Copyright © 2009 Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of Pearson Global Climate Change Wicked Problems.
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Transcript of Copyright © 2009 Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of Pearson 004 Environmental Systems: Matter,...
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Copyright © 2009 Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of Pearson
004 Environmental Systems: Matter, Energy, and Ecosystems
Environment & Ecology
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Copyright © 2009 Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of Pearson
Central Case: The Gulf of Mexico’s “Dead Zone”
Mississippi Delta
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Eutrophication
Mississippi River
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Eutrophication
runoff
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Eutrophication
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Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone
2006 Seamap Hypoxia Map
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Eutrophication
Fish kills
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Eutrophication
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Copyright © 2009 Benjamin Cummings is an imprint of Pearson
The Earth’s systems
• System: a network of relationships among components that interact with and influence one another
• Exchange of energy, matter, or information
• Receives inputs of energy, matter, or information, processes these inputs, and produces outputs
• Feedback loop: a system’s output serves as input to that same system
• A circular process
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Negative feedback loopNegative feedback loop: output resulting from a system
moving in one direction acts as an input that moves the system in the other direction
• Input and output neutralize one another
• Stabilizes the system
• Most systems in nature
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Positive feedback loop
• Positive feedback loop: instead of stabilizing a system, it drives it further toward an extreme
• Examples: erosion
• Rare in nature
• But are common in natural systems altered by humans
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Chemistry is crucial for understanding…Any environmental issue:
• How gases contribute to global climate change
• How pollutants cause acid rain
• The effects of chemicals on the health of wildlife and people
• Water pollution
• Wastewater treatment
• Hazardous waste
• Atmospheric ozone depletion
• Energy issues
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Chemical building blocks
Matter: all material in the universe that has mass and occupies space
• Can be transformed from one type of substance into others
• But it cannot be destroyed or created, which is…
• The law of conservation of matter
• Helps us understand that the amount of matter stays constant
• Recycled in nutrient cycles and ecosystems
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....
Periodic Table 112 known elements
Pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler chemical entities by ordinary chemical reactions
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An element is composed of atoms (0.1-1 nm in diameter)
Atom cluster of small particles (proton, neutron, electron)
Elements & AtomsElements & Atoms
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Subatomic ParticlesSubatomic Particles
Protons (p +)
Neutrons (n o)
Electrons (e -)
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Electron Shell Configurations of Atoms
proton
neutron
electron
hydrogenatom
heliumatom
carbonatom
1p, 0n, 1e- 2p, 2n, 2e- 6p, 6n, 6e-
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proton
neutron
electron
hydrogenatom
heliumatom
carbonatom
1p, 0n, 1e- 2p, 2n, 2e- 6p, 6n, 6e-
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atomic number: number of p; #p = #e-
2He2e- and 2p
He
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atomic mass (atomic wt.): sum of masses of p+nHe 2p + 2n, atomic mass = 4
4
2He
He
p + n e-
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p = n = e- = Atomic number = Atomic mass =
C
Carbon Atom
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O16 O17 O18
stable isotopes
Atoms that differ in the number of neutrons
16
8 O
18
8 O17
8 O#p
#p+n
O
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Two or more atoms held together by chemical bondsOxygenOxygen OO2 2
NitrogenNitrogen NN22
AmmoniaAmmonia NHNH33
Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide COCO22
WaterWater HH22OO
MethaneMethane CHCH44
GlucoseGlucose CC66HH1212OO66
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Major Organic ElementsMajor Organic Elements
• CCarbonarbon• HHydrogenydrogen• OOxygenxygen• NNitrogenitrogen• PPhosphorushosphorus• SSulfurulfur
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• Carbohydrates: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Lipids: C3H8O3 (glycerol) + 3C16H32O2 (fatty acids)
• Proteins: COOH-NH2
• Nucleic Acids: sugar, PO4, N2 containing base
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Binding two or more different kinds of elements together
NaClNaCl
CHCH44
CC66HH1212OO66
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CC66HH1212OO66 + 6O + 6O2 2 6CO 6CO22 + 6H + 6H22O + energyO + energy
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6CO6CO22 + 6H + 6H22O + energy O + energy C C66HH1212OO66 + 6O + 6O22
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Acids
HCL H+ + Cl-
Proton donor, i.e., they donate H+ ions
HCl is a strong acid with a pH 1-2
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Bases
Na+ + OH- NaOHNH3 + H+ NH4
OH - + H+ H2O
HCO3 +H+ H2CO3
Proton acceptor, i.e., they take up H+ ions
NaOH is a strong base ~pH 12
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NeutralizationHCl + NaOH H2O + NaCl
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Buffer- resists dramatic changes in pH; ex. tums, rolaids…buffers stomach acid
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pH Scale
Neutral 7Acidic 0-6Basic (alkaline) 8-14
Type of Solution pH Value
0-14
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pH Scale
Logarithmic scale
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Causes of Acid RainCauses of Acid Rain
Air pollution• Burning of fossil fuels
- Power plants- Cars, trucks, airplanes
The main chemicals• Sulfur dioxide• Nitrogen oxides
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Acid RainAcid RainNormal Rain
• H2O + CO2 H+ + HCO3-
• A pH of 5.6• Water + carbon dioxide proton + bicarbonate
Acid Rain• Form of water pollution• More acidic than normal rain• Has pH < 5.6• nitrous dioxide + water nitrous acid + nitric
acid 2NO2 + H2O HNO2+ HNO3
• sulfur dioxide + water sulfuric acidSO2 + H2O H2SO4
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Ecological Effects from Ecological Effects from Acid Rain in Lake SystemAcid Rain in Lake System
Changes begin to occur as soon as a lake starts to lose it natural bases or alkalinity.
1. A large reduction in the number of plankton & invertebrates.
2. The rate of decomposition of organic matter decreases
3. Direct effects on fishes reproductive cycles.4. A calcium deficiency in fish leads to bone
malformation.5. Fish can suffocate as their gills become clogged
with aluminum hydroxide.6. Songbirds are effected by eating insects
contaminated with toxic metals.
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Acid Rain on ForestsAcid Rain on Forests
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VOG on CropsVOG on Crops
Table 2. Soil pH range for optimum growth of some crops.Crop pH Alfalfa 6.5-7.5 Avocado 6.0-6.5 Azalea 4.5-5.0 Ginger 6.0-7.0 Macadamia 5.0-6.5 Pineapple 4.7-5.7 Sugarcane 6.0-7.0 Taro 5.5-6.5
Protea flower crop Big Island
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Effects from Acid RainEffects from Acid Rain
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Effects from Acid RainEffects from Acid Rain
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Acid RainAcid Rain
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Ocean Acidity
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Global Ocean Acidity
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Consequences of Ocean Acidity
Animals with CaCO3 skeletons affected• Plankton• Corals• Mollusks • Fish
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7933589.stm
Fisheries
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Acid Rain in Marine EnvironmentAcid Rain in Marine Environment
• reduces ability of marine organisms to utilize calcium carbonate
• Coral calcification rate reduced 15-20%
• Skeletal density decreased, branches thinner
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Photosynthesis
• Chloroplasts: organelles where photosynthesis occurs
• Contain chlorophyll: a light-absorbing pigment
6CO2 + 6H20 + the sun’s energy C6H12O6 + 6O2
Autotrophs (producers): produce their own food from the sun’s energy by photosynthesis
Green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria
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Cellular respiration releases chemical energy
• Heterotrophs (consumers): organisms that gain energy by feeding on others
• Animals, fungi, microbes
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy
mitochondria
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Energy and matter in ecosystems
Energy Flow Nutrient Cycling
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Energy is converted to biomass
Primary production: conversion of solar energy to chemical energy by autotrophs
• Gross primary production: assimilation of energy by autotrophs
• Net primary production (NPP): energy remaining after respiration, used to generate biomass
• Available for heterotrophs
Productivity: rate at which autotrophs convert energy to biomass
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Net primary productivity of ecosystems
High net primary productivity: ecosystems whose plants rapidly convert solar energy to biomass
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A global map of NPP
NPP increases with temperature and precipitation on land, and with light and nutrients in aquatic ecosystems.
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Nutrients can limit productivity
Nutrients: elements and compounds that organisms consume and require for survival
• Stimulate plant production
• Lack of nutrients can limit production.
• Nitrogen and phosphorus are important for plant and algal growth.
Oceanic primary productivity is highest in water near shore.
• Over 200 dead zones now exist due to nutrient pollution.
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Nutrient runoff devastates aquatic systems
• Aquatic dead zones result from nutrient pollution from farms, cities, and industry.
• Most dead zones are located near Europe and the eastern U.S.
• Scientists are investigating innovative and economical ways to reduce nutrient runoff.
Phytoplankton blooms off the Louisiana coast.
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Ecosystems come in different sizes
• Ecosystems vary greatly in size.
• The term “ecosystem” is most often applied to self-contained systems of moderate geographic extent.
• Adjacent ecosystems may interact extensively.
• Ecotones: transitional zones between two ecosystems in which elements of each ecosystem mix
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• Landscape ecology: the study of how landscape structure affects the abundance, distribution, and interaction of organisms• Helpful for sustainable regional development• Useful for studying migrating birds, fish, mammals
• Patches: ecosystems, communities, or habitat form the landscape and are distributed in complex patterns (a mosaic)
Landscape ecology
This landscape consists of a mosaic of patches of 5 ecosystems.
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Conservation biology
• If a habitat is distributed in patches, organisms face danger in traveling from one patch to another.
• Patches spaced too far apart prevent travel• Conservation biologists: study the loss,
protection, and restoration of biodiversity
• Humans are dividing habitat into small, isolated patches.
• Corridors of habitat can link patches.
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Conservation biology• Geographic information systems (GIS): computer
software that layers multiple types of satellite data to create a complete picture of a landscape
• Geology, vegetation, animal species, and human development
Biogeographic assessment for NWHI
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Nutrients circulate through ecosystems
• Physical matter is circulated continually in an ecosystem.
• Nutrient (biogeochemical) cycle: the movement of nutrients through ecosystems
• Pools (reservoirs): where nutrients remain for varying amounts of time
• Flux: movement of nutrients among pools
• Can change over time
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Carbon CycleCARBON CYCLE
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Humans affect the carbon cycle
• Burning fossil fuels moves carbon from the ground to the air.
• Cutting forests and burning fields moves carbon from organisms to the air.
• Today’s atmospheric carbon dioxide reservoir is the largest in the past 800,000 years.
• The driving force behind climate change
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The phosphorus cycle
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Humans affect the phosphorus cycle
• Mining rocks for fertilizer moves phosphorus from the soil to water systems.
• Wastewater discharge also releases phosphorus, which boosts algal growth and causes eutrophication.
• May be present in detergents
• Consumers should purchase phosphate-free detergents.
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Nitrogen Cycle
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Humans affect the nitrogen cycle• Excess nitrogen leads to hypoxia in coastal areas.
• Synthetic fertilizers doubled the rate of Earth’s nitrogen fixation.
• Burning forests and fossil fuels leads to acid precipitation.
• Wetland destruction and increased planting of legumes has increased nitrogen-rich compounds on land and in water.
• Increased emissions of nitrogen-containing greenhouse gases
• Calcium and potassium in soil are washed out by fertilizers.
• Reduced biodiversity of plants adapted to low-nitrogen soils.
• Changed estuaries and coastal ecosystems and fisheries
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Human inputs of nitrogen into the environmentFully half of nitrogen entering the environment is of human origin.
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A law addressing hypoxia in the Gulf
• The Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act (1998) called for an assessment of hypoxia in the Gulf and to:
• Reduce nitrogen fertilizer use in Midwestern farms
• Change timing of fertilizer applications to minimize runoff
• Use alternative crops
• Manage livestock manure
• Restore wetlands and create artificial ones
• Improve sewage-treatment technologies
• Evaluate these approaches
• This Act has worked, and was reauthorized in 2003.
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The hydrologic cycle• Water is essential for biochemical reactions and is
involved in nearly every environmental system.
• Hydrologic cycle: summarizes how liquid, gaseous, and solid water flows through the environment
• Oceans are the main reservoir.
• Less than 1% is available as fresh water.
• Evaporation: water moves from aquatic and land systems to air
• Transpiration: release of water vapor by plants
• Precipitation: condensation of water vapor as rain or snow returns water from the air to Earth’s surface
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Groundwater
• Aquifers: underground reservoirs of sponge-like regions of rock and soil that hold water
• Groundwater: water found underground beneath layers of soil
• Water table: the upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer
• Water may be ancient (thousands of years old).
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The hydrologic cycle
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Water Cycle in Hawaii
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Human impacts on hydrologic cycle
• Damming rivers increases evaporation and infiltration into aquifers.
• Altering the surface and vegetation increases runoff and erosion.
• Spreading water on agricultural fields depletes rivers, lakes, and streams and increases evaporation.
• Overdrawing groundwater for drinking, irrigation, and industrial uses depletes groundwater resources.
• Removing forests and vegetation reduces transpiration and lowers water tables.
• Emitting pollutants changes the nature of precipitation.
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following part of an atom has a positive charge?
a) Proton
b) Neutron
c) Electron
d) Hydrogen
e) Neutreno
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QUESTION: Review
Which of the following organisms is an autotroph?
a) Deep-sea tubeworm
b) Horse
c) Pine tree
d) Human
e) None of these
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QUESTION: Review
A transitional zone between two ecosystems is a(n):
a) Conservation zone
b) Corridor
c) Reservoir
d) Ecotone
e) Patch
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QUESTION: Review
Humans have affected the nitrogen cycle in all of the following ways EXCEPT:
a) Doubling the rate of nitrogen fixation
b) Increasing emissions of greenhouse gases
c) Lowering water tables
d) Changing estuaries and coastal ecosystems
e) Reducing diversity of plants adapted to nitrogen-poor soils
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QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which is the most basic material?
a) Lemon juice
b) Acid rain
c) Rainwater
d) Seawater
e) Soft soap
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QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
According to this graph, which ecosystem has the lowest amount of biomass?
a) Temperate grassland
b) Boreal forest c) Savannad) Tropical
rainforest