Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 12 Small...

Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 12Chapter 12

Small Animal NutritionSmall Animal Nutrition

Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

List the energy-producing and non-energy-List the energy-producing and non-energy-producing components of foodproducing components of food

List the classes of carbohydrates and List the classes of carbohydrates and describe the catabolism of carbohydratesdescribe the catabolism of carbohydrates

Differentiate between lipids and fats and Differentiate between lipids and fats and describe the general structure of triglyceridesdescribe the general structure of triglycerides

Describe the structure and functions of Describe the structure and functions of proteinsproteins



Differentiate between essential and Differentiate between essential and nonessential amino acidsnonessential amino acids

Explain the importance of water in metabolic Explain the importance of water in metabolic reactionsreactions

Differentiate between microminerals and Differentiate between microminerals and macrominerals and give examples of eachmacrominerals and give examples of each

List the fat- and water-soluble vitamins and List the fat- and water-soluble vitamins and explain the importance of vitamins in explain the importance of vitamins in metabolismmetabolism



Define the following terms: nutrient, Define the following terms: nutrient, ingredient, formula, nutrient profile, calorie, ingredient, formula, nutrient profile, calorie, and kilocalorieand kilocalorie

Differentiate between dry, semimoist, and Differentiate between dry, semimoist, and moist food and describe the characteristics of moist food and describe the characteristics of eacheach

Describe considerations in evaluating home-Describe considerations in evaluating home-prepared dietsprepared diets



List the legal requirements of pet food labels and List the legal requirements of pet food labels and considerations in evaluating pet food label considerations in evaluating pet food label informationinformation

Describe the components of a nutritional Describe the components of a nutritional assessment for dogs and catsassessment for dogs and cats

List special considerations in feeding adult, List special considerations in feeding adult, pediatric, geriatric, pregnant, lactating, injured, and pediatric, geriatric, pregnant, lactating, injured, and ill dogs and catsill dogs and cats

List and describe routes and procedures for List and describe routes and procedures for providing nutritional support to hospitalized providing nutritional support to hospitalized patientspatients


NutrientsNutrients


Nutrient Terms Nutrient Terms

NutrientNutrient Energy and metabolic substrate classified as Energy and metabolic substrate classified as

essential or nonessentialessential or nonessential IngredientIngredient

Raw material used in food compoundingRaw material used in food compounding FormulaFormula

Ingredient portions for a particular diet typeIngredient portions for a particular diet type Nutrient profileNutrient profile

Quantitative distribution of individual nutrients Quantitative distribution of individual nutrients within finished formulawithin finished formula


Nutrient TermsNutrient Terms

Nutritional valueNutritional value Cannot be identified solely on an ingredient statementCannot be identified solely on an ingredient statement

Analysis of a particular foodAnalysis of a particular food Can only give an indication of nutrient content and Can only give an indication of nutrient content and

availability of a particular nutrientavailability of a particular nutrient Nutritional valueNutritional value

Based on the Based on the absorptiveabsorptive capability of a nutrient capability of a nutrient Based on availabilityBased on availability

Digestibility of a foodDigestibility of a food A measure of biological availabilityA measure of biological availability


Balanced Diet Balanced Diet

Supplies all key nutrientsSupplies all key nutrients Supplies energy needed to meet daily Supplies energy needed to meet daily

requirements of the animal at its particular requirements of the animal at its particular stage of lifestage of life


Food DigestibilityFood Digestibility

DigestibilityDigestibility Determined by a mathematical equationDetermined by a mathematical equation Compares amount of a nutrient in the food and Compares amount of a nutrient in the food and

amount of the same nutrient in the fecesamount of the same nutrient in the feces


Above-Average DigestibilityAbove-Average Digestibility

Foods higher in fiber will be lower in Foods higher in fiber will be lower in digestibilitydigestibility

ProteinProtein greater or equal to 85% greater or equal to 85% FatFat greater or equal to 90% greater or equal to 90% CarbohydrateCarbohydrate greater or equal to 90% greater or equal to 90% EnergyEnergy greater or equal to 85% greater or equal to 85%


PalatabilityPalatability

Involves sensory factors such as:Involves sensory factors such as: TasteTaste SmellSmell ColorColor


Palatability Factors of FoodPalatability Factors of Food


Additives Additives

Non-energy substancesNon-energy substances Non-nutrient substances Non-nutrient substances Purposely added to foods to enhance:Purposely added to foods to enhance:

ColorColor FlavorFlavor TextureTexture StabilityStability


Protection Against MicrobesProtection Against Microbes

Physical and chemical meansPhysical and chemical means Dehydration (dry food)Dehydration (dry food) Heat (moist and dry food)Heat (moist and dry food)

Chemical treatmentsChemical treatments Preservatives (semi-moist and some dry food)Preservatives (semi-moist and some dry food)


HumectantsHumectants

Preservative additivesPreservative additives Bind to waterBind to water Inhibit mold and fungal growthInhibit mold and fungal growth


AntioxidantsAntioxidants

Chemical agentsChemical agents Protect fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins Protect fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

from becoming rancidfrom becoming rancid By inhibiting oxidationBy inhibiting oxidation

Vitamins C and EVitamins C and E


Energy-Producing NutrientsEnergy-Producing Nutrients

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Broken down into simple sugarsBroken down into simple sugars

FatsFats Broken down into triglyceridesBroken down into triglycerides

ProteinsProteins Broken down into amino acidsBroken down into amino acids


Energy Gained From FoodEnergy Gained From Food

Used to maintain and repair cell structuresUsed to maintain and repair cell structures Higher degree of cellular activity = higher Higher degree of cellular activity = higher

energy (nutritional) demandsenergy (nutritional) demands GrowthGrowth ReproductionReproduction ExercisingExercising Healing from injuryHealing from injury Combating a diseaseCombating a disease


Cellular Activity Requires Cellular Activity Requires EnergyEnergy

Oxygen synthesisOxygen synthesis Oxygen transportOxygen transport Heat productionHeat production Muscle contractionMuscle contraction New tissue synthesisNew tissue synthesis


CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Provide body with energyProvide body with energy Excess stored as glycogen or converted to fatExcess stored as glycogen or converted to fat Include:Include:

SugarsSugars StarchesStarches FibersFibers


SugarsSugars

Monosaccharides (simple sugars)Monosaccharides (simple sugars)

Disaccharides (complicated sugars)Disaccharides (complicated sugars)

Multiple sugarsMultiple sugars

Broken down to provide energy stored in form Broken down to provide energy stored in form of ATPof ATP


StarchesStarches Formed after complex digestion processFormed after complex digestion process

Involves complex microbes and enzymesInvolves complex microbes and enzymes Salivary glands cannot always initiate digestionSalivary glands cannot always initiate digestion Food mixed with hydrochloric acids and enzymes Food mixed with hydrochloric acids and enzymes

in stomach in stomach Primarily digestion and absorption in small Primarily digestion and absorption in small

intestineintestine Example is glycogen Example is glycogen

Animal-specific starchAnimal-specific starch Provides rapid supply of glucoseProvides rapid supply of glucose Stored in liver and skeletal muscle tissue Stored in liver and skeletal muscle tissue


Insoluble FibersInsoluble Fibers

Referred to as complex carbohydratesReferred to as complex carbohydrates ExamplesExamples

Cellulose, ligninCellulose, lignin SourcesSources

Corn, wheat, rice, barley, oats, potatoesCorn, wheat, rice, barley, oats, potatoes


FiberFiber

Major energy source for grazing animalsMajor energy source for grazing animals Digested by bacteria and protozoan microbes in Digested by bacteria and protozoan microbes in

large intestine of rumen, cecum, and large large intestine of rumen, cecum, and large intestineintestine

Results of fiber digestionResults of fiber digestion Short-chain fatty acidsShort-chain fatty acids Acids then transformed into glucoseAcids then transformed into glucose

Role of fiber in dietRole of fiber in diet Depends of physiology of animal’s digestive tractDepends of physiology of animal’s digestive tract


Role of Fiber in Companion Role of Fiber in Companion AnimalsAnimals

Increases bulk and water content of intestineIncreases bulk and water content of intestine Reduces caloric density for weight-control Reduces caloric density for weight-control

food while maintaining satietyfood while maintaining satiety Stabilizes blood sugar levels by extending Stabilizes blood sugar levels by extending

time the nutrients are absorbed (time the nutrients are absorbed (diabetes diabetes mellitusmellitus))

Assists in regulating bowel functionAssists in regulating bowel function


Breakdown Products from Breakdown Products from FiberFiber

Maintain normal colonic functionMaintain normal colonic function Decrease pathogenic intestinal bacteriaDecrease pathogenic intestinal bacteria Help in preventing intestinal cancerHelp in preventing intestinal cancer


FatsFats

Serve as primary sources of energyServe as primary sources of energy Supply essential fatty acidsSupply essential fatty acids Facilitate digestionFacilitate digestion Act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, Act as carriers for fat-soluble vitamins (A, D,

E, K)E, K) Provide palatability and texture to foodProvide palatability and texture to food


What Is a Lipid?What Is a Lipid?

FatFat——if solid at room temperatureif solid at room temperature OilOil——if liquid at room temperatureif liquid at room temperature Dietary fatDietary fat

Composed of units called triglyceridesComposed of units called triglycerides• One to three fatty acidsOne to three fatty acids

• Held together by one molecule of glycerolHeld together by one molecule of glycerol

Highly digestibleHighly digestible Twice the caloric density of similar quantity of Twice the caloric density of similar quantity of

protein or carbohydrateprotein or carbohydrate


What Is a Fatty Acid?What Is a Fatty Acid?

SaturatedSaturated No double bonds in primary hydrocarbon chain No double bonds in primary hydrocarbon chain

MonounsaturatedMonounsaturated Fatty acid with one double bondFatty acid with one double bond

PolyunsaturatedPolyunsaturated Fatty acid with more than one double bondFatty acid with more than one double bond


Essential Fatty AcidsEssential Fatty Acids

Polyunsaturated and long-chainPolyunsaturated and long-chain Necessary for body functionNecessary for body function Cannot be synthesized by mammalsCannot be synthesized by mammals Must be obtained from foodMust be obtained from food Known essential fatty acidsKnown essential fatty acids

Linoleic, Linoleic, αα-linoleic, and arachidonic-linoleic, and arachidonic (cats) (cats) Linoleic, Linoleic, αα-linoleic (dogs)-linoleic (dogs)


Functions of Essential Fatty Functions of Essential Fatty AcidsAcids

Integral part of kidney and reproductive Integral part of kidney and reproductive functionfunction

Key component to cell membrane formationKey component to cell membrane formation Key component of prostaglandin productionKey component of prostaglandin production


Deficiencies of Essential Fatty Deficiencies of Essential Fatty AcidsAcids

AlopeciaAlopecia Dull hair coatDull hair coat AnemiaAnemia Hepatic lipidosisHepatic lipidosis Essential fatty acid deficiency in the critical Essential fatty acid deficiency in the critical

patientpatient Increases susceptibility to infectionIncreases susceptibility to infection Weakens cutaneous capillariesWeakens cutaneous capillaries Promotes poor wound healingPromotes poor wound healing


Amino AcidsAmino Acids

Defined as any organic compound containing Defined as any organic compound containing amino and carboxyl groupamino and carboxyl group

Occur naturally in plant and animal tissueOccur naturally in plant and animal tissue Chief constituents of proteinChief constituents of protein


Protein StructureProtein Structure

Long chains of amino acids held together by Long chains of amino acids held together by peptide bondspeptide bonds

Roughly 22 known amino acid groupsRoughly 22 known amino acid groups Arranged in countless number of ways, each Arranged in countless number of ways, each

having unique properties and characteristicshaving unique properties and characteristics Considered building blocks for plant and Considered building blocks for plant and

animal proteinanimal protein


ProteinsProteins

Principal structural component of all body Principal structural component of all body organs and tissuesorgans and tissues

Serve as enzymes, hormones, and antibodiesServe as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies Essential to all living cellsEssential to all living cells FunctionsFunctions

Regulation of metabolismRegulation of metabolism Construction of cell membranesConstruction of cell membranes Formation of muscle fiberFormation of muscle fiber Growth and repair of tissueGrowth and repair of tissue


Amino AcidsAmino Acids

NonessentialNonessential Can be synthesized from other sourcesCan be synthesized from other sources

EssentialEssential Cannot be synthesized in the body in adequate Cannot be synthesized in the body in adequate

quantitiesquantities Must be supplemented in dietMust be supplemented in diet


Essential Amino AcidsEssential Amino Acids


TaurineTaurine Essential amino acid in catsEssential amino acid in cats Deficiency resultsDeficiency results

Retinal degenerationRetinal degeneration Reproduction insufficiencyReproduction insufficiency Impaired immune systemImpaired immune system Dilated cardiomyopathyDilated cardiomyopathy

Deficiency signsDeficiency signs Occur after prolonged periods of depletionOccur after prolonged periods of depletion Owners typically report visual changes or poor Owners typically report visual changes or poor

depth perception (“miscalculating” jumps)depth perception (“miscalculating” jumps)


Biological Value of ProteinBiological Value of Protein

All proteins are not of equal worthAll proteins are not of equal worth Proportion utilized for growth and Proportion utilized for growth and

maintenance of normal body systems is maintenance of normal body systems is measure of its biological valuemeasure of its biological value

Animal proteins vs. plant-based proteinsAnimal proteins vs. plant-based proteins


Dietary ProteinDietary Protein

Protein is added to most commercial pet Protein is added to most commercial pet foodsfoods

Correct balance of amino acid composition Correct balance of amino acid composition necessary to classify protein high in biological necessary to classify protein high in biological valuevalue

Greater the protein quality, the less is neededGreater the protein quality, the less is needed Digestibility is an important factorDigestibility is an important factor


Commercial Pet FoodCommercial Pet Food

Often a mix of animal and plant substancesOften a mix of animal and plant substances Provides multiple protein sourcesProvides multiple protein sources Improves overall quality of food by providing wide Improves overall quality of food by providing wide

amino acid profileamino acid profile High-quality protein needed for periods ofHigh-quality protein needed for periods of

GrowthGrowth Physical exertionPhysical exertion Pregnancy and lactationPregnancy and lactation Repair of damaged tissuesRepair of damaged tissues


Protein DeficiencyProtein Deficiency

Amino acids not stored in bodyAmino acids not stored in body What happens if amino acids aren’t What happens if amino acids aren’t

consumed?consumed? Breakdown of protein in visceraBreakdown of protein in viscera Breakdown of protein in skeletal muscleBreakdown of protein in skeletal muscle

GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis


GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis

Initiated by liver and kidneys using glycerol, Initiated by liver and kidneys using glycerol, lactate, and glucogenic amino acidslactate, and glucogenic amino acids

Prolonged starvation in normal animalsProlonged starvation in normal animals Signs of protein deficiencySigns of protein deficiency


CatsCats

Specifically adapted to high-protein, low-Specifically adapted to high-protein, low-carbohydrate dietscarbohydrate diets

Rely on gluconeogenic amino acids as a Rely on gluconeogenic amino acids as a major source of energymajor source of energy

Continuous protein catabolismContinuous protein catabolism


CatabolismCatabolism

Chronic anorexia, or starvationChronic anorexia, or starvation Can be reversedCan be reversed ““Refeeding syndrome”Refeeding syndrome”

Metabolic complications if food is consumed or Metabolic complications if food is consumed or administered too rapidlyadministered too rapidly

Clinical signsClinical signs• Cardiac arrhythmiasCardiac arrhythmias

• Muscle weaknessMuscle weakness

• Hemolytic anemiaHemolytic anemia

• Respiratory failureRespiratory failure


Excess Dietary ProteinsExcess Dietary Proteins

Converted to fat and stored as adipose tissueConverted to fat and stored as adipose tissue

Although cats must consume twice the Although cats must consume twice the protein as dogs, feeding a food with proper protein as dogs, feeding a food with proper levels of protein is essentiallevels of protein is essential

Metabolism of excess amino acids increases Metabolism of excess amino acids increases liver and kidney workloadliver and kidney workload


Protein RequirementsProtein Requirements

Consumed every day to replace amino acids Consumed every day to replace amino acids lost to catabolismlost to catabolism

Quality of protein is limiting factorQuality of protein is limiting factor Amino acids for protein synthesisAmino acids for protein synthesis


The Nutrient WaterThe Nutrient Water

Does not produce energy Does not produce energy Most important nutrientMost important nutrient Functions:Functions:

Essential for almost every chemical reactionEssential for almost every chemical reaction Transports solutes and gasesTransports solutes and gases Regulates temperatureRegulates temperature Lubricates joints and eyesLubricates joints and eyes Balances electrolytesBalances electrolytes


MineralsMinerals

Inorganic chemicalsInorganic chemicals

Important part of a balanced dietImportant part of a balanced diet

More than 18 mineral elements are essential More than 18 mineral elements are essential for mammalsfor mammals

MacromineralsMacrominerals

MicromineralsMicrominerals


MacromineralsMacrominerals

Concentrations are of fundamental Concentrations are of fundamental importanceimportance

Include calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, Include calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfursodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur

Minerals circulate as electrolytesMinerals circulate as electrolytes

Electrolyte functionsElectrolyte functions


Measurement of MineralsMeasurement of Minerals

Considerations for evaluating feedsConsiderations for evaluating feeds Animal vs. plant-derived food substancesAnimal vs. plant-derived food substances Amount of mineral contentAmount of mineral content Amount of mineral utilized by animalAmount of mineral utilized by animal

MacromineralsMacrominerals Measured in diet as a percentage (%)Measured in diet as a percentage (%)

MicromineralsMicrominerals Expressed in parts per millionExpressed in parts per million


Mineral DeficienciesMineral Deficiencies

CalciumCalcium Results in nutritional secondary Results in nutritional secondary

hyperparathyroidismhyperparathyroidism Deficiency frequently develops when inappropriate Deficiency frequently develops when inappropriate

homemade foods are prepared for dogs, cats, and homemade foods are prepared for dogs, cats, and reptilesreptiles

PhosphorusPhosphorus Impairs growthImpairs growth Impairs normal physiological processesImpairs normal physiological processes


MicromineralsMicrominerals

Nutrients that are required in relatively small Nutrients that are required in relatively small amountsamounts

Essential for normal health in companion Essential for normal health in companion animalsanimals

ExamplesExamples Iron, manganese, copper, iodine, and seleniumIron, manganese, copper, iodine, and selenium


IronIron

MicromineralMicromineral Central component of hemoglobinCentral component of hemoglobin Central component of myoglobin moleculesCentral component of myoglobin molecules Carries oxygen in blood and muscleCarries oxygen in blood and muscle Important in enzymatic processes of cellular Important in enzymatic processes of cellular

respirationrespiration Body has limited capacity to excrete ironBody has limited capacity to excrete iron Homeostasis is obtained by iron absorptionHomeostasis is obtained by iron absorption


IronIron

Stored predominantly in the liver, bone Stored predominantly in the liver, bone marrow, and spleenmarrow, and spleen

Most commercial pet foods have high Most commercial pet foods have high concentrations of iron because of meat concentrations of iron because of meat contentcontent

Deficiency seen in chronic blood lossDeficiency seen in chronic blood loss

Nursing pediatric patients susceptible to Nursing pediatric patients susceptible to anemiaanemia


Other Micromineral Other Micromineral ConstituentsConstituents

Chromium, fluoride, nickel, molybdenum, Chromium, fluoride, nickel, molybdenum, silicon, vanadium, arsenicsilicon, vanadium, arsenic

Amounts required in the diet are lowAmounts required in the diet are low

Deficiencies rarely seen in animals fed a Deficiencies rarely seen in animals fed a balanced dietbalanced diet

Dietary excesses can be toxicDietary excesses can be toxic


Microminerals and Microminerals and MacromineralsMacrominerals

Can interact with one anotherCan interact with one another Antagonistic interactionsAntagonistic interactions

One mineral reducing transport or efficacy of the One mineral reducing transport or efficacy of the otherother

Most interactions are antagonisticMost interactions are antagonistic Synergistic interactionsSynergistic interactions

Two minerals acting in complementary fashionTwo minerals acting in complementary fashion• Enhancing biological functionEnhancing biological function

• Or, sparing the other mineralOr, sparing the other mineral


VitaminsVitamins

Organic compounds necessary for normal Organic compounds necessary for normal physiological functionphysiological function Most cannot be synthesized in the bodyMost cannot be synthesized in the body Therefore must be present in the dietTherefore must be present in the diet

Classified in two categoriesClassified in two categories Fat-soluble: A, D, E, KFat-soluble: A, D, E, K Water-soluble: B-complex and CWater-soluble: B-complex and C


Fat-Soluble VitaminsFat-Soluble Vitamins

Require bile salts and fat clusters for passive Require bile salts and fat clusters for passive absorptionabsorption

Absorption occurs through wall of duodenum Absorption occurs through wall of duodenum and ileumand ileum

Stored in lipid deposits in all tissuesStored in lipid deposits in all tissues


Water-Soluble VitaminsWater-Soluble Vitamins

Absorbed via active transportAbsorbed via active transport

Poorly stored in the bodyPoorly stored in the body

Excesses lost via the urinary tractExcesses lost via the urinary tract

Deficiencies and toxicities vary due to Deficiencies and toxicities vary due to absorption differencesabsorption differences


VitaminsVitamins

Not energy nutrientsNot energy nutrients

Not all types are essential for every speciesNot all types are essential for every species

Intake in excess of requirements does not Intake in excess of requirements does not improve performanceimprove performance

Water-soluble vitamin toxicityWater-soluble vitamin toxicity

Commercial pet foodsCommercial pet foods


Vitamin KVitamin K

Plays a critical role in coagulation of bloodPlays a critical role in coagulation of blood Deficiencies result in clotting abnormalities Deficiencies result in clotting abnormalities

and hemorrhageand hemorrhage Hemorrhage can cause death, without Hemorrhage can cause death, without

emergency supplementationemergency supplementation


AntioxidantsAntioxidants

Help free body of damaging effects of free Help free body of damaging effects of free radicalsradicals

Certain vitamins (C and E) are antioxidantsCertain vitamins (C and E) are antioxidants

Supplementation above the normal daily Supplementation above the normal daily requirements can be beneficialrequirements can be beneficial

Other antioxidant functionsOther antioxidant functions


Antioxidant Additives in Pet Antioxidant Additives in Pet FoodsFoods

Natural alternative to synthetic preservativesNatural alternative to synthetic preservatives Improve palatabilityImprove palatability Protect immune functionProtect immune function Improve cognitive dysfunction in senior dogsImprove cognitive dysfunction in senior dogs


NutraceuticalsNutraceuticals

Endogenous substances that may provide Endogenous substances that may provide medical or health benefitsmedical or health benefits

Emerging area of food and food technologyEmerging area of food and food technology

Examples: chondroitin sulfates, glucosaminesExamples: chondroitin sulfates, glucosamines

May inhibit inflammatory mediators and May inhibit inflammatory mediators and promote joint stabilitypromote joint stability

Contain omega-3 fatty acidsContain omega-3 fatty acids


Common Client Questions Common Client Questions About Pet FoodAbout Pet Food

What is the best food to feed my pet?What is the best food to feed my pet? What are the differences between commercial What are the differences between commercial

brand foods?brand foods? Is home cooking suitable?Is home cooking suitable? Can I supplement an existing diet with table Can I supplement an existing diet with table

food?food?


Proper AnswersProper Answers

Most commercial pet foods are superior in Most commercial pet foods are superior in nutrient content, convenience, cost, and nutrient content, convenience, cost, and overall qualityoverall quality

Published homemade pet food recipes are Published homemade pet food recipes are generally imbalancedgenerally imbalanced

Energy and nutrient requirements are not Energy and nutrient requirements are not linear; long-term use of homemade pet food linear; long-term use of homemade pet food will result in nutrient deficiencies or excesseswill result in nutrient deficiencies or excesses


Commercial Pet Food TermsCommercial Pet Food Terms

Complete dietComplete diet Balanced dietBalanced diet Combining the two types of dietsCombining the two types of diets——animals animals

fulfill both nutrient and energy requirementsfulfill both nutrient and energy requirements


Complementary DietComplementary Diet

Combines two or more food sources to Combines two or more food sources to improve outcomeimprove outcome


All-Purpose DietAll-Purpose Diet

Marketed under premise that one particular Marketed under premise that one particular diet type meets nutritional demands at every diet type meets nutritional demands at every life stagelife stage

Typically provides nutrients in excess of what Typically provides nutrients in excess of what is required by adult or geriatric animalis required by adult or geriatric animal


All-Purpose DietAll-Purpose Diet

Typically found in grocery storesTypically found in grocery stores

Targets uninformed consumersTargets uninformed consumers

Generally sold as off-brand or generic foodsGenerally sold as off-brand or generic foods

Formulated for growth and lactation periods Formulated for growth and lactation periods of companion animalsof companion animals

Not appropriate for the other stages of life!Not appropriate for the other stages of life!


Special-Purpose FoodSpecial-Purpose Food

Provides specialized nutrition for individual Provides specialized nutrition for individual needsneeds

Designed for animals with specific nutritional Designed for animals with specific nutritional needsneeds

Often sold in veterinary hospitalsOften sold in veterinary hospitals


Forms of Commercial Pet Forms of Commercial Pet FoodsFoods

Dry foodsDry foods 3%-11% water3%-11% water

Semi-moist foodsSemi-moist foods 25%-35% water25%-35% water

Moist foodsMoist foods 70%-83% water70%-83% water


Dry FoodsDry Foods

Characteristically have lower protein, fat, and Characteristically have lower protein, fat, and minerals on a dry matter basis than moist minerals on a dry matter basis than moist foodsfoods

Produced with higher caloric densityProduced with higher caloric density Typically cost less than most moist foodsTypically cost less than most moist foods Provide a dental hygiene benefitProvide a dental hygiene benefit


Production of Dry FoodProduction of Dry Food

Raw ingredients are mixed and moistened Raw ingredients are mixed and moistened into doughinto dough

Dough is kneaded, cooked, and processed Dough is kneaded, cooked, and processed via extrusionvia extrusion

High temperature cooks and shapes kibblesHigh temperature cooks and shapes kibbles


Pros of Dry Pet FoodsPros of Dry Pet Foods

Less palatable than moist forms results in less Less palatable than moist forms results in less chance of overeatingchance of overeating

Cost of feeding a pet per day, or cost per yearCost of feeding a pet per day, or cost per year

Which has a lower Which has a lower true costtrue cost ? ?

Cost effectiveCost effective

ConvenientConvenient

Easy to use; allow owner to leave food out for Easy to use; allow owner to leave food out for extended periodsextended periods


Cons of Dry Pet FoodsCons of Dry Pet Foods

Pets may eat on an ad-lib basisPets may eat on an ad-lib basis Access to unlimited dry food may contribute Access to unlimited dry food may contribute

to obesityto obesity Annual health examinations should include Annual health examinations should include

body condition scoring and pet food body condition scoring and pet food consultation as animal agesconsultation as animal ages


Dry FoodsDry Foods

Water may be added to create “gravy” to Water may be added to create “gravy” to increase palatabilityincrease palatability

Palatability may also be improved by mixing Palatability may also be improved by mixing dry food with canned fooddry food with canned food

If food is moistened with water and left If food is moistened with water and left outside in high temperatures, bacterial outside in high temperatures, bacterial proliferation is possibleproliferation is possible


Food-Borne IllnessesFood-Borne Illnesses

Warn pet owners not to add water to dry pet Warn pet owners not to add water to dry pet foods and leave them exposed for prolonged foods and leave them exposed for prolonged periods at high ambient temperatures periods at high ambient temperatures

Bacteria from water-saturated dry or canned Bacteria from water-saturated dry or canned food can produce a potent toxin that causes food can produce a potent toxin that causes vomiting and diarrheavomiting and diarrhea

Can be avoided by ensuring consumption of Can be avoided by ensuring consumption of moist food within a few hoursmoist food within a few hours


Semi-Moist and Soft-Dry Semi-Moist and Soft-Dry FoodsFoods

Moisture content ranges from 25%-40%Moisture content ranges from 25%-40%

Composed of a meat and cereal mixture Composed of a meat and cereal mixture extruded into small, attractive shapesextruded into small, attractive shapes

Contain artificial flavorsContain artificial flavors

Humectant preservatives and cellophane Humectant preservatives and cellophane wrappingwrapping

Antimicrobial additivesAntimicrobial additives


Semi-Moist FoodsSemi-Moist Foods

Contain soluble sugars Contain soluble sugars

Contain simple carbohydrate sourcesContain simple carbohydrate sources

Not recommended in obese or diabetic Not recommended in obese or diabetic animalanimal

May also contain high sodiumMay also contain high sodium


Canned or Moist FoodsCanned or Moist Foods

Typically 70%-83% waterTypically 70%-83% water

Most sold as complete diets, with all nutrients Most sold as complete diets, with all nutrients presentpresent

Three forms: ration loaf, all-meat appearance, Three forms: ration loaf, all-meat appearance, and processed meats/flours bound into jellied and processed meats/flours bound into jellied matrixmatrix

High palatabilityHigh palatability

Requires portion-controlled feeding to avoid Requires portion-controlled feeding to avoid overconsumptionoverconsumption


Canned or Moist FoodsCanned or Moist Foods

Preserved with heat sterilization and vacuum Preserved with heat sterilization and vacuum techniques to ensure anaerobic environmenttechniques to ensure anaerobic environment

Enamel liners insulate the product and Enamel liners insulate the product and provide excellent nutrient stabilityprovide excellent nutrient stability

Shelf life ranges from 12-18 monthsShelf life ranges from 12-18 months

Storage at normal temperaturesStorage at normal temperatures

Palatability may decrease toward end of shelf Palatability may decrease toward end of shelf lifelife


Moist FoodsMoist Foods

Low caloric densityLow caloric density

Expensive on a per-calorie basisExpensive on a per-calorie basis

Meat by-product ingredients more costly than Meat by-product ingredients more costly than equivalent meals and floursequivalent meals and flours

Higher packing costsHigher packing costs

Mixing dry with moist foodsMixing dry with moist foods

Increase palatability Increase palatability

Control costControl cost


TreatsTreats

Small food rewardsSmall food rewards

Training aide, or to reinforce love Training aide, or to reinforce love

Commercially prepared treats should not be Commercially prepared treats should not be given in excessgiven in excess

Chocolate not recommendedChocolate not recommended——toxic in high toxic in high concentrationsconcentrations

Commercial treats are not subject to testing, Commercial treats are not subject to testing, as are pet foodsas are pet foods


SupplementsSupplements

Should not be confused with treatsShould not be confused with treats

Generally given to correct a nutritional Generally given to correct a nutritional deficiencydeficiency

Routine use is not necessary if pet is Routine use is not necessary if pet is provided with a balanced commercial pet provided with a balanced commercial pet food food


Home-Prepared DietsHome-Prepared Diets

Many owners prefer to prepare homemade Many owners prefer to prepare homemade foods despite the ease, less-expense, and foods despite the ease, less-expense, and better overall nutritional balance of better overall nutritional balance of commercial foodscommercial foods

Homemade recipes may not be appropriate Homemade recipes may not be appropriate for individuals with unique physiological for individuals with unique physiological requirementsrequirements

Close monitoring of the diet’s efficacy is Close monitoring of the diet’s efficacy is essentialessential


Requirements for Formulation Requirements for Formulation of a Home-Prepared Dietof a Home-Prepared Diet

Detailed knowledge of specific nutrient needDetailed knowledge of specific nutrient need Knowledge of nutritional value of ingredientsKnowledge of nutritional value of ingredients Knowledge of any possible dietary Knowledge of any possible dietary

interactionsinteractions Must factor in possible deterioration of Must factor in possible deterioration of

nutrients during cooking and storagenutrients during cooking and storage Need to consider time and effort required in Need to consider time and effort required in

making mealsmaking meals



Imperative that owner follows a veterinarian-Imperative that owner follows a veterinarian-approved recipe to ensure a balanced diet approved recipe to ensure a balanced diet

No human daily supplements can be added No human daily supplements can be added to make a complete and balanced homemade to make a complete and balanced homemade pet dietpet diet



Possible to achieve the same nutrient Possible to achieve the same nutrient balance with a homemade food as with a balance with a homemade food as with a commercially prepared foodcommercially prepared food

Owners should consult with a veterinarian or Owners should consult with a veterinarian or preferably a board-certified veterinary preferably a board-certified veterinary nutritionist to obtain a balanced recipenutritionist to obtain a balanced recipe

Owner compliance should be well regulatedOwner compliance should be well regulated Diets should be kept in conformity with Diets should be kept in conformity with

animal’s needs and life-stage changesanimal’s needs and life-stage changes



Are crudely balanced using the average Are crudely balanced using the average nutrient content of specific foods and nutrient content of specific foods and computer formulationcomputer formulation

Require kitchen scale that weighs in grams, Require kitchen scale that weighs in grams, and blender or food processor and blender or food processor

Necessitate regular dietary histories and Necessitate regular dietary histories and patient monitoring of petspatient monitoring of pets

Owners should be committed to ensuring Owners should be committed to ensuring consistent, proper homemade foodsconsistent, proper homemade foods


Technician’s RoleTechnician’s Rolefor Home-Prepared Dietsfor Home-Prepared Diets

Evaluate by thorough physical examinationEvaluate by thorough physical examination Body weightBody weight Body condition scoreBody condition score Activity levelActivity level

Assess existing homemade food recipeAssess existing homemade food recipe Make appropriate formula substitutions Make appropriate formula substitutions Offer nutritionally adequate recipesOffer nutritionally adequate recipes


Home-Prepared DietsHome-Prepared Diets May contain excessive proteinMay contain excessive protein Often deficient in calories, calcium, vitamins, Often deficient in calories, calcium, vitamins,

and mineralsand minerals Canine formulationsCanine formulations

Most use carbohydrates and meat sources Most use carbohydrates and meat sources containing more phosphorus than calciumcontaining more phosphorus than calcium

Often exceed nutritional requirementsOften exceed nutritional requirements Feline formulationsFeline formulations

Deficient in fatDeficient in fat Have low energy densityHave low energy density


Do 5 Food Groups Appear in Do 5 Food Groups Appear in Recipe?Recipe?

Carbohydrate, fiber source from cooked Carbohydrate, fiber source from cooked cereal grain or potatocereal grain or potato

ProteinProtein FatFat Mineral, particularly calciumMineral, particularly calcium Multivitamin and trace mineralMultivitamin and trace mineral


What is the Type and Quantity What is the Type and Quantity of the Primary Protein Source? of the Primary Protein Source?

Overall protein quality can generally be Overall protein quality can generally be improved by using an animal-source proteinimproved by using an animal-source protein

Skeletal muscle protein from different animal Skeletal muscle protein from different animal species has very similar amino acid profilesspecies has very similar amino acid profiles

No great advantage to feeding one meat No great advantage to feeding one meat source over anothersource over another


Is the Primary Protein SourceIs the Primary Protein SourceLean or Fatty?Lean or Fatty?

Fat content varies in different cuts of meatFat content varies in different cuts of meat When specified protein source is lean: When specified protein source is lean:

additional animal or vegetable fat source additional animal or vegetable fat source should compose 2%-5% of formula to ensure should compose 2%-5% of formula to ensure energy density requirementsenergy density requirements


Is the Carbohydrate Source a Is the Carbohydrate Source a Cooked Cereal or Potato? Is It Cooked Cereal or Potato? Is It Present in a Higher or Equal Present in a Higher or Equal

Quantity than the Meat Source?Quantity than the Meat Source? Feline carbohydrate/protein ratioFeline carbohydrate/protein ratio

1:1 to 2:11:1 to 2:1 Canine carbohydrate/protein ratioCanine carbohydrate/protein ratio

2:1 to 3:12:1 to 3:1


Is a Source of CalciumIs a Source of Calciumand Other Minerals Provided?and Other Minerals Provided?

Homemade food almost never balanced in Homemade food almost never balanced in mineralsminerals

Most homemade foods require specific Most homemade foods require specific calcium supplementcalcium supplement


Is Source of VitaminsIs Source of Vitaminsand Other Nutrients Provided?and Other Nutrients Provided?

Supplements must provide:Supplements must provide: VitaminsVitamins MicromineralsMicrominerals Fatty acidsFatty acids TaurineTaurine Other specific nutrients of concern for cats and Other specific nutrients of concern for cats and

dogsdogs


Storage of Homemade FoodsStorage of Homemade Foods

Specific instructions necessarySpecific instructions necessary

Most lack preservatives and are high in Most lack preservatives and are high in moisture contentmoisture content

Must refrigerate or freeze homemade foodsMust refrigerate or freeze homemade foods

Monitor food for color and odor changesMonitor food for color and odor changes


Examinations forExaminations forPatients Who Eat Homemade Patients Who Eat Homemade

FoodsFoods Regular veterinary examinationsRegular veterinary examinations

At least two per yearAt least two per year Regular nutritional reviewsRegular nutritional reviews


Cooking for Homemade DietsCooking for Homemade Diets

Improves digestibility of starch in Improves digestibility of starch in carbohydratescarbohydrates

Longer periods of cookingLonger periods of cooking Depreciate vitamin concentration Depreciate vitamin concentration Denature protein of meat sourcesDenature protein of meat sources


Diets and Stool ProductionDiets and Stool Production


Pet Food LabelsPet Food Labels

Pet food regulation varies from country to Pet food regulation varies from country to countrycountry

Labels represent contract between the Labels represent contract between the manufacturer and the consumermanufacturer and the consumer

Standards for label information established by Standards for label information established by The Association of American Feed Control The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO)Officials (AAFCO)

AAFCO StatementAAFCO Statement


Required Pet Food Label Required Pet Food Label Information Information

Net weightNet weight Product designator (e.g., cat food)Product designator (e.g., cat food) Name and address of manufacturer or distributorName and address of manufacturer or distributor Guaranteed analysis in percentagesGuaranteed analysis in percentages

For crude protein, fat, fiber, and moistureFor crude protein, fat, fiber, and moisture List of ingredients in descending order of List of ingredients in descending order of

predominance by weightpredominance by weight Nutritional adequacy statementNutritional adequacy statement Feeding guidelinesFeeding guidelines


Optional Pet Label InformationOptional Pet Label Information

Feeding instructionsFeeding instructions Caloric contentCaloric content Nutritional adequacy statements:Nutritional adequacy statements:

Totally nutritiousTotally nutritious Or, complete and balancedOr, complete and balanced Not needed on treats or snacks intended for Not needed on treats or snacks intended for

intermittent feedingintermittent feeding


Evaluating Pet Food LabelsEvaluating Pet Food Labels

Manufacturer can often supply a more Manufacturer can often supply a more reliable source of datareliable source of data

Ingredients on labels are listed by weightIngredients on labels are listed by weight Heaviest ingredients listed first; lightest lastHeaviest ingredients listed first; lightest last

PitfallsPitfalls Percentages don’t reflect exact amount of nutrientPercentages don’t reflect exact amount of nutrient Conservative guaranteed nutrient levelsConservative guaranteed nutrient levels


Ingredient PercentagesIngredient Percentages

Only one ingredient namedOnly one ingredient named At least 70% total product is named ingredientAt least 70% total product is named ingredient

Modifying words accompany named Modifying words accompany named ingredientingredient 10% for moist foods and 25% for dry foods10% for moist foods and 25% for dry foods

““WithWith” modifies named ingredient” modifies named ingredient 3%3%

Term Term flavorflavor is used is used Flavor must be detectable only by animalFlavor must be detectable only by animal


Moisture PercentagesMoisture Percentages

Percentage rules also applyPercentage rules also apply Maximum moisture content: 78% in United Maximum moisture content: 78% in United

StatesStates Pet foods may exceed amount if labeled:Pet foods may exceed amount if labeled:

StewStew GravyGravy JuiceJuice Contains milk replacerContains milk replacer


Market CategoriesMarket Categories

Grocery brandsGrocery brands ““Premium” grocery bandsPremium” grocery bands ““Gourmet” foodsGourmet” foods Generic foods (white label) and private label Generic foods (white label) and private label

foods (a grocery chain's own brand) foods (a grocery chain's own brand) Private label brandsPrivate label brands Specialty-brand pet foodsSpecialty-brand pet foods


Companion Animal NutritionCompanion Animal Nutrition

Energy requirements (food)Energy requirements (food) Nutrients that provide energyNutrients that provide energy

Proteins, carbohydrates, fatsProteins, carbohydrates, fats Nutrients are burnedNutrients are burned Energy is released in form of heatEnergy is released in form of heat

Measured in kilocalories or calories Measured in kilocalories or calories


KilocalorieKilocalorie

Amount of heat (energy) needed to raise Amount of heat (energy) needed to raise temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree CelsiusCelsius

Energy requirements (food)Energy requirements (food) Calculated in kilocaloriesCalculated in kilocalories Expressed in kilocaloriesExpressed in kilocalories


Daily Energy RequirementsDaily Energy Requirements

Number of calories needed to maintain an Number of calories needed to maintain an animal’s weightanimal’s weight

Increases in exercise, lactation, and growth Increases in exercise, lactation, and growth will increase energy requirementswill increase energy requirements

Decreases in these activities will lower Decreases in these activities will lower energy requirementsenergy requirements

Increased energy demands over and above Increased energy demands over and above the needs for maintenance = production the needs for maintenance = production energy requirementsenergy requirements


Daily Energy RequirementsDaily Energy Requirements

Predictive equations are usefulPredictive equations are useful Need to also assess body composition and Need to also assess body composition and

condition of animal to determine caloric condition of animal to determine caloric needsneeds


Body Condition Scoring (BCS)Body Condition Scoring (BCS)

Useful visual method to estimate animal’s Useful visual method to estimate animal’s body composition and relative fatnessbody composition and relative fatness Very thin, underweight, ideal, overweight, obeseVery thin, underweight, ideal, overweight, obese

Physical examination for assessment of pet’s Physical examination for assessment of pet’s muscle mass and fat storesmuscle mass and fat stores Feel the ribsFeel the ribs Include dietary historyInclude dietary history


Nutritional AssessmentNutritional Assessment

Patient’s historyPatient’s history Physical examinationPhysical examination Body weightBody weight Body condition scoringBody condition scoring Hydration statusHydration status


Baseline Nutritional Baseline Nutritional AssessmentAssessment

Initial assessment upon admissionInitial assessment upon admission

Serial assessments throughout course of Serial assessments throughout course of hospitalizationhospitalization

Role of the veterinary technicianRole of the veterinary technician


Feeding of DogsFeeding of Dogs

Dogs typically omnivoresDogs typically omnivores Advertising emphasizes carnivorous aspectsAdvertising emphasizes carnivorous aspects Some dogs eat grass and feces (natural Some dogs eat grass and feces (natural

behavior)behavior) Nutritional energy requirementsNutritional energy requirements

Calculations based on metabolic body weightCalculations based on metabolic body weight Variations in body composition consideredVariations in body composition considered Variations in breed consideredVariations in breed considered Based on life stageBased on life stage


Feeding Amounts for DogsFeeding Amounts for Dogs

Calculated from energy value of the foodCalculated from energy value of the food Each dog evaluated individually due to Each dog evaluated individually due to

differences in both activity and environmentdifferences in both activity and environment Based on regular weighing and body Based on regular weighing and body

condition scoringcondition scoring


Frequency in Feeding Normal Frequency in Feeding Normal DogsDogs

Once a day supplies daily energy Once a day supplies daily energy requirementsrequirements

2-3 times a day coincides with family meal 2-3 times a day coincides with family meal timestimes

Avoid late evening feedingAvoid late evening feeding Avoid inconvenience of middle of night Avoid inconvenience of middle of night

eliminationseliminations Avoid large meals before exerciseAvoid large meals before exercise

Minimizes gastric dilation and torsion, especially in Minimizes gastric dilation and torsion, especially in large breedslarge breeds


Canine Pediatric NutritionCanine Pediatric Nutrition

MilkMilk Complete food source for neonatesComplete food source for neonates Contains water, protein fat, vitamins, mineralsContains water, protein fat, vitamins, minerals

ColostrumColostrum Key nutritional factor immediately after birthKey nutritional factor immediately after birth Provides fluid for vital postpartum circulatory Provides fluid for vital postpartum circulatory

expansionexpansion Carries protective maternal antibodiesCarries protective maternal antibodies


ColostrumColostrum

Somewhat sticky and viscousSomewhat sticky and viscous

Owners should ensure that dam is producing Owners should ensure that dam is producing colostrum, and that puppies are consuming itcolostrum, and that puppies are consuming it


Nursing PuppiesNursing Puppies

Most are healthy and capable of active Most are healthy and capable of active nursingnursing

In general, no assistance needed from In general, no assistance needed from technician or ownertechnician or owner Exceptions are toy-breedsExceptions are toy-breeds Ensure mothers are lactating wellEnsure mothers are lactating well Ensure mothers are attentive to puppiesEnsure mothers are attentive to puppies


Growth Rate of PuppiesGrowth Rate of Puppies

Normal rate is 2-4 grams/day/kg of Normal rate is 2-4 grams/day/kg of anticipated adult weightanticipated adult weight

Lesser rate is an indication that puppies are Lesser rate is an indication that puppies are not receiving adequate amounts of milknot receiving adequate amounts of milk


Feeding Orphan PuppiesFeeding Orphan Puppies

Dose initially 15% of puppy’s weight per day, Dose initially 15% of puppy’s weight per day, divided into several dosesdivided into several doses

Feed via syringe and rubber feeding tube, or Feed via syringe and rubber feeding tube, or small animal nursing bottlesmall animal nursing bottle


Feeding TubesFeeding Tubes

First 3 days of life are most critical First 3 days of life are most critical Careful placement techniquesCareful placement techniques Proper amounts of formulaProper amounts of formula


GavageGavage

Indicated if puppy is unable to consume Indicated if puppy is unable to consume formula or dam’s milkformula or dam’s milk

Equipment includes syringe and 5F or 8F Equipment includes syringe and 5F or 8F infant feeding tubeinfant feeding tube


Tips for GavageTips for Gavage Gag reflex is not present until 10 daysGag reflex is not present until 10 days

Easy passage to pre-measured distance usually Easy passage to pre-measured distance usually indicates correct placementindicates correct placement

After delivery of fluid, kink tube before withdrawalAfter delivery of fluid, kink tube before withdrawal

Withdraw tube quickly to prevent aspirationWithdraw tube quickly to prevent aspiration

Burp animal after feedingBurp animal after feeding

Check for residual formula after several feedingsCheck for residual formula after several feedings


General Feeding GuidelinesGeneral Feeding Guidelines

Stomach is full when belly is distended or Stomach is full when belly is distended or animal turns its head away from bottleanimal turns its head away from bottle

New formula made at each feedingNew formula made at each feeding

Formula at room temperature before Formula at room temperature before administrationadministration

Equipment meticulously clean or sterileEquipment meticulously clean or sterile

Monitor weight gainMonitor weight gain by use of gram scaleby use of gram scale


Considerations for Formula Considerations for Formula FeedingFeeding

Patient response to feeding may not be Patient response to feeding may not be typicaltypical Gag reflex not developed for 10 daysGag reflex not developed for 10 days

Diarrhea may occurDiarrhea may occur Dilute formula until resolvedDilute formula until resolved

Record baseline birth weightRecord baseline birth weight Record healthy puppy weight gainRecord healthy puppy weight gain Assist elimination every 2-4 hours (or after Assist elimination every 2-4 hours (or after

each feeding)each feeding)


2 to 3 Weeks of Age2 to 3 Weeks of Age

Food dose approximately 25% of body weight Food dose approximately 25% of body weight divided into 4-6 daily feedingsdivided into 4-6 daily feedings

Small amounts of food given incrementally Small amounts of food given incrementally when puppies are able to eat solid food on when puppies are able to eat solid food on their owntheir own


Low Birth Weight PuppiesLow Birth Weight Puppies

Correlates with increased mortalityCorrelates with increased mortality Prone to:Prone to:

HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia HypothermiaHypothermia SepsisSepsis

Separate from bitch, if necessarySeparate from bitch, if necessary


HypothermiaHypothermia

Common in neonatesCommon in neonates

Associated with shallow respirations, Associated with shallow respirations, bradycardia, gastrointestinal paralysis, comabradycardia, gastrointestinal paralysis, coma

Feeding is Feeding is contraindicatedcontraindicated if the animal is if the animal is hypothermic (<94º F)hypothermic (<94º F)

Increase body temperatures slowlyIncrease body temperatures slowly


External Warming EquipmentExternal Warming Equipment

Circulating hot water blanketsCirculating hot water blankets Warmed rice bagsWarmed rice bags Hot water bottlesHot water bottles Heat lampsHeat lamps


Weaning of PuppiesWeaning of Puppies

3 weeks of age3 weeks of age Puppies introduced to semisolid gruelPuppies introduced to semisolid gruel

4 weeks of age4 weeks of age Peak lactation occursPeak lactation occurs

5 weeks of age5 weeks of age Intake of mother’s milk reducedIntake of mother’s milk reduced Larger amounts of semisolid to solid food eaten Larger amounts of semisolid to solid food eaten

6-8 weeks of age6-8 weeks of age Weaning concludesWeaning concludes


Feeding Growing DogsFeeding Growing Dogs

Proper nutrition is essential for normal growth Proper nutrition is essential for normal growth and developmentand development

Excessive intake can lead to medical Excessive intake can lead to medical complications!complications!


Nutritional Requirements for Nutritional Requirements for FeedingFeeding

Change is rapid during puppy’s growthChange is rapid during puppy’s growth Growth rates also vary between breedsGrowth rates also vary between breeds

Supplements not needed with commercial Supplements not needed with commercial dietsdiets


Feeding Growing PuppiesFeeding Growing Puppies

Feed 4-5 times daily during post-weaning Feed 4-5 times daily during post-weaning period (until about 10 weeks old)period (until about 10 weeks old)

Cut to 3 meals daily until 50% of adult body Cut to 3 meals daily until 50% of adult body weight is reached (about 4 months old)weight is reached (about 4 months old)


Feeding of Adult DogsFeeding of Adult Dogs

Primary objective: find the maintenance Primary objective: find the maintenance energy requirement and proper food dose to energy requirement and proper food dose to maintain ideal body compositionmaintain ideal body composition Based on energy value of foodBased on energy value of food Based on activity levelsBased on activity levels Based on breed sizesBased on breed sizes


Small and Toy BreedsSmall and Toy Breeds

Have higher ratio of surface area to body Have higher ratio of surface area to body weightweight

Have higher energy requirements per unit of Have higher energy requirements per unit of body weightbody weight

Have relatively small stomachsHave relatively small stomachs What should diets have?What should diets have?

Higher energy contentHigher energy content More nutrient-dense matrix than for larger breedsMore nutrient-dense matrix than for larger breeds High digestibilityHigh digestibility


Feeding StrategiesFeeding Strategies

Feed each dog separately when possibleFeed each dog separately when possible Time-restricted method works wellTime-restricted method works well

Feed 1-3 times daily for 5-15 minutesFeed 1-3 times daily for 5-15 minutes Feed with ad-lib consumptionFeed with ad-lib consumption

Method for dogs who overeatMethod for dogs who overeat Feed 2-3 times dailyFeed 2-3 times daily Serve calculated food dose (one-half to one-third Serve calculated food dose (one-half to one-third

of daily volume)of daily volume)


Other Feeding TipsOther Feeding Tips

Follow feeding instructions on pet food labelFollow feeding instructions on pet food label Utilize food dose calculatorsUtilize food dose calculators Utilize manufacturer’s technical informationUtilize manufacturer’s technical information Feed maintenance pet food for the average Feed maintenance pet food for the average

house pet 1-7 years oldhouse pet 1-7 years old Eliminate table food, or use in moderationEliminate table food, or use in moderation Avoid feeding of animal bonesAvoid feeding of animal bones Nylon bones and chew toys are safer Nylon bones and chew toys are safer

substitutes for natural bonessubstitutes for natural bones


Feeding Do’sFeeding Do’s

Do provide fresh waterDo provide fresh water Do feed for control of calorie intakeDo feed for control of calorie intake Do feed for ideal weight and body conditionDo feed for ideal weight and body condition Do provide consistent foodDo provide consistent food Do ritualize time and place of feedingDo ritualize time and place of feeding Do use life-stage feeding conceptsDo use life-stage feeding concepts Do feed treats with nutrient profile and caloric Do feed treats with nutrient profile and caloric

density considerationsdensity considerations


Feeding Don’tsFeeding Don’ts

Don’t provide stagnant or frozen waterDon’t provide stagnant or frozen water Don’t allow excess calorie consumptionDon’t allow excess calorie consumption Don’t feed obesity-prone dogs on a free-choice basisDon’t feed obesity-prone dogs on a free-choice basis Don’t rotate flavors or brands on frequent basisDon’t rotate flavors or brands on frequent basis Don’t make rapid transitionsDon’t make rapid transitions Don’t use growth-lactation food for adult maintenanceDon’t use growth-lactation food for adult maintenance Don’t supplement a balanced, high-quality foodDon’t supplement a balanced, high-quality food Don’t allow competitive eatingDon’t allow competitive eating


Problems Associated with Problems Associated with Group FeedingGroup Feeding

Competitive eatingCompetitive eating Over-consumptionOver-consumption Anorexia Anorexia


Feeding Adult Dogs withFeeding Adult Dogs withIncreased Energy NeedsIncreased Energy Needs

Diet and feeding protocolsDiet and feeding protocols Vary according to training schedulesVary according to training schedules Vary according to amount of work performedVary according to amount of work performed

Extra energy supplied in pet foods by:Extra energy supplied in pet foods by: Increased fatIncreased fat Increased caloric densityIncreased caloric density Increased digestibilityIncreased digestibility


Diets for Working DogsDiets for Working Dogs

Specific nutrient composition varies and Specific nutrient composition varies and depends on type of activity performeddepends on type of activity performed

Staples include carbohydrates and fats for Staples include carbohydrates and fats for intense muscular exerciseintense muscular exercise

Adequate water intake throughout work Adequate water intake throughout work period is crucialperiod is crucial


Aerobic Conditioning for Aerobic Conditioning for AnimalsAnimals

AdvantagesAdvantages Increases efficiency of fatty acid metabolism in Increases efficiency of fatty acid metabolism in

muscles and cardiovascular systemmuscles and cardiovascular system Spares rate of glycogen consumption in musclesSpares rate of glycogen consumption in muscles Increases capacity for workIncreases capacity for work

RecommendationsRecommendations Slowly convert to more calorie-dense foodSlowly convert to more calorie-dense food Feed majority of daily calories after completion of Feed majority of daily calories after completion of

training to help prevent hypoglycemiatraining to help prevent hypoglycemia


After WhelpingAfter Whelping

Bitch returns to regular body weightBitch returns to regular body weight

Expect food intake to rise rapidly by 50% the Expect food intake to rise rapidly by 50% the first week, and by 200%-400% by fourth week first week, and by 200%-400% by fourth week of lactationof lactation

Free choice food should be availableFree choice food should be available

Monitor water intakeMonitor water intake

Perform frequent physical examinationsPerform frequent physical examinations


Feeding During LactationFeeding During Lactation

Lactation markedly increases energy, protein, Lactation markedly increases energy, protein, and mineral requirementsand mineral requirements

Nutrient requirements greater than any Nutrient requirements greater than any other adult life stageother adult life stage

Proper nutrient intake directly linked to Proper nutrient intake directly linked to successful milk productionsuccessful milk production


Nutritional Factors for Nutritional Factors for LactationLactation

Highly digestible proteinHighly digestible protein Increased concentrations of fatIncreased concentrations of fat 10%-20% soluble carbohydrates10%-20% soluble carbohydrates 2-5 times more calcium2-5 times more calcium Supplements generally Supplements generally notnot needed needed


Feeding Methods During Feeding Methods During WeaningWeaning

Terminate food intake for 24 hours to help Terminate food intake for 24 hours to help bitch slow and stop milk productionbitch slow and stop milk production

Advise clients not to allow any puppies to Advise clients not to allow any puppies to nursenurse

Resume feeding using maintenance foods at Resume feeding using maintenance foods at one-third of the customary maintenance levelone-third of the customary maintenance level

On day 2, two-thirds of normal feeding dose On day 2, two-thirds of normal feeding dose is recommendedis recommended

Full intake of food on day 3Full intake of food on day 3


Obesity-Prone AnimalsObesity-Prone Animals

Ratio of too much fat to lean tissueRatio of too much fat to lean tissue Contributing factors:Contributing factors:

Genetic backgroundGenetic background High-calorie diets and snacksHigh-calorie diets and snacks Physical inactivityPhysical inactivity Endocrine or neuroendocrine disordersEndocrine or neuroendocrine disorders GonadectomyGonadectomy


Treating ObesityTreating Obesity

Feeding programsFeeding programs Exercise strategiesExercise strategies Educating clients on health risks of obesityEducating clients on health risks of obesity Routine weighingRoutine weighing Body condition scoringBody condition scoring


OverfeedingOverfeeding

Primary cause for obesity during growth life Primary cause for obesity during growth life stagesstages

During juvenile growth, induces increased During juvenile growth, induces increased numbers of fat cellsnumbers of fat cells

Adipocyte hyperplasis is prevented by using Adipocyte hyperplasis is prevented by using meal feeding for puppies, kittens, and foalsmeal feeding for puppies, kittens, and foals


OvereatingOvereating

Consuming more energy than is expended Consuming more energy than is expended Feeding table food to the picky eaterFeeding table food to the picky eater Feeding diets high in fatFeeding diets high in fat PreventionPrevention

Volume-restricted mealsVolume-restricted meals Elimination of calorie-rich treatsElimination of calorie-rich treats


Genetic PredispositionGenetic Predisposition


Other Causes of ObesityOther Causes of Obesity

Declining lean body massDeclining lean body mass

Declining activity level during normal aging Declining activity level during normal aging processesprocesses

Decreasing energy requirements in geriatricsDecreasing energy requirements in geriatrics

Competitive eatingCompetitive eating

Surgical neuteringSurgical neutering


Health Risks of ObesityHealth Risks of Obesity

Coronary heart diseaseCoronary heart disease Type 2 diabetes and insulin resistanceType 2 diabetes and insulin resistance HypertensionHypertension Pulmonary disordersPulmonary disorders Liver, kidney, and gall bladder diseaseLiver, kidney, and gall bladder disease Colon, ovarian, endometrial neoplasiaColon, ovarian, endometrial neoplasia Musculoskeletal diseases including joint stress, hip Musculoskeletal diseases including joint stress, hip

dysplasia, and osteoarthritisdysplasia, and osteoarthritis Muscular injuries including cranial cruciate ligament Muscular injuries including cranial cruciate ligament

rupturerupture


Obese PatientsObese Patients

Anesthetic risksAnesthetic risks Intolerant to exercise and heatIntolerant to exercise and heat Mortality is increasedMortality is increased Linked with some endocrine diseasesLinked with some endocrine diseases


Assessment of ObesityAssessment of Obesity

Visually examine subcutaneous fat depositsVisually examine subcutaneous fat deposits Palpitate ribs, groin, and tail headPalpitate ribs, groin, and tail head Obtain radiographs of abdomen and thoraxObtain radiographs of abdomen and thorax Measure body composition by weighing Measure body composition by weighing

animal indirectlyanimal indirectly Utilize ideal weight tables for purebred Utilize ideal weight tables for purebred

animalsanimals


Obesity TreatmentObesity Treatment

Feed calorie-restricted, low-energy foodFeed calorie-restricted, low-energy food Feed diet high in fiberFeed diet high in fiber ExerciseExercise Restriction of treatsRestriction of treats

No human snack foods or commercial pet treatsNo human snack foods or commercial pet treats Teamwork between owner, veterinarian, and Teamwork between owner, veterinarian, and

technician necessarytechnician necessary


Ages of Geriatric DogsAges of Geriatric Dogs

Toy and small-sized breedsToy and small-sized breeds 7 years7 years

Medium-sized dogsMedium-sized dogs 6 years6 years

Large and giant breedsLarge and giant breeds As early as 5 yearsAs early as 5 years


Age-Associated Changes in DogsAge-Associated Changes in Dogs

Reduced immune responseReduced immune response Reduced digestive and renal functionReduced digestive and renal function Reduced glucose toleranceReduced glucose tolerance Changed smell and taste perceptionChanged smell and taste perception Reduced lean body massReduced lean body mass Reduced basal metabolic rateReduced basal metabolic rate


Geriatric NutritionGeriatric Nutrition

Influenced by individual body conditionInfluenced by individual body condition Influenced by individual health historyInfluenced by individual health history Maintenance of optimal weight is ideal goalMaintenance of optimal weight is ideal goal Senior diets are recommendedSenior diets are recommended

Reduced proteinReduced protein Reduced phosphorus and sodiumReduced phosphorus and sodium Increased fiberIncreased fiber


Healthy Older CatsHealthy Older Cats

Limiting protein with normal renal and hepatic Limiting protein with normal renal and hepatic function can contribute to muscle lossfunction can contribute to muscle loss

Cats should not be fed a low-protein diet just Cats should not be fed a low-protein diet just because they are oldbecause they are old


Potential Benefits of Potential Benefits of Antioxidant DietsAntioxidant Diets

Combat signs of brain agingCombat signs of brain aging Improve learning abilityImprove learning ability Protect against free-radical damageProtect against free-radical damage Improve cell membrane healthImprove cell membrane health Optimize senior healthOptimize senior health


Geriatric Weight LossGeriatric Weight Loss

Calorie control may begin (or be continued) in Calorie control may begin (or be continued) in some geriatricssome geriatrics

Weight loss may be symptom of:Weight loss may be symptom of: Systemic diseaseSystemic disease Dental or oral painDental or oral pain Failing sense of smellFailing sense of smell Heightened finicky tastesHeightened finicky tastes


Renal DiseaseRenal Disease

Chronic progressive renal disease common in Chronic progressive renal disease common in older dogs and catsolder dogs and cats

Loss of renal function reduces ability to Loss of renal function reduces ability to excrete:excrete: PhosphorusPhosphorus UreaUrea Other products of protein metabolismOther products of protein metabolism


Dietary Considerations Dietary Considerations for Renal Diseasefor Renal Disease

Avoid excessive protein, phosphorus, sodiumAvoid excessive protein, phosphorus, sodium Use commercial prescription dietsUse commercial prescription diets

Designed with dietary goals in mindDesigned with dietary goals in mind• e.g., increased potassiume.g., increased potassium

• e.g., increased omega-3 fatty acidse.g., increased omega-3 fatty acids

Readily available from veterinarianReadily available from veterinarian


CatsCats

Carnivorous predatorsCarnivorous predators Not “small dogs”Not “small dogs” Protein metabolism is uniqueProtein metabolism is unique


Factors Influencing Feeding of CatsFactors Influencing Feeding of Cats

Have reduced carbohydrate metabolismHave reduced carbohydrate metabolism Require higher percentage of proteinRequire higher percentage of protein General requirements for foodGeneral requirements for food

High-protein foodsHigh-protein foods Low-carbohydrate foodsLow-carbohydrate foods Amino acids (e.g., taurine, arginine)Amino acids (e.g., taurine, arginine) B vitaminsB vitamins


Feline-Specific Requirements Feline-Specific Requirements in Foodin Food

TaurineTaurine Vitamin AVitamin A NiacinNiacin PyridoxinePyridoxine Arachidonic (fatty) acidsArachidonic (fatty) acids


Basis for Energy Basis for Energy Recommendations Recommendations

for Catsfor Cats SignalmentSignalment Body condition scoreBody condition score Activity levelActivity level Hydration statusHydration status DentitionDentition


Needs of Orphaned KittensNeeds of Orphaned Kittens

Adequate colostrum immediately after birth is Adequate colostrum immediately after birth is criticalcritical

Stable environment is importantStable environment is important May need assistance in urination and May need assistance in urination and

defecationdefecation


Feeding of Orphaned KittensFeeding of Orphaned Kittens


KittensKittens

Weigh between 85 and 120 g at birthWeigh between 85 and 120 g at birth Gain an average of approximately 100 Gain an average of approximately 100

g/weekg/week Caloric needs: 22-26 kcal/100 g of body Caloric needs: 22-26 kcal/100 g of body

weight for first 3 months of lifeweight for first 3 months of life Schedule feedings at least 4 times a daySchedule feedings at least 4 times a day In general, male kittens grow faster than In general, male kittens grow faster than

females females


Formula for KittensFormula for Kittens

Preparation should follow label instructions Preparation should follow label instructions

Initial feedings have less volume (but not less Initial feedings have less volume (but not less frequency) than directed by manufacturer frequency) than directed by manufacturer

Should be warmed to about 100° F (37.8° C)Should be warmed to about 100° F (37.8° C)

Feeding equipment must be cleaned Feeding equipment must be cleaned immediately after useimmediately after use


Formula Feeding of KittensFormula Feeding of Kittens

Increasing amounts of formula are given, Increasing amounts of formula are given, based on weight gain and satiationbased on weight gain and satiation

Weaning generally begins at 7-9 weeksWeaning generally begins at 7-9 weeks Growth-sustaining kitten foods are fed 2-3 Growth-sustaining kitten foods are fed 2-3

times daily until 10 months of agetimes daily until 10 months of age


Feeding Adult CatsFeeding Adult Cats

Do feed a consistent dietDo feed a consistent diet Employ a feeding schedule to eliminate Employ a feeding schedule to eliminate

finicky behavior and food aversion finicky behavior and food aversion Most cat owners tend to feed ad-libMost cat owners tend to feed ad-lib


Commercial Feline TreatsCommercial Feline Treats

Usually nutritionally synonymous with dry cat Usually nutritionally synonymous with dry cat foodfood

Only given in moderationOnly given in moderation

““Natural" treats preferred by some ownersNatural" treats preferred by some owners


HairballsHairballs

Occur commonly in cats due to meticulous Occur commonly in cats due to meticulous grooming habitsgrooming habits

Owners may observe periodic gagging, Owners may observe periodic gagging, retching, and regurgitation or vomiting of hair retching, and regurgitation or vomiting of hair and mucusand mucus

Hairballs often tubular and usually do not Hairballs often tubular and usually do not contain food or bilecontain food or bile


Energy and Nutrient Energy and Nutrient Requirements During Feline Requirements During Feline

Pregnancy and LactationPregnancy and Lactation Must support both queen and offspringMust support both queen and offspring Requirements can be 3-4 times normal Requirements can be 3-4 times normal

maintenance during peak lactationmaintenance during peak lactation Ingesting larger amounts of food may not be Ingesting larger amounts of food may not be

feasiblefeasible Queen uses stored body fat to support milk Queen uses stored body fat to support milk

production in early part of lactationproduction in early part of lactation


Feeding Geriatric CatsFeeding Geriatric Cats

Consider overall health before diet selectionConsider overall health before diet selection

Monitor food intake in association with weight Monitor food intake in association with weight changeschanges

Note water intakeNote water intake


Feeding of Geriatric CatsFeeding of Geriatric Cats

No single food can meet needs of every catNo single food can meet needs of every cat Dietary modification can help to optimize health Dietary modification can help to optimize health

or modulate disease or modulate disease Significant protein restriction not recommendedSignificant protein restriction not recommended Moderate protein restriction recommended if Moderate protein restriction recommended if

evidence of chronic renal failureevidence of chronic renal failure Commercial diets available with balanced Commercial diets available with balanced

nutrient contents for optimizing geriatric healthnutrient contents for optimizing geriatric health


Feline ObesityFeline Obesity

Common nutritional problemCommon nutritional problem Obtain detailed dietary historyObtain detailed dietary history Calculate amount of food offered during a Calculate amount of food offered during a

calorie-restricted dietcalorie-restricted diet Encourage client to participate in weight Encourage client to participate in weight

reduction programsreduction programs


Fasting in Obese CatsFasting in Obese Cats

Not recommendedNot recommended Associated with accumulation of lipids in liverAssociated with accumulation of lipids in liver Can become pathological in 5-6 weeksCan become pathological in 5-6 weeks Mimics idiopathic feline hepatic lipidosisMimics idiopathic feline hepatic lipidosis


Obesity PreventionObesity Prevention

Nutritional counseling during routine yearly Nutritional counseling during routine yearly examinationsexaminations

Dietary therapyDietary therapy Gradual introduction of new food over 7-day Gradual introduction of new food over 7-day

periodperiod


Dietary RecommendationsDietary Recommendationsfor Obese Catsfor Obese Cats

Multiple small meals throughout dayMultiple small meals throughout day Low-calorie, high-fiber diet substancesLow-calorie, high-fiber diet substances Commercial and prescription diets now Commercial and prescription diets now

tailored for obese catstailored for obese cats With low carbohydrate and high protein matrixWith low carbohydrate and high protein matrix Help increase amount of water consumedHelp increase amount of water consumed


Specialty Diets for Obese Specialty Diets for Obese CatsCats

Low-carbohydrate, high-protein formulasLow-carbohydrate, high-protein formulas Added L-carnitineAdded L-carnitine

Helps feline patient lose weight while maintaining Helps feline patient lose weight while maintaining lean muscle masslean muscle mass

Can decrease accumulation of fat in liver cells Can decrease accumulation of fat in liver cells


Feline UrolithiasisFeline Urolithiasis

Most common calculi: struvite and calcium Most common calculi: struvite and calcium oxalateoxalate

Amount and balance of mineral elements in Amount and balance of mineral elements in diet affect formation of urinary calculidiet affect formation of urinary calculi


Diet Factors InfluenceDiet Factors InfluenceDevelopment of UrolithsDevelopment of Uroliths

Water IntakeWater Intake

Other factors effecting concentrationOther factors effecting concentration

DigestibilityDigestibility

Dietary content of mineralsDietary content of minerals

Quantity of diet consumedQuantity of diet consumed

Influence of diet and eating frequency on Influence of diet and eating frequency on urine pHurine pH


Diets Can Be FormulatedDiets Can Be Formulatedto Induce Acidic Urineto Induce Acidic Urine

Struvite crystal formation not possible at urine Struvite crystal formation not possible at urine pH <6.5pH <6.5

Addition of acidifiers such as methionine, Addition of acidifiers such as methionine, ammonium chloride, and phosphoric acidammonium chloride, and phosphoric acid

Certain animal proteins and corn glutens can Certain animal proteins and corn glutens can also promote acidic urinealso promote acidic urine

Diets composed of vegetable proteins and Diets composed of vegetable proteins and mineral salts promote alkaline urinemineral salts promote alkaline urine


Acidifying DietsAcidifying Diets

Recommended to safely prevent and manage Recommended to safely prevent and manage struvite-related LUTDstruvite-related LUTD

Can have potential toxicityCan have potential toxicity

Can overpower kidneysCan overpower kidneys

May cause chronic acidosis in catsMay cause chronic acidosis in cats

Not recommended for kittensNot recommended for kittens


Acidifying DietsAcidifying Diets

Inadvisable in the older catInadvisable in the older cat No diet promotes dissolution of calcium No diet promotes dissolution of calcium

oxalate urolithsoxalate uroliths Formulated to induce higher urinary pH to Formulated to induce higher urinary pH to

minimize risk of crystal formationminimize risk of crystal formation Maintains urine acidity (pH 6.2-6.4)Maintains urine acidity (pH 6.2-6.4) Keeps magnesium intake at non-excessive Keeps magnesium intake at non-excessive

levelslevels


Risk Control Measures Risk Control Measures for Struvite Crystalluriafor Struvite Crystalluria

Maintain an acidic urine pH (6.2-6.4)Maintain an acidic urine pH (6.2-6.4)

Avoid magnesium intakeAvoid magnesium intake


Risk Control Measures Risk Control Measures for Calcium Oxalate Crystalluriafor Calcium Oxalate Crystalluria

Maintain a more alkaline urine pH (6.4-6.8)Maintain a more alkaline urine pH (6.4-6.8)

Avoid excess calcium, sodium, magnesiumAvoid excess calcium, sodium, magnesium

Increase cat’s water consumptionIncrease cat’s water consumption


Feline Lower Urinary Tract Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD)Disease (FLUTD)

Controlling urine mineral concentrations or Controlling urine mineral concentrations or pH will not always control FLUTDpH will not always control FLUTD

Syndrome is multi-factorialSyndrome is multi-factorial Idiopathic FLUTD Idiopathic FLUTD

Has no known causeHas no known cause Water is key factor in controlling recurrencesWater is key factor in controlling recurrences Preferred dietary products are canned and other Preferred dietary products are canned and other

high-moisture foodshigh-moisture foods


FLUTDFLUTD

Typically caused by struvite or calcium Typically caused by struvite or calcium oxalate uroliths, or by urethral plugsoxalate uroliths, or by urethral plugs

Can be caused by feline idiopathic cystitis Can be caused by feline idiopathic cystitis (FIC)(FIC)

Clinical signs:Clinical signs: Urinating outside boxUrinating outside box Frequency of urinationFrequency of urination Straining to urinateStraining to urinate


FLUTD Prescription DietsFLUTD Prescription Diets

Provide nutritional management for struvite, Provide nutritional management for struvite, calcium oxalate, or FICcalcium oxalate, or FIC

Provide controlled levels of magnesium, Provide controlled levels of magnesium, calcium, phosphorous, and oxalatecalcium, phosphorous, and oxalate

Contain limited sodium and high levels of Contain limited sodium and high levels of omega-3 fatty acidsomega-3 fatty acids


Nutritional AssessmentNutritional Assessment

Primary goal is to identify which patient is at Primary goal is to identify which patient is at risk for malnutritionrisk for malnutrition

Poor nutritional status associated with Poor nutritional status associated with adverse clinical outcomesadverse clinical outcomes


Baseline Nutritional Baseline Nutritional Assessment Assessment

Evaluate both clinical and biochemical dataEvaluate both clinical and biochemical data

Analyze patient history, including nutritional Analyze patient history, including nutritional backgroundbackground

Perform a thorough physical examinationPerform a thorough physical examination

Perform serial assessments throughout Perform serial assessments throughout course of hospitalization course of hospitalization


Nutritional BackgroundNutritional Background

When was last complete meal or nutritional When was last complete meal or nutritional support given?support given?

What was the type and route of nutrition?What was the type and route of nutrition?


CaninesCanines

Healthy animals can use body fat stores for a Healthy animals can use body fat stores for a longer timelonger time

Can preserve body protein and nitrogen Can preserve body protein and nitrogen reservesreserves

Can decrease resting energy expenditure to Can decrease resting energy expenditure to survivesurvive


FelinesFelines

Healthy felines do not use body stores or Healthy felines do not use body stores or preserve body protein and nitrogen reserves, preserve body protein and nitrogen reserves, as do caninesas do canines

Felines use proteins for metabolic energyFelines use proteins for metabolic energy


Simple Starvation Simple Starvation in the Normal, Healthy Patientin the Normal, Healthy Patient

A shift to fatty acids for fuelA shift to fatty acids for fuel Mobilization of glucose in the liverMobilization of glucose in the liver Decrease in metabolic rateDecrease in metabolic rate Decrease in blood glucoseDecrease in blood glucose Production of ketones to minimize glucose Production of ketones to minimize glucose

requirementsrequirements


Prolonged StarvationProlonged Starvation

Tissue proteins are mobilized for:Tissue proteins are mobilized for: Visceral protein synthesisVisceral protein synthesis Antibody productionAntibody production GluconeogenesisGluconeogenesis


Consequences of StarvationConsequences of Starvation

Protein depletionProtein depletion Life-threateningLife-threatening Development of hepatic lipidosis in catsDevelopment of hepatic lipidosis in cats


Chronically Undernourished Chronically Undernourished Patients at Increased RiskPatients at Increased Risk

ImmunosuppressionImmunosuppression Hormonal imbalanceHormonal imbalance InfectionInfection Aspiration pneumoniaAspiration pneumonia Surgical complicationsSurgical complications


Common Surgical Common Surgical ComplicationsComplications

Wound dehiscenceWound dehiscence Delayed tissue healingDelayed tissue healing Decubital ulcersDecubital ulcers SepsisSepsis Pulmonary infectionsPulmonary infections


Nutritional support often becomes the MOST Nutritional support often becomes the MOST essential element in the outcome of critical essential element in the outcome of critical illnessillness


Malnourishment in the Malnourishment in the Critical PatientCritical Patient

Affects all body systemsAffects all body systems Affects mentation Affects mentation Exacerbates weakness and depressionExacerbates weakness and depression Speeds up the entire disease processSpeeds up the entire disease process


Critical PatientsCritical Patients

Metabolism accelerated to support healingMetabolism accelerated to support healing Metabolism accelerated to resist infectionMetabolism accelerated to resist infection Structural proteins consumed as source of Structural proteins consumed as source of

energyenergy


Indications for Nutritional Indications for Nutritional SupportSupport

Recent weight loss of >10%Recent weight loss of >10% Absent or poor food intake for more than 2 Absent or poor food intake for more than 2

daysdays Acute illness or injuryAcute illness or injury Acute muscle wastingAcute muscle wasting Heavy gastrointestinal or urinary system Heavy gastrointestinal or urinary system

losses of protein or electrolyteslosses of protein or electrolytes


Indications forIndications forSpecific Nutritional SupportSpecific Nutritional Support

HypoalbuminemiaHypoalbuminemia

Body condition score under optimum value of Body condition score under optimum value of 33

Surgical intervention or hospital procedures Surgical intervention or hospital procedures that may result in a reduction of oral intake that may result in a reduction of oral intake over 3-5 daysover 3-5 days


Assessment of Nutritional Assessment of Nutritional StatusStatus

Subjective global assessment (SGA) to Subjective global assessment (SGA) to determine nutritional status:determine nutritional status: Dietary historyDietary history BCSBCS Current morbidity index of illness or injuryCurrent morbidity index of illness or injury


Enteral FeedingEnteral Feeding

Upper alimentary tract used for assisted Upper alimentary tract used for assisted feedingfeeding

Preferred method of feeding when possiblePreferred method of feeding when possible Safest and least expensiveSafest and least expensive


Enteral Feeding MethodsEnteral Feeding Methods

Coaxed feedingCoaxed feeding

Appetite stimulation with drugsAppetite stimulation with drugs

Forced oral feedingForced oral feeding

Tube administrationTube administration


Feeding of Enteral Food Feeding of Enteral Food TypesTypes

Similar food to that which liver is using from Similar food to that which liver is using from body storesbody stores e.g., fat, carbohydrates, proteine.g., fat, carbohydrates, protein

Canine foodCanine food Provides protein at least 4-6 g/100kcalProvides protein at least 4-6 g/100kcal

Feline foodFeline food Provides protein at least 6-8 g/100kcalProvides protein at least 6-8 g/100kcal


Initial Enteral FeedingInitial Enteral Feeding

Ensure vomiting has ceasedEnsure vomiting has ceased

Feed small amount of an easily digestible low Feed small amount of an easily digestible low fat dietfat diet

Amount divided into portionsAmount divided into portions

Normal diet gradually reintroduced after Normal diet gradually reintroduced after appetite and stool have returned to normalappetite and stool have returned to normal


Tube-Feeding SchedulesTube-Feeding Schedules

Day One: dilute 1/3 food amount with 2/3 Day One: dilute 1/3 food amount with 2/3 waterwater

Day Two: dilute 2/3 food with 1/3 waterDay Two: dilute 2/3 food with 1/3 water

Day Three: full food amountDay Three: full food amount


Monitor Response to Tube FeedingMonitor Response to Tube Feeding

Patients may feel initial discomfort with Patients may feel initial discomfort with administrationadministration

Will adapt after several feedingsWill adapt after several feedings


Abdominal Tube FeedingAbdominal Tube Feeding

Common signs of discomfortCommon signs of discomfort Restlessness, salivation, abdominal bloating, Restlessness, salivation, abdominal bloating,

vomitingvomiting Radiographic confirmationRadiographic confirmation Consider slow “trickle” feedings Consider slow “trickle” feedings


Serious Complications Serious Complications of Tube Feedingsof Tube Feedings

Pulmonary aspirationPulmonary aspiration DiarrheaDiarrhea ConstipationConstipation Tube occlusionTube occlusion Peritonitis from improper tube positionPeritonitis from improper tube position Delayed gastric emptyingDelayed gastric emptying Bacterial contaminationBacterial contamination


Tube Feeding GuidelinesTube Feeding Guidelines

Monitor patient for abnormal responsesMonitor patient for abnormal responses Avoid excessive stress associated with Avoid excessive stress associated with

restraintrestraint Monitor all tubes for blockage or kinkingMonitor all tubes for blockage or kinking Cap all feeding tubes to prevent entry of airCap all feeding tubes to prevent entry of air Ensure food substances at room temperatureEnsure food substances at room temperature Flush with water, before and after feedingFlush with water, before and after feeding Monitor for gastric emptyingMonitor for gastric emptying Monitor weight and stool productionMonitor weight and stool production


Gastric MotilityGastric Motility

Monitor by checking contents of stomach by Monitor by checking contents of stomach by aspirating tube prior to feedingaspirating tube prior to feeding

If greater than 1/3 of previous feeding If greater than 1/3 of previous feeding remains in the stomach, recommend remains in the stomach, recommend subsequent feeding be skippedsubsequent feeding be skipped

If two consecutive feedings are missed, notify If two consecutive feedings are missed, notify veterinarianveterinarian

Feces should be analyzed for normal Feces should be analyzed for normal compositioncomposition


Stomach CapacityStomach Capacity

DogsDogs Capacity ≈ 90 ml/kgCapacity ≈ 90 ml/kg Amount fed typically should not exceed 50 Amount fed typically should not exceed 50

ml/kgml/kg

CatsCats Capacity should never exceed 100 mlCapacity should never exceed 100 ml


Tube PlacementTube Placement

Always confirm with radiographs prior to initial Always confirm with radiographs prior to initial feedingfeeding

Monitor daily Monitor daily

Increased lung soundsIncreased lung sounds

Areas of dullness or auscultationAreas of dullness or auscultation

Coughing and feverCoughing and fever


Prevent Tube Feeding Prevent Tube Feeding ComplicationsComplications

Always ensure tube patency prior to feedingAlways ensure tube patency prior to feeding Monitor for delayed gastric emptyingMonitor for delayed gastric emptying Monitor GI functionMonitor GI function Mark tube entryMark tube entry Flush tube before and after useFlush tube before and after use


Prevent Tube Feeding Prevent Tube Feeding ComplicationsComplications

Treat tube insertion site as a woundTreat tube insertion site as a wound

Inspect tube daily for possible migrationInspect tube daily for possible migration


Calculate Nutrient Calculate Nutrient RequirementsRequirements

Calculate resting energy requirement (RER)Calculate resting energy requirement (RER) RER = 30 x (body weight in Kg) + 70RER = 30 x (body weight in Kg) + 70 or . . . [ RER = 70 x (body weight in Kg)or . . . [ RER = 70 x (body weight in Kg)0.75 0.75 ]]

Calculate illness energy requirement (IER)Calculate illness energy requirement (IER) IER = RER x illness factorIER = RER x illness factor

Calculate amount of food requiredCalculate amount of food required Food amount (ml) = IER Food amount (ml) = IER Caloric density of Caloric density of

selected food (Kcal/ml)selected food (Kcal/ml)


Suggested Disease FactorsSuggested Disease Factors

Cage restCage rest 1.11.1

Surgery, trauma, cancer, sepsisSurgery, trauma, cancer, sepsis 1.2-1.51.2-1.5

Severe burns, head trauma, ventilator Severe burns, head trauma, ventilator patientspatients 1.7-2.01.7-2.0


Parenteral Nutrition (PN)Parenteral Nutrition (PN)

Refers to delivery of nutrients intravenously Refers to delivery of nutrients intravenously (IV)(IV)

Candidates:Candidates: Severe pancreatitisSevere pancreatitis Inflammatory bowel diseaseInflammatory bowel disease PeritonitisPeritonitis Post-operative surgeryPost-operative surgery


Parenteral NutritionParenteral Nutrition

Compounded liquid diet of:Compounded liquid diet of: ElectrolytesElectrolytes ProteinsProteins WaterWater CarbohydratesCarbohydrates FatFat VitaminsVitamins MineralsMinerals

Formulated on case-by-case basisFormulated on case-by-case basis


Parenteral Nutrition DeliveryParenteral Nutrition Delivery

Administration through catheter:Administration through catheter: CentralCentral PeripheralPeripheral IntraosseousIntraosseous IntraperitonealIntraperitoneal

Sterile technique critical Sterile technique critical


Complications ofComplications ofTotal Parenteral Nutrition (TPN)Total Parenteral Nutrition (TPN)

Catheter-related sepsisCatheter-related sepsis Air embolismAir embolism PneumothoraxPneumothorax Central venous thrombosisCentral venous thrombosis Catheter occlusionCatheter occlusion HypoglycemiaHypoglycemia HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia HyperlipidemiaHyperlipidemia


Patient Management DuringPatient Management DuringTPN AdministrationTPN Administration

Maintain sterility with IV catheter and fluid Maintain sterility with IV catheter and fluid bagsbags

Inspect the catheter insertion site, and Inspect the catheter insertion site, and change bandages dailychange bandages daily

Agitate the bag gently every few hoursAgitate the bag gently every few hours Do not disconnect the IV linesDo not disconnect the IV lines


Laboratory Analysis During Laboratory Analysis During TPNTPN

Monitor electrolytesMonitor electrolytes

Monitor liver functionMonitor liver function

Monitor for coagulopathiesMonitor for coagulopathies

Monitor CBC for infectionMonitor CBC for infection


Nutritional ConsiderationsNutritional Considerationsfor the Critical Patientfor the Critical Patient

Critical illness = Hypermetabolic processCritical illness = Hypermetabolic process

Mobilization occurs at expense of body tissueMobilization occurs at expense of body tissue

Body becomes reliant on its protein stores to Body becomes reliant on its protein stores to provide gluconeogenesisprovide gluconeogenesis

ConsequencesConsequences

Alternations in protein homeostasisAlternations in protein homeostasis

Loss of lean body massLoss of lean body mass


Reduce Parenteral Reduce Parenteral ComplicationsComplications

Maintain enterocyte functionMaintain enterocyte function Combine enteral and parenteral feedingCombine enteral and parenteral feeding

Reduce bowel atrophyReduce bowel atrophy Reduce bacterial translocationReduce bacterial translocation Prevent intestinal mucosal deteriorationPrevent intestinal mucosal deterioration Prevent intestinal hypertrophyPrevent intestinal hypertrophy Facilitate healing by promoting intestinal growthFacilitate healing by promoting intestinal growth


Clinical Signs of Clinical Signs of Hypermetabolic StateHypermetabolic State

TachycardiaTachycardia TachypneaTachypnea HyperglycemiaHyperglycemia Eventual breakdown of skeletal muscle proteinEventual breakdown of skeletal muscle protein Mobilization of body fatMobilization of body fat


MonitoringMonitoring

Evaluate respiratory effortEvaluate respiratory effort

Evaluate lung soundsEvaluate lung sounds

Monitor vascular integrityMonitor vascular integrity

Monitor serum protein and albumin levelsMonitor serum protein and albumin levels


Clinical Signs of Poor NutritionClinical Signs of Poor Nutrition

Unexplained weaknessUnexplained weakness Dull mentationDull mentation MalnutritionMalnutrition Deterioration of respiratory functionDeterioration of respiratory function Recumbent patientRecumbent patient


Clinical Signs of Poor NutritionClinical Signs of Poor Nutrition

Decreased kidney functionDecreased kidney function Decreased muscle functionDecreased muscle function Weakened cardiac muscleWeakened cardiac muscle


Feeding Pet BirdsFeeding Pet Birds

Common nutritional problemsCommon nutritional problems Inadequate dietsInadequate diets Poor feeding practicesPoor feeding practices

Patients may need nutritional support, Patients may need nutritional support, different from normal dietdifferent from normal diet


Dietary-Induced DiseasesDietary-Induced Diseases

Each species of bird has differences in Each species of bird has differences in nutritional demandsnutritional demands

Diseases occur frequently in psittacine and Diseases occur frequently in psittacine and passerine bird species, due to diverse passerine bird species, due to diverse nutrimental requirementsnutrimental requirements

Feeding and nutritional disorders can result Feeding and nutritional disorders can result from all-seed diets and diets supplemented from all-seed diets and diets supplemented with fruits, vegetables, and other human with fruits, vegetables, and other human foodsfoods


Small BirdsSmall Birds

High metabolic ratesHigh metabolic rates High-energy requirementsHigh-energy requirements Need continuous supply of foodNeed continuous supply of food Natural diet of insects, fruits, seedsNatural diet of insects, fruits, seeds Primary natural diet is Primary natural diet is notnot seeds seeds

Seeds deficient in nutrientsSeeds deficient in nutrients


Primary Seed DietsPrimary Seed Diets

Composed primarily of sunflower seedsComposed primarily of sunflower seeds High in fatHigh in fat Low in calciumLow in calcium Low in vitamin ALow in vitamin A Perpetuates obesity and/or nutritional deficienciesPerpetuates obesity and/or nutritional deficiencies


Fruits and VegetablesFruits and Vegetables

They are eaten preferentially because of high They are eaten preferentially because of high water contentwater content

They dilute key nutrients present in They dilute key nutrients present in nutritionally balanced commercial foodsnutritionally balanced commercial foods


Common Avian Nutritional Common Avian Nutritional RequirementsRequirements

All birds have similar nutritional requirementsAll birds have similar nutritional requirements Water, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats, Water, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates, fats,

vitamins, inorganic elements, mineralsvitamins, inorganic elements, minerals Different species require different amountsDifferent species require different amounts Calcium required in largest quantityCalcium required in largest quantity

Hypocalcemia can be alleviatedHypocalcemia can be alleviated


ProteinsProteins

Approximately 20 amino acids required by Approximately 20 amino acids required by companion birdscompanion birds

10 of the 20 are essential amino acids10 of the 20 are essential amino acids

Infant birds need glycine and proline Infant birds need glycine and proline

Increased proteins may be needed during Increased proteins may be needed during reproductive cyclereproductive cycle

Insects may supply increased protein needsInsects may supply increased protein needs


Commercial Avian FoodsCommercial Avian Foods

BenefitsBenefits Nutritionally balancedNutritionally balanced ConvenientConvenient

DisadvantagesDisadvantages No testing for nutritional adequacyNo testing for nutritional adequacy


Seed DietsSeed Diets

Seeds are not best or most natural foodSeeds are not best or most natural food

Seeds in most commercial mixes are not Seeds in most commercial mixes are not native to areas where most pet bird species native to areas where most pet bird species originateoriginate


Well-Balanced Seed MixturesWell-Balanced Seed Mixtures

Can supply essential nutrientsCan supply essential nutrients Rarely appropriate as sole nutritional sourceRarely appropriate as sole nutritional source


Homemade Mixed-Food DietsHomemade Mixed-Food Diets

An alternative if bird will not accept An alternative if bird will not accept commercially prepared foods or seed commercially prepared foods or seed mixturesmixtures

Can result in excellent feathering and Can result in excellent feathering and appropriate body mass appropriate body mass

Will not cause nutritional deficiencies, if Will not cause nutritional deficiencies, if prepared carefully from scientifically prepared carefully from scientifically developed recipesdeveloped recipes

Ensure owner compliance!Ensure owner compliance!


Mineral GritMineral Grit

Dietary supplementDietary supplement Insoluble grit remains in gizzardInsoluble grit remains in gizzard

Quartz or silicaQuartz or silica Soluble grit is completely digestedSoluble grit is completely digested

Oyster shells or cuttlefishOyster shells or cuttlefish Over-supplementing can be harmfulOver-supplementing can be harmful


WaterWater

Single most important dietary componentSingle most important dietary component

Makes up >50% of a bird's body weightMakes up >50% of a bird's body weight

Intake is important for thermoregulationIntake is important for thermoregulation

Breeding females require increased amounts Breeding females require increased amounts of waterof water


Water RequirementsWater Requirements

Birds should not go more than a few hours Birds should not go more than a few hours without access to fresh, clean water without access to fresh, clean water

Some foods require free water for efficient Some foods require free water for efficient digestion and absorptiondigestion and absorption

Provide water in easily accessible containerProvide water in easily accessible container

Avoid large water bowls to discourage Avoid large water bowls to discourage bathingbathing


RabbitsRabbits

Dietary requirements vary according to age Dietary requirements vary according to age and useand use Pet rabbitsPet rabbits Show and production rabbitsShow and production rabbits


Recommended Rabbit DietsRecommended Rabbit Diets

Feed alfalfa-based pellets with a hay Feed alfalfa-based pellets with a hay supplement on a daily basissupplement on a daily basis

Feed at rate of 0.25 cup/2.27 kg (5 lb) body Feed at rate of 0.25 cup/2.27 kg (5 lb) body weight, divided into two mealsweight, divided into two meals

Remove uneaten portions Remove uneaten portions May need increased feeding during gestation May need increased feeding during gestation

and lactationand lactation Offer good-quality grass hay ad-libOffer good-quality grass hay ad-lib Some “treats” are acceptableSome “treats” are acceptable


Feeding of RabbitsFeeding of Rabbits

Regular times are importantRegular times are important Rabbits are nocturnal in natureRabbits are nocturnal in nature Adequate fresh water essentialAdequate fresh water essential


Vitamin A Supplements for Vitamin A Supplements for RabbitsRabbits

Deficiency can result in infertility and other Deficiency can result in infertility and other reproductive complicationsreproductive complications

Adequate vitamin A contained in most fresh Adequate vitamin A contained in most fresh alfalfa pelletsalfalfa pellets

Dangerous to add supplement to adequate Dangerous to add supplement to adequate dietdiet

Recommend purchasing feeds within 90 days Recommend purchasing feeds within 90 days of productionof production


PelletsPellets

Feeds containing antibiotics not Feeds containing antibiotics not recommendedrecommended

Feeds high in calcium or vitamin D not Feeds high in calcium or vitamin D not recommendedrecommended


Guinea PigsGuinea Pigs

Fastidious eatersFastidious eaters

Herbivores with normal coprophagous Herbivores with normal coprophagous behavior behavior

Daily fresh water is essentialDaily fresh water is essential


Recommended Diet for Recommended Diet for Guinea PigsGuinea Pigs

Food with increased fiberFood with increased fiber

Freshly milled guinea pig feedFreshly milled guinea pig feed

Do not feed rabbit food, or any other diet Do not feed rabbit food, or any other diet designed for another speciesdesigned for another species

Provide access to hard food diets that Provide access to hard food diets that promote gnawingpromote gnawing


Vitamin C in the Guinea Pig Vitamin C in the Guinea Pig DietDiet

Require daily dietary ascorbic acid Require daily dietary ascorbic acid supplementsupplement

Minimal vitamin C in commercially prepared Minimal vitamin C in commercially prepared dietsdiets

Fresh fruit supplements commercial dietsFresh fruit supplements commercial diets Spinach, kale, parsley, chicory, bell peppers, Spinach, kale, parsley, chicory, bell peppers,

orangesoranges


Ascorbic Acid Ascorbic Acid SupplementationSupplementation

10 mg/kg/day is required 10 mg/kg/day is required

30 mg/kg/day needed, if pregnant30 mg/kg/day needed, if pregnant

If supplementation is not provided in feed, If supplementation is not provided in feed,

1 gram/L may be added to water1 gram/L may be added to water


Clinical Signs of Vitamin C Clinical Signs of Vitamin C DeficiencyDeficiency

AlopeciaAlopecia

AnorexiaAnorexia

DehydrationDehydration

Poor wound healingPoor wound healing

Eventual periodontal diseaseEventual periodontal disease


HamstersHamsters

OmnivoresOmnivores

Nocturnal, so feed at nightNocturnal, so feed at night

Require hard food dietsRequire hard food diets

Fed pelleted hamster diets or mixesFed pelleted hamster diets or mixes

Need to drink water from heavy bowl or water Need to drink water from heavy bowl or water delivery systemdelivery system


GerbilsGerbils

HerbivorousHerbivorous

GranivorousGranivorous

Typically eat frequent small mealsTypically eat frequent small meals

Commercial gerbil food availableCommercial gerbil food available

Diets supplemented with green vegetables, Diets supplemented with green vegetables, fresh fruit, and hard food or pieces of woodfresh fruit, and hard food or pieces of wood

Need fresh water dailyNeed fresh water daily


Rats and MiceRats and Mice

OmnivorousOmnivorous

Commercially available pellet-based diets Commercially available pellet-based diets supply most nutritional requirementssupply most nutritional requirements

Diets are supplemented with small amounts Diets are supplemented with small amounts of apples, tomatoes, or biscuitsof apples, tomatoes, or biscuits

““Treats” may encourage handlingTreats” may encourage handling

Fresh water should be supplied daily in sipper Fresh water should be supplied daily in sipper bottlesbottles


ChinchillasChinchillas

Hindgut fermentersHindgut fermenters Diet devoid of fiber can cause diarrhea, Diet devoid of fiber can cause diarrhea,

constipation, bloat, or rectal prolapseconstipation, bloat, or rectal prolapse Recommended dietRecommended diet

Grasses and seedsGrasses and seeds Supplemented with small quantities of dried fruits, Supplemented with small quantities of dried fruits,

nuts, carrots, green vegetables, or green grassnuts, carrots, green vegetables, or green grass Need dust baths for grooming needsNeed dust baths for grooming needs Daily fresh water necessaryDaily fresh water necessary


FerretsFerrets

Typically carnivoresTypically carnivores Normal seasonal fluctuations in body weightNormal seasonal fluctuations in body weight High-fiber diets are not recommendedHigh-fiber diets are not recommended Pelleted commercial ferret diets availablePelleted commercial ferret diets available Commercial diet may be supplementedCommercial diet may be supplemented


CheloniansChelonians

Land tortoisesLand tortoises Predominantly herbivoresPredominantly herbivores Captivity diets primarily composed of Captivity diets primarily composed of

vegetablesvegetables


Typical Tortoise DietTypical Tortoise Diet

85% Vegetables85% Vegetables

10% Fruit10% Fruit

>5% High-protein foods>5% High-protein foods


Caring for the Captive Caring for the Captive TortoiseTortoise

Vary the dietVary the diet Provide shallow water dishProvide shallow water dish Provide sunlight or ultraviolet lightProvide sunlight or ultraviolet light Multivitamins containing vitamin D may be Multivitamins containing vitamin D may be

added to diet every 1-2 weeksadded to diet every 1-2 weeks


Aquatic TurtlesAquatic Turtles

Feed only when they are in the waterFeed only when they are in the water Need variety of foods to achieve balanceNeed variety of foods to achieve balance Majority of diet should be composed of Majority of diet should be composed of

natural foodsnatural foods


Vitamin A DeficiencyVitamin A Deficiencyin Captive Turtlesin Captive Turtles

Clinical signsClinical signs Respiratory infectionsRespiratory infections Edematous eyesEdematous eyes Urogenital tract obstructionsUrogenital tract obstructions Beak overgrowthsBeak overgrowths

Clinical findingsClinical findings Related to anorexia and dehydrationRelated to anorexia and dehydration

Prevention with beta-carotene in dietPrevention with beta-carotene in diet


SnakesSnakes

CarnivoresCarnivores Feed varied diet every 1-2 weeksFeed varied diet every 1-2 weeks Specific dietary needs depend on the species Specific dietary needs depend on the species

of snakeof snake Nutritional deficiency rareNutritional deficiency rare Water requirements lowWater requirements low


LizardsLizards

Most are omnivorousMost are omnivorous Require vitamin and mineral supplementation, Require vitamin and mineral supplementation,

with emphasis on a variety of foodwith emphasis on a variety of food


Feeding of LizardsFeeding of Lizards

Juvenile lizardsJuvenile lizards Require feedings 1-2 times a dayRequire feedings 1-2 times a day

AdultsAdults Require feedings 2-3 times per weekRequire feedings 2-3 times per week

Most lizards are diurnalMost lizards are diurnal Require daytime feedings and time to bask in Require daytime feedings and time to bask in

natural or ultraviolet light natural or ultraviolet light


Herbivorous LizardsHerbivorous Lizards

Require varied diet to ensure adequate Require varied diet to ensure adequate nutritional balancenutritional balance

Leafy greens are recommended dietary Leafy greens are recommended dietary substancessubstances

Commercially prepared diets are availableCommercially prepared diets are available


Common IguanasCommon Iguanas

Require protein for normal growth and Require protein for normal growth and developmentdevelopment

Juvenile iguanas in captivity need more Juvenile iguanas in captivity need more protein and calcium than adultsprotein and calcium than adults

Protein sourcesProtein sources Dog food, monkey biscuits, tofuDog food, monkey biscuits, tofu

Provide water in bowl for bathing and drinkingProvide water in bowl for bathing and drinking


AmphibiansAmphibians

Pets included in groupPets included in group Frogs, toads, salamanders, and newtsFrogs, toads, salamanders, and newts

Most adults are carnivoresMost adults are carnivores Captive amphibiansCaptive amphibians

May adapt to eating dead prey or meatMay adapt to eating dead prey or meat Should be fed 2-3 times a weekShould be fed 2-3 times a week

Replication of natural environment importantReplication of natural environment important

Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 12 Small...

Documents

Transcript of Copyright © 2010 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 12 Small...