Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-1. Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 7:...

Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts

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Learning ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, you should be able to:Describe the three key elements of motivation.Evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation.Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and

extrinsic rewards.Identify the implications of employee job engagement for

management.Describe goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement

theory.Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity

theory.Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.Compare contemporary theories of motivation.

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Describe the Three Key Elements of Motivation

Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

The level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times.

LO 1

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The three key elements of motivation are: 1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries.2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the

organization. 3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can

maintain his/her effort.

LO 1 Describe the Three Key Elements of Motivation

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Evaluate the Applicability of Early Theories of Motivation

LO 2

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Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. Research does not generally validate the theory.

Some researchers have attempted to revive components of the need hierarchy concept, using principles from evolutionary psychology.

LO 2 Evaluate the Applicability of Early Theories of Motivation

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Theory X and Theory Y Theory X assumptions are basically negative.

Employees inherently dislike work and must be coerced into performing.

Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. Employees can view work as being as natural as

rest or play.


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The implications for managers can be explained by using Maslow’s framework Theory X: lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y: higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself believed that Theory Y

assumptions were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to suggest that either set of

assumptions is valid.


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Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory: Limited because it relies on self-reports. Reliability of methodology is questioned. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. Herzberg assumed a relationship between

satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction, not at productivity.


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McClelland’s Theory of Needs The theory focuses on three needs:

1. Need for achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

2. Need for power (nPow): need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

3. Need for affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.


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McClelland’s theory has had the best support. It has less practical effect than the others. Because McClelland argued that the three needs

are subconscious—we may rank high on them but not know it—measuring them is not easy.

The process is time consuming and expensive, and few organizations have been willing to invest in measuring McClelland’s concept.


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Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards

Self-Determination Theory Proposes that people prefer to feel they have

control over their actions. Research on self-determination theory has focused

on cognitive evaluation theory.People paid for work feel less like they want to do

it and more like they have to it. Proposes that in addition to being driven by a need

for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve competence and positive connections to others.

LO 3

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When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for performance, employees feel they are doing a good job. Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an

individual’s perception of why he or she works on a task from an external to an internal explanation.

Self-determination theory acknowledges that extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic motivation under specific circumstances.

LO 3 Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards

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What does self-determination theory suggest for providing rewards? A senior sales representative may be motivated by

a commission. A computer programmer who values writing code

because she likes to solve problems might react negatively to an external standard like having to write a certain number of lines of code every day.

Self-concordance: considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.


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What does all of this mean? For individuals:

Choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic rewards.

For organizations:Provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives.


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Identify the Implications of Employee Job Engagement for Management

Job engagement is the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. Many studies attempt to measure this deeper level of

commitment. Gallup organization: more engaged employees in

successful organizations than in average organizations. Academic studies: job engagement is positively

associated with performance and citizenship behaviors.

LO 4

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What makes people more engaged in their job? The degree to which an employee believes it is

meaningful to engage in work. A match between the individual’s values and the

organization’s. Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a

greater sense of mission.

LO 4

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Are highly engaged employees getting “too much of a good thing?” Construct is partially redundant with job attitudes. It may have a “dark side.”

Positive relationships between engagement and work-family conflict.

LO 4

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Describe Goal-Setting Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement

TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort is needed.

Evidence suggests: Specific goals increase performance. Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher

performance than do easy goals. Feedback leads to higher performance than does

non-feedback.

LO 5

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Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship: 1. Goal commitment2. Task characteristics3. National culture

LO 5 Describe Goal-Setting Theory, Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement

Theory

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People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts and behaviors. Those with a promotion focus strive for

advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.

Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.

It’s probably best to be both promotion and prevention oriented.


Theory

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Theory

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Self-efficacy theory is an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. Enactive mastery Vicarious modeling Verbal persuasion Arousal

Also known as social cognitive theory and social learning theory.


Theory

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Theory

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Implications of self-efficacy theory: Training programs often make use of enactive

mastery by having people practice and build their skills.

Intelligence and personality are absent from Bandura’s list, but they can increase self-efficacy.


Theory

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Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its consequences. Takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement

conditions behavior. Behavior is environmentally caused.

Goal-setting is a cognitive approach: an individual’s purposes direct his or her action.

Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don’t want. B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism


Theory

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In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive variables known to affect behavior.

Some researchers look at the same experiments reinforcement theorists use to support their position and interpret the findings in a cognitive framework.

Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared to argue it is the only one.


Theory

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Social-learning theory: we can learn through both observation and direct experience. Models are central, and four processes determine

their influence on an individual:1. Attentional processes2. Retention processes3. Motor reproduction processes4. Reinforcement processes


Theory

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Demonstrate How Organizational Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory

LO 6

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Demonstrate How Organizational Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory

When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:1. Change their inputs. 2. Change their outcomes. 3. Distort perceptions of self. 4. Distort perceptions of others. 5. Choose a different referent. 6. Leave the field.

LO 6

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LO 6 Demonstrate How Organizational Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory

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Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy Theory to Motivating Employees

Expectancy theory argues that a tendency to act in a certain way depends on an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

An employee will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when he or she believes that: Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal. A good appraisal will lead to rewards. The rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals.

LO 7

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LO 7 Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy Theory to Motivating Employees

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Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of workers aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only the minimum necessary to get by.

Three questions employees need to answer in the affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized:1. If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in

my performance appraisal?2. If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead

to organizational rewards?3. If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to

me?


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Does expectancy theory work? It tends to be more valid in situations where

effort-performance and performance-reward linkages are clearly perceived by the individual.

If individuals were actually rewarded for performance rather than seniority, effort, skill level, and job difficulty, it might be much more valid.


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Compare Contemporary Theories of Motivation

LO 8

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Implications for Managers

Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are not viewed as coercive, but instead provide information about competence and relatedness.

Consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult goals often lead to higher levels of employee productivity.

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Implications for Managers

Consider reinforcement theory regarding quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.

Consult equity theory to help understand productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover variables.

Expectancy theory also offers a powerful explanation of performance variables such as employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.

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