tell me about myself and what did I learn?

If I were the teacher, what comments would I make about this piece?

What grades would I give it? Why?

What is the one thing I particularly want people to notice when they hear my

work?

While practicing (with others)

Did I talk about my way to play or practice with others?

Did I listen to others playing the same piece that I am working on?

In what ways was my process different from or similar to others?

What do my friends or families particularly notice about my music when they

listen to it?

What did they comment on regarding my music?

Do I like or dislike their comments?

How did I react to their comments?

What did I learn from my reaction?

How could I improve by listening to others?

After practicing

One thing I would like to improve upon is:

One goal I would like to set for myself for next time:

I would like to spend more time in the practice room because:


30

What do I want my teacher to know about in regarding my next lesson?

What questions should I ask my teacher in my next lesson?

What things do I want more help with?

Are there any other notes I would add?


31

CHAPTER 4

EMOTION

Just as cognition is important in learning, emotion plays a critical role in learning

as well. The purpose of this chapter shows how emotion can affect learning and how

teachers can use students’ emotions to promote positive self-efficacy and self-esteem in

order to encourage independent learners and creative musicians.

The role of emotion in the learner and their learning

Though many scholars have presented evidence of the relationship between

emotion and learning, I have selected two to discuss here. Renate Caine and Geoffrey

Caine noted in their work Making Connections: Teaching and the Human Brain that the

brain is not divided into individual segments designating “feelings,” “cognitive

development,” or “physical activity.” “Rather, active learners are totally immersed in

their world and learn from their entire experience.”50 In addition, David G Myers adds to

this by saying human emotion involves. “ . . [P]hysiological arousal, expressive behaviors,

and conscious experience.”51

Teachers can inspire a joy of learning

Emotion provides the spark for motivation, which is very important to students as

it represents the first step in their learning. Scholars usually divide the discussion about

50. Renate Nummela Caine and Geoffrey Caine, Making connections: teaching and the human

brain (Menlo Park, Calif: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co, 1999), 18-19.

51."David G. Meyers (Psychology 8th Edition)." Penaherreraallieappsychology, March 08, 2011.

accessed September 18, 2017. https://penaherreraallieappsychology.wordpress.com/2011/03/08/david-g-

meyers-psychology-8th-edition/.

https://penaherreraallieappsychology.wordpress.com/2011/03/08/david-g-meyers-psychology-8th-edition/



32

motivation into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Teachers should try to

make students more intrinsically motivated than extrinsically motivated. However, I

argue that the most important aspect of motivation is providing safe and secure

transitions from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation. Through extrinsic motivation, students

perform tasks combined with their teacher’s conscious feedback. If positive, students feel

pleasure and can become interested even more in the topic at hand. This can make the

process of learning enjoyable.

Empathy, congruence, and positive regard

Rogers strongly believes that when a learner feels understood by the teacher and

is supported in a warm environment, rather than judged, the learner can make dramatic

progress. According to Rogers, a successful teacher possesses three traits: empathy,

congruence (genuineness), and positive regard (unconditional acceptance, prizing).

Reinhard Taush, David Aspy, and Flora Roebuck in their study Kids Don’t Learn from

People They Don’t like concluded that these three traits are important affective responses

in establishing trust between teachers and students, allowing creation and promotion of a

supportive and warm learning environment.52 In addition, they suggested that if teachers

have high levels of empathy, they have the other positive traits as well that support safe

and enjoyable learning.

When students experience problems with things such as technique, stage

fright, interpretation, or interpersonal issues with school, family, or friends teachers can

pick up on this by being sensitive to the students’ emotions, facial expressions, or

behavior. Rogers, Lyon, and Tausch state that if teachers do not treat their students

52. David N. Aspy and Flora N. Roebuck, Kids don’t learn from people they don’t like (Amherst,

MA: Human Resource Development Press, 1983).


33

empathically, emotional injuries might result.53 Table 4 shows the comparison of

positive and negative feelings of students from teachers or professors with and without

empathy.

Table 4: Comparison of Psychological Impact on students from teachers’ empathy

Negative Psychological Impact on Students if

Teachers are insufficient empathy

Positive Psychological Impact on students if

teachers are empathic

1. I felt lonesome and hopeless.

2. I have not been given adequate

consideration in solving my problems.

3. I felt distant from my teachers, anonymous,

lost, helpless, and left alone; I’m in

difficulty with no help when important

questions, anxieties, and doubts come up.

4. I felt helpless and in trouble, because not

understanding makes me feel like it’s my

personal failure and I’m alone with my

problems.

5. Though I’m amid many, there is hardly

anyone to trust in school.

6. Though I spend much time at the school, I

don’t meet any real caregivers.

7. School does not appear familiar or

homelike.

8. Teachers don’t show empathy and they

look disinterested, as if they’re just doing a

job and nothing more.

9. I experienced discouraging and painful

feelings.

10. I felt frustrated and rejected by my

professors and am annoyed, discouraged,

and sad about being unjustly treated. I am

angry, even furious, and feel powerless.

These burdensome sensations cause

increased stress.

1. I am motivated and encouraged.

2. I am helped and encouraged to master my

studies.

3. I feel comfort and support.

4. My teacher communicated the confident

feeling that there will be a solution for

any kind of problem encountered.

5. Empathy from the teachers strengthened

my motivation to pass the exam and gave

me the feeling of being taken seriously

Source: adapted from Carl R. Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, Jr., and Reinhard Tausch, On becoming an effective

teacher: person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues w (London: Routledge, 2014),

134-144.

It is safe to say that most students wish teachers would show more empathy in

difficult situations. Students understand that empathy from their professors and teachers

53. Carl R. Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, Jr., and Reinhard Tausch, On becoming an effective teacher:

person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues w (London: Routledge, 2014), 134-144.


34

does not mean simply giving better grades, but instead it means valuing students as

human beings.54

How might piano students respond differently to empathic teachers and non-

empathic teachers?

In piano lessons, students might feel from non-empathic teachers that:

I cannot acquire this technique because my hands are small.

I am not a talented person so I cannot become a concert pianist.

I don’t want to keep learning the piano anymore.

I don’t know what to do in the practice room.

By contrast, according to my observation, the following are some self-generated

examples of students’ positive feelings when they receive empathy from their teachers.

Even though my technique has not improved much since last month, it is growing.

I will not give up until I achieve my goal.

Even though my sound does not project enough in a large hall, I can still make my

own beautiful music.

When I am frustrated communicating with a violinist, my teacher listened to my

problem and even though he didn’t provide the right solution, he told me about

his experience with other musicians and how he dealt with a similar difficult

situation. It made me feel my teacher is also a human being who has trouble with

others, just like me, and I respect his experience and value his sharing it with me.

54. Ibid.


35

As my teacher encourages me to trust myself, the time that I spent worrying about

my anxiety on stage started to decrease.

I believe that empathy from the teacher not only builds students’ motivation but

also strengthens their grit, promoting positive emotions. These positive emotions can lead

to many positive outcomes in various academic disciplines.55

Table 5 shows the result of research from NCHE (National Consortium for

Humanizing Education) and Reinhard Tausch, a renowned psychology professor emeritus

at the University of Hamburg in Germany:56

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid, 132.


36

Table 5: Findings regarding Person-Centered Education in the USA and Germany

Research question asked NCHE answer (USA) Tausch answer (Germany)

1. Do students benefit

when high levels of

Rogers’ facilitative

conditions (empathy,

congruence, positive

regard) are offered by

their teachers?

Yes. Benefits include

More

• Physical movement

• Problem solving

• Academic achievement

• Verbal initiation

• Involvement in learning

• Question-asking by

students

• Verbal response to teacher

Higher

• gains of creativity

• scores on IQ test

• self-concept scores

Less

• absenteeism

Fewer

• acts of vandalism

Yes. Benefits include

More

• Independent spontaneous

behavior

• Independent productive

thinking

• Decision making

• Initiative

• Interest in learning • candid expression of self

• motivation to work

• favorable emotional

response to schools

Higher

• intellectual processes • perception of having

learned

• favorable perceptions of

teacher

Better

• sports achievement

Fewer • feelings of anxiety

2. How many teachers

offer high levels of

these conditions

(empathy, congruence,

and positive regard)

naturally (without

special training)?

Very few • Very few teachers showed

empathy, congruence, and

positive regard without

training.

• Elementary teachers showed

empathy, congruence and

positive regard at slightly

higher rates than secondary teachers.

Very few • Very few teachers were rated

high on empathy,

congruence, and positive

regard without training.

• Elementary teachers showed

empathy, congruence and

positive regard at slightly

higher rates than secondary teachers.

3. Are these dimensions

related to other teacher

characteristics?

No Levels of facilitative condition

were not related to age, race,

sex, years of teaching

experience, or geographical

location.

No Levels of facilitative

conditions were not related to

years of teaching experience,

class size, or didactic teaching

skills.

4. Can teachers learn to

offer high levels of

these conditions?

Yes Through systematic training in

interpersonal skills.

Yes Through university courses

and encounter group

experiences.

Source: From Carl R. Rogers, Harold C. Lyon, Jr., and Reinhard Tausch, On becoming an effective teacher:

person-centered teaching, psychology, philosophy, and dialogues w (London: Routledge, 2014), table 13.2.


37

Table 5 shows that affective responses influence cognitive outcomes such as

achievement test scores, students’ attendance, and self-confidence. It means that person-

centered education can work effectively in our current education system.

Empathy of the Teacher

According to Rogers, Lyon, and Tausch, “empathy is the combination of

emotional ability that feels another’s problem or distress and cognitive ability that wants

to help another’s problem and relieve their distress.”57 As we can see in Question 4 from

Table 5, empathy and interpersonal skills can be learned. Robert R. Carkhuff and Charles

B. Truax’s Empathy Scales, which were devised in 1967 for use in “teaching empathy by

indicating specific behaviors and statements of teachers to students,” would be a good

model to guide teachers on how better to empathize with students.58 Table 6 is a five-

point empathy scale, which originally consisted of nine points but was later revised to

five points by Carkhuff.

57. Ibid.

58. Charles B. Truax, and Robert R. Carkhuff. Toward effective counseling and psychotherapy:

training and practice (New Brunswick: AldineTransaction, 2008).


38

Table 6: Empathy Scale

Level 1: Low level of empathic response

Teachers communicate with students little and are not aware of or do not understand students’

feelings. Responses of teachers are irrelevant or abrasive. Teachers change the subject.

Level 2: Moderately low level of empathic response

Even though teachers respond to the surface message of students, they neglect feelings or factual

aspects of the message. Teachers interpret feelings of students inaccurately; for example, they interpret

anger for hurt and tenseness for fear.

In level 2, the responses of teachers are only partially accurate, but they try to understand students.

Level 3: Interchangeable or reciprocal level of empathic response

Teachers understand students’ stories and surface feelings or states of being. This enables

teachers to show accurate reflection with verbal responses, such as paraphrasing, with the appropriate

feeling expression and nonverbal responses of students’ obvious expressions.

Level 4: Moderately high level of empathic response

Teachers can reflect not only an accurate feeling but also their students’ implicit underlying

feelings and/or aspects of the problem. Thus, Level 4 responses are aimed at enhancing self-awareness.

Level 5: High level of empathic response

Teachers reflect subtle emotional nuances accurately and even respond to the full range of both

surface and underlying feelings and meanings in greater breadth and depth. In addition, the responses of

teachers might identify long-range goals embodied in the student’s message that indicate a promising

direction for personal growth.

Source: From Dean H. Hepworth and Jo Ann. Larsen, Direct social work practice: theory and skills

(Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1986); Charles B. Truax, and Robert R. Carkhuff. Toward effective counseling and

psychotherapy: training and practice (New Brunswick: Aldine Transaction, 2008).

Each scale level represents the response of the teacher to the students’ message or

feelings. The goal might be to achieve a level above 3. To improve the teacher’s affective

response, she can videotape herself teaching a class or lesson as a self-assessment, reflect

on the interactions with students, or invite peer teachers or a more experienced teacher

into the class or piano lesson to observe the teaching process. Then all can discuss their

observations and reflections to gain a better understanding of best practices.

Is there any way to empathize with ease?

For teachers, stress hinders feelings of empathy. Both Reinhard and Anne Marie

Tausch found in their studies in schools that: “Teachers who feel insecure in front of their


39

class are full of tension. At the same time, the student is often expecting their own

achievement failures.”59 According to Tausch, stress promotes a high level of hyper-

excitability which results in exhaustion, feeling overwhelmed, and instability for both

teachers and students. When this happens, how can teachers stay relaxed in front of

students? In 2004, Reinhard and Tausch devised a tool for stress reduction of teachers.

They discuss three categories in approaching this issue: “Conductive (positive) thinking

through appraisals, imaginings, attitudes; target-based action for stress-free organizing of

external situations; and stress-reduction by physical and emotional relaxation”60

Modeling empathic behavior

Teachers’ modeling of empathic behavior is very important. I strongly urge

beginning teachers or teachers who teach students at an early stage of music education to

recognize that they will pass on to students not only theoretical knowledge or skills in

piano playing but also behavior in the lesson room or class. This means that a teacher’s

personality and behavior can be reflected in students in the future. For example, if a piano

teacher thoughtlessly makes a negative, angry, or sarcastic remark, this will remain the

one comment that some students recall months or even years later, underscoring the

importance of demonstrating positive ethical and social behaviors in front of students.61

Piano teachers, especially in private lessons, have a different position from school

teachers. Most students meet different school teachers each year. However, in the piano

studio, students can have relationships with piano teachers that last over 10 years. This

means that second to a child’s parents, a piano teacher can be the most important

59. Rogers, Lyon, and Tausch, On becoming an effective teacher

60. Ibid.

61. Rogers, Freedom to learn


40

authority figure influencing a student’s life. Our students come to our studio having a

dream to be concert pianists or piano teachers, to release their stress by playing the piano,

just because of a love to learn music. (Of course, some students are dragged to our studio

by their mothers). The purpose of learning piano for most students is different from that

of going to school. The purpose of learning music is to achieve life goals or to express

feelings or emotions through their own sound or to use music as a way for them to

interact with others. Students who bring their own purpose to piano lessons will listen to

their teachers very carefully. Students observe their teacher’s behavior in detail and

students are reminded of every single comment of their teachers in the practice room.

Teachers’ attitudes toward music and behavior toward students permeate their

students consciously and unconsciously. The influence of the teacher is bound to shape

the student’s worldview. We should keep in mind that a student’s thoughts and behaviors

may be a reflection of those of the teacher.

Sylvia Coats mentions in her book Thinking as You Play that even though

communication is very important, teacher evaluations show that it is very difficult for

teachers to change.62 On a personal note, I am still learning how to communicate with my

students using empathy. I am trying to practice what I preach. As I said before, person-

centered education originated from person-centered therapy. To help me integrate

empathy into my teaching, I searched for advice from the field of medicine along with

education. Empathy may not come naturally even for doctors who, after all, are human

just like the rest of us. Doctors must learn how to empathize and this is now taught in

medical school.

62. Sylvia Curry. Coats, Thinking as you play: teaching piano in individual and group lessons

(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006).


41

Below is what I found that is necessary for teachers to show empathy to students:

Use humor appropriate to the student’s age and culture. Make yourself the “butt

of a joke” to show that you are human. Humor builds a positive relationship with

students. 63

Don’t speak in a domineering voice. This is viewed as harsh and authoritarian

with no possibility of dissent, compromise, or meeting of the minds.64

Never ridicule or be sarcastic. (Sarcasm: Don’t say, “That sounds like you’ve

been practicing that 3 hours a day since our last lesson,” when, actually, the

performance sounds pretty bad. Ridicule: “Gee—after I’d been taking lessons for

as long you have, I could play that easily. Why can’t you?”)

No: “Be Strong! Think Positively!”65 (Telling someone this is almost meaningless.

A person suddenly can’t feel strong. Also, the person may feel that now they

should pretend to be strong and can’t share their true feelings with the teacher.)

No: “Things could be a lot worse!”66 Knowing that others have problems won’t

help the patient or student deal with their own problem.

No: “You’re angry! Calm down!”

Yes: “Let’s take a 5-minute break. We both need to be calm to be able to talk

about this.”

63. Karen Zauber, "Seven Ways to Talk to Your Students" NEA, accessed September 29, 2017,

http://www.nea.org/tools/52814.htm.

64. Zauber, "Seven Ways to Talk to Your Students”

65. "5 Things Doctors Should Never Say to a Grieving Patient," DoctorCPR: Medical Jobs

Practice Resources, August 01, 2015, , accessed September 29, 2017, http://www.doctorcpr.com/blog/5-

things-doctors-should-never-say-to-a-grieving-patient/.

66. Ibid.

http://www.nea.org/tools/52814.htm


http://www.doctorcpr.com/blog/5-things-doctors-should-never-say-to-a-grieving-patient/




42

No: “Do you understand?” (Patient or student is too intimidated to say, “No.”)

Yes: “I want to make sure I explained that clearly; would you mind explaining in

your own words what you understand so far?”

No: “Just learn to live with it!” (This may internalize stress.)

Yes: “Let’s work on this together.”

No: “There’s nothing else I can do for you!”

Yes: “This is a tough challenge, but I’ll always be there for you. I’ll always do my

best to help you deal with it. We’re in this together. You’re not alone.”

No: “I know exactly how you feel!” (Even if you have faced the exact same

problem, try not to say this because each of us is unique with different

experiences and different readiness to face a problem or find a solution.)67

Yes: “Trying to play that trill with an even sound may be as frustrating to you as

it is for me. Let’s work on this together. What are your ideas?”

As you can see, we piano teachers have much room for improvement, but like doctors,

we can improve.

67. "5 Things Doctors Should Never Say to a Grieving Patient," DoctorCPR: Medical Jobs

Practice Resources, August 01, 2015, , accessed September 29, 2017, http://www.doctorcpr.com/blog/5-

things-doctors-should-never-say-to-a-grieving-patient/.





43

CHAPTER 5

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

In learning activities, students should be the main agents. However, I assert that

teachers play an important role in creating the learning environment, which can be

defined as a teaching method:

Teaching method refers to the general principles, pedagogy, and management strategies

used for classroom instruction. The choice of teaching method depends on what fits

teachers based on their educational philosophy, classroom demographics, subject areas,

and school mission statement. Teaching theories primarily fall into two categories or

approaches that are teacher-centered and learner-centered.68

The ideas related to the teacher-centered approach and person-centered

approaches are not new. The purpose of this chapter is to inform teachers of two very

distinctive teaching methods or learning environments and provide information for how

teachers can prepare their methods according to students’ needs.

Teacher-centered learning environment

The traditional approach to teaching can be observed in the following statement:

“[…] the teacher determines the content to be taught, makes lesson plans, implements

these plans, and evaluates the students’ progress. This method puts the responsibility of

learning directly on the teachers.”69

In the piano lesson, teachers determine the pacing of learning and repertoire for

students. Students may want to exactly copy the teacher’s interpretation of a passage and

68. "Teaching Methods," Teach: Make a Difference, accessed September 21, 2017,

https://teach.com/what/teachers-teach/teaching-methods/.

69. Cindy Croft, "Special Education Terminology Glossary," Inclusion and Special Education

Terminology Glossary, accessed September 21, 2017,

http://www.inclusivechildcare.org/inclusion_glossary.cfm.

https://teach.com/what/teachers-teach/teaching-methods/


http://www.inclusivechildcare.org/inclusion_glossary.cfm



44

sound. If student forgets what the teacher said, the student is unable to apply the

knowledge, suggestions, and advice later in their practice room.

Disadvantages of the teacher-centered learning environment

In this type of learning environment in which the teachers control almost all

related variables, students are passive and do not question what they are taught. For

example, in the 1970s, there were car bumper stickers that read “Question Authority.”

This was a reaction, in part, to the teacher-centered approach. Students rebelled against

authority figures, including teachers. They felt suffocated by the lack of freedom to

explore and integrate information on their own.70

The following list includes statements related to how students may be

disadvantaged in a teacher-centered learning environment:

Learning is uninteresting and even boring because the students don’t choose the

topic.

Students are dependent.

Creativity is neither expected nor encouraged.

Students are deferential and must obey the teacher.

Students focus on the result—getting a good grade—rather than the process of

learning.

Knowledge from memorization doesn’t last long.

70. Rodney Wyatt Lancaster, “A comparison of student-centered and teacher-centered learning

approaches in one alternative learning classroom environment.” (PhD diss., University Arkansas State

University, 2017)


45

Advantages of the teacher-centered learning environment

The following includes statements related to how students may be advantaged in a

teacher-centered learning environment:

Efficient transmission of new information and materials can be accomplished

simultaneously in any group size. For example, teacher-centered instruction is

ideal for large, introductory courses like music theory and music history.

Teachers organize curriculum so that it enables student to achieve the desired

goals easily.71

Class content and repertoire are chosen by teacher so that irrelevant material or

highly demanding techniques are avoided during class or lesson.72

With experience, teachers become comfortable and confident in classroom

activities.

Person-centered learning environment

For students to become their own teacher, it is necessary for them to develop their

personal voice.73 As mentioned in Chapter 2, person-centered education promotes

cognitive and affective learning, taking advantage of students’ capacities for empathy,

love, awareness, and their communication skills with others. The list below explains five

aspects of person-centered learning environment: hands-on learning, facilitator,

collaborative learning, enhanced self-esteem, and real-life problems.

71. Umar Farooq, "Advantages and Disadvantages of Teacher centered Curriculum Approach,"

Advantages and Disadvantages of Teacher centered Curriculum Approach | SLN, November 11, 2013, ,

accessed September 28, 2017, http://www.studylecturenotes.com/curriculum-instructions/advantages-and-

disadvantages-of-teacher-centered-curriculum-approach.

72. Ibid.

73. Weimer, Learner-centered teaching.

http://www.studylecturenotes.com/curriculum-instructions/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-teacher-centered-curriculum-approach




46

Hands-on learning. Person-centered learning environment focuses on

investigation and experience of the student. Students must acquire developmental tasks to

be ready to learn.74 For example, to learn staccato away from the piano, students first

watch a ball bounce and then imitate this with their finger on their hand or the desk. Then,

students apply this feeling and technique on the keyboard. Finally, students compare their

legato playing to staccato playing.

Facilitator. Teachers in person-centered learning environment empower students

to have ownership of their own learning. Teachers as catalysts should be supportive and

encourage students to take risks and confront failure by taking chances to gain experience

in nonjudgmental atmosphere. An example would be encouraging students to play the

same passage with two different articulations or dynamics so that they may choose which

best fits the piece.

Collaborative learning. Another important aspect to the person-centered learning

environment is collaborative learning.75 Collaborative learning means teachers also

participate in the student’s learning. In the private lesson, there is a one-on-one

collaboration between teachers and students. In addition, in the group piano class, there

are two types of collaboration: (a) between the students, and (b) between the teacher and

the students.

Enhanced self-esteem. In a person-centered learning environment, building self-

esteem is a desirable goal. In the piano lesson, by giving autonomy to students in

choosing their repertoire or developing their own interpretation, students assume even

more responsibility when it comes to their learning. And when students achieve their goal

74. Ibid.

75. Ibid.


47

based on their own choices as well as through teachers’ feedback and warm support,

students’ confidence will grow in the learning process and in their performances.

Learning is oriented to real-life problems. Students apply their previous

knowledge and experience from class or the piano lesson into their own life to help

achieve mindfulness and a calm, focused mental state. 76

In person-centered piano lessons, students have freedom to select their own

favorite music, with the guidance of their teacher who may select a limited number of

pieces that fit their playing ability at the moment. It gives purpose to students which

enable them to be intrinsically motivated.77 Students have more curiosity to learn and

understand their repertoire. Students willing to change their previous way of thinking

may enjoy the learning process even more.

Disadvantages of the person-centered learning environment

The following includes statements related to how students may be disadvantaged

in a person-centered learning environment:

Misconceptions may result during students’ independent work, such as

misunderstanding the music and making repeated errors that could lead to

injuries.

Some students may prefer the traditional teacher-centered approach.

76. Ibid.

77. Thorne Palmer, "Student-Centered Music Instruction – Part 2," Thinking in Music, December

12, 2012, accessed September 28, 2017, https://thornepalmer.wordpress.com/2012/12/13/student-centered-

music-instruction-part-2/.

https://thornepalmer.wordpress.com/2012/12/13/student-centered-music-instruction-part-2/




48

Some students may lack teamwork skills and may complain about being on teams.

The teacher may appear to be doing very little.

Lessons lack structure for learning.

Advantages of the person-centered learning environment

The following includes statements related to how students may be advantaged in a

person-centered learning environment:

Students are more engaged in active learning.

The teacher can apply any strategy that engages students and involves learning.

Teacher shares the responsibility with the student for successful learning.

Students learn how to learn through their pace of learning, goals, and ownership

of their learning.

It helps students build self-esteem and social skills.

I believe that teachers should discover the proper balance between the teacher-

centered approach and the person-centered approach. Personally, I have long felt

comfortable with the teacher-centered approach but have come to recognize the person-

centered approach as more effective. However, for the beginning student, I believe the

proper balance between the teacher-centered and person-centered approach should be

50:50. Later, as the student progresses, the person-centered approach should be

emphasized more with the ratio changing first to 60:40, then to 70:30, then to 80:20, and

ultimately to 100% person-centered. I freely acknowledge that, for the teacher, the

person-centered approach is more difficult than the teacher-centered approach. Engaging

in a person-centered approach requires the teacher to understand and be aware of many


49

things, including students’ learning styles, personality differences, and physical and

cognitive development, as well as how to respond appropriately according to students’

emotions and needs. Although more effort is often associated with person-centered

approach in the learning environment, it is worth the work because it can lead to more

fruitful outcomes for the student and teacher, in my opinion.


50

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

Clearly, it is easy to see how the person-centered approach benefits both the

teacher and the student. Rogers’ educational goals for the fully functioning student can be

summarized as follow:78

Being at ease experiencing from without and within

Living with positive expectations

Developing creativity

Developing self-esteem, confidence, and trust in self

In this study, I examine learners, learning, and student interactions with both the

learning environment and teachers. In person-centered education, the student— not the

teacher or the music—is the focus of the learning process. Having said this, the teacher as

a facilitator empowers students to become confident, lifelong self-learners.

On a personal note, I have come to realize that my goals for piano lessons have

evolved. We all know that each of us will be lucky to turn out even one or two concert

pianists in 30–40 years of teaching. I have made a broader goal for myself, giving my

students the confidence to make independent, stylistic interpretations. Even more, I see

the potential for the person-centered approach to allow a person to flourish outside the

world of music. In summary, it is my hope that this study will benefit teachers, not only

as an introduction to the person-centered approach, but as a resource for those who want

to grow by seeking new approaches and refining their teaching philosophies, thereby

78. Roger, Freedom to Learn


51

helping their piano students to become independent, confident people both inside and

outside music.


52

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