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Transcript of Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 1.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 3
Outline
Data Mining Data Warehousing Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) Goals of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Association Rules Additional Data Mining Algorithms
Sequential pattern analysis Time Series Analysis Regression Neural Networks Genetic Algorithms
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 4
Definitions of Data Mining
The discovery of new information in terms of patterns or rules from vast amounts of data.
The process of finding interesting structure in data.
The process of employing one or more computer learning techniques to automatically analyze and extract knowledge from data.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 5
Data Warehousing
The data warehouse is a historical database designed for decision support.
Data mining can be applied to the data in a warehouse to help with certain types of decisions.
Proper construction of a data warehouse is fundamental to the successful use of data mining.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 6
Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD)
Data mining is actually one step of a larger process known as knowledge discovery in databases (KDD).
The KDD process model comprises six phases Data selection Data cleansing Enrichment Data transformation or encoding Data mining Reporting and displaying discovered knowledge
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 7
Goals of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery (PICO)
Prediction: Determine how certain attributes will behave in the
future. Identification:
Identify the existence of an item, event, or activity. Classification:
Partition data into classes or categories. Optimization:
Optimize the use of limited resources.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 8
Types of Discovered Knowledge
Association Rules Classification Hierarchies Sequential Patterns Patterns Within Time Series Clustering
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 9
Association Rules
Association rules are frequently used to generate rules from market-basket data. A market basket corresponds to the sets of items a
consumer purchases during one visit to a supermarket. An association rule is of the form X=>Y
X is called antecedent (left-hand-side or LHS) and Y is called consequent (right-hand-side or RHS) of the rule.
For an association rule to be of interest, it must satisfy a
minimum support and confidence.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 10
Example of rule
{onions, potatoes} => {beef}
Found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, he or she is likely to also buy beef
Such information can be used as the basis for decisions about marketing activities such as, e.g., promotional pricing or product placements
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 11
Mathematical formulation of Rule
Let I={i1, i2, .., in} be a set of n binary attributes called items. Let D={t1, t2, .., tm} be a set of transactions called the database. Each transaction in D has a unique transaction ID and contains a
subset of the items in I. A rule is defined as an implication of the form XY where X∩Y= ∅
and X,Y⊆ I. Itemset
A collection of one or more items Example: {Milk, Bread, Bread}
k-itemset An itemset that contains k items
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 12
Example of association rule
Transaction ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 0 0
2 0 1 1 0
3 0 0 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 0
I = {milk, bread, butter, beef}
D= {t1, t2, t3, t4, t5}
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 13
Association Rules Confidence and Support A rule has a left-hand set of items and a right-hand set of items. A rule ``LHS
=> RHS'' with a ‘support’ s and ‘confidence’ c.
Support: The minimum percentage of instances in the database that contain all items listed
in a given association rule. Support is the percentage of transactions that contain all of the items in both
itemsets, LHS and RHS.
Confidence: Given a rule of the form X Y, rule confidence is the conditional probability that
Y is true when X is known to be true
P(Y=true/X=true) = P(Y=true ∩ X=true) / P(X=true)
Frequent Itemset An itemset whose support is greater than or equal to a minsup threshold
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 14
Association Rules Confidence and Support
Transaction ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 0
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 0
• Support is the percentage of transactions that contain all of the items in both itemset, LHS and RHS.
•Confidence: P(Y=true/X=true)= P(Y=true ∩ X=true) / P(X=true)
{Milk, bread} butter
Supp({Milk, bread} butter) :
Conf({Milk, bread} butter:
66% of the transactions containing milk and bread the rule is correct
4.05
2
|T|
)Butter,B,Milk(
reads
66.03
2
)B,Milk(
)ButterBread,Milk,(
readc
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 15
Generating Association Rules- Brute-force approach
Given a set of transactions T, the goal of association rule mining is to find all rules having support ≥ minsup threshold confidence ≥ minconf threshold
Brute-force approach: List all possible association rules Compute the support and confidence for each rule Discard rules that fail the minsup and minconf
thresholds
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules- Brute-force approach
Observations: Rules originating from the same itemset have
identical support but can have different confidence
Slide 28- 16
Trans. ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 0
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 0 1
Example of Rules:
{Milk,Bread} {Beef} (s=0.4, c=0.66){Milk,Beef} {Bread} (s=0.4, c=1){Bread,Beef} {Milk} (s=0.4, c=0.66){Beef} {Milk,Bread} (s=0.4, c=0.66) {Bread} {Milk,Beef} (s=0.4, c=0.4) {Milk} {Bread,Beef} (s=0.4, c=0.66)
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 17
Generating Association Rules-Two steps approach
The general algorithm for generating association rules is a two-step process. Generate all itemsets that have a support
exceeding the given threshold. Itemsets with this property are called large or frequent itemsets.
Generate rules for each itemset as follows: For itemset X and Y a subset of X, let Z = X – Y; If support(X)/Support(Z) > minimum confidence, the
rule Z=>Y is a valid rule.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules- Two steps approach
Select the items sets with s ≥ 0.6 1, 4, 5, 6, 10
Slide 28- 18
Trans. ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 1 1
Example of itemsets:1.S({Milk, Bread}) = 0.62.S({Milk, Butter}) = 0.43.S({Milk, Beef}) = 0.44.S({Bread, Butter}) = 0.85.S({Bread, Beef}) = 0.86.S({Butter, Beef}) = 0.67.S({Milk, Bread, Butter}) = 0.48.S({Milk, Bread, Beef}) = 0.49.S({Milk, Butter, Beef}) = 0.2 10.S({Bread, Butter, Beef}) = 0.611.S({Milk, Beef, Butter, Beef}) =0.2
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules- Two steps approach
Generate rules for each item set: Milk Bread, Bead Milk Bread Butter, Butter Bread Bread Beef, Beef Bread Butter Beef, Beef Butter Bread {Butter, Beef}, {Butter, Beef} Bread Butter {Beef, Bread}, {Beef, Bread} Butter Beef {Butter, Bread}, {Butter, Bread} Beef
Slide 28- 19
Trans. ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 1 1
Example of itemsets:1.S({Milk, Bread}) = 0.62.S({Bread, Butter}) = 0.83.S({Bread, Beef}) = 0.84.S({Butter, Beef}) = 0.65.S({Bread, Butter, Beef}) = 0.6
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules- Two steps approach (solution)
Generate rules for each item set: Milk Bread c= 3/3 =1 , Bead Milk c=3/5 =0.6 Bread Butter c= 4/5 =0.8, Butter Bread c= 4/4 = 1 Bread Beef c= 4/5 =0.8, Beef Bread c= 4/4 =1 Butter Beef c= 3/4 =0.75, Beef Butter c= 3/4 =0.75 Bread {Butter, Beef} c= 3/5 =0.6, {Butter, Beef} Bread c= 3/3 =1 Butter{Beef, Bread} c= 3/4 =0.75, {Beef, Bread} Butter c= 3/4 =0.75 Beef{Butter, Bread} c= 3/4 =0.75, {Butter, Bread}Beef c= 3/4 =0.75
Trans. ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 1 1
Example of itemsets:1.S({Milk, Bread}) = 0.62.S({Bread, Butter}) = 0.83.S({Bread, Beef}) = 0.84.S({Butter, Beef}) = 0.65.S({Bread, Butter, Beef}) = 0.6
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 21
Reducing Association Rule- Power Set
Given a set S, a power set P is the set of all subsets of S
Known property of power sets If S has n number of elements, P will have N = 2n
elements. Examples:
For S = {}, P={{}}, N = 20 = 1 For S = {Milk}, P={{}, {Milk}}, N=21=2 For S = {Milk, Diaper} P={{},{Milk}, {Diaper}, {Milk, Diaper}}, N=22=4 For S = {Milk, Diaper, Beer}, P={{},{Milk}, {Diaper}, {Beer}, {Milk, Diaper}, {Diaper,
Beer}, {Beer, Milk}, {Milk, Diaper, Beer}}, N=23=8
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 22
Reducing Association Rule
For an itemset {milk, bread, butter}, we have 23 -1 = 7 subsets
Trans. ID
Milk Bread Butter Beef
1 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 1 1
3 1 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 0
5 0 1 1 1
1-itemset
Itemset Count
Milk 3
Bread 5
Butter 4
2-itemset
Itemset Count
{Milk, Bread} 3
{Milk, Butter} 2
{Bread, Butter} 4
Itemset Count
{Milk, Bread, Butter} 2
3-itemset
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 23
Generating Association Rules:Apriori Algorithm
Apriori principle: If an itemset is frequent, then all of its subsets
must also be frequent
Apriori principle holds due to the following property of the support measure:
Support of an itemset never exceeds the support of its subsets
This is known as the anti-monotone property of support
)()()(:, YsXsYXYX
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules: Illustrating Apriori Principle
Slide 28- 24
Item Count Bread 4 Coke 2 Milk 4 Beer 3 Diaper 4 Eggs 1
Itemset Count{Bread,Milk} 3{Bread,Beer} 2{Bread,Diaper} 3{Milk,Beer} 2{Milk,Diaper} 3{Beer,Diaper} 3
Itemset Count {Bread,Milk,Diaper} 3
Items (1-itemsets)
Pairs (2-itemsets)
No need to generatecandidates involving Cokeor Eggs
Triplets (3-itemsets)
No need to generatecandidates involving {bread, beer} and {milk, beer}
Minimum frequency= 3
Write all possible 3-itemsets and prune the list based on infrequent 2-itemsets
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe
Generating Association Rules: Apriori Algorithm
N= Nomber of attributes Attribute_list = all attributes
For i=1 to N
Frequent_item_set = generate item set of i attributes using
attribute_list
Frequent_item_set = remove all infrequent itemsets
Rule = Rule U generate rule using Frequent_item_set
Attribute_list = Only attributes contained in Frequent_item_set End For
Slide 28- 25
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 26
Generating Association Rules:The Sampling Algorithm
The sampling algorithm selects samples from the database of transactions that individually fit into memory. Frequent itemsets are then formed for each sample. If the frequent itemsets form a superset of the
frequent itemsets for the entire database, then the real frequent itemsets can be obtained by scanning the remainder of the database.
In some rare cases, a second scan of the database is required to find all frequent itemsets.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 27
Generating Association Rules:Frequent-Pattern Tree Algorithm
The Frequent-Pattern Tree Algorithm reduces the total number of candidate itemsets by producing a compressed version of the database in terms of an FP-tree.
The FP-tree stores relevant information and allows for the efficient discovery of frequent itemsets.
The algorithm consists of two steps: Step 1 builds the FP-tree. Step 2 uses the tree to find frequent itemsets.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 28
Step 1: Building the FP-Tree First, frequent 1-itemsets along with the count of transactions
containing each item are computed. The 1-itemsets are sorted in non-increasing order. The root of the FP-tree is created with a “null” label. For each transaction T in the database, place the frequent 1-itemsets
in T in sorted order. Designate T as consisting of a head and the remaining items, the tail.
Insert itemset information recursively into the FP-tree as follows: if the current node, N, of the FP-tree has a child with an item
name = head, increment the count associated with N by 1 else create a new node, N, with a count of 1, link N to its parent and link N with the item header table.
if tail is nonempty, repeat the above step using only the tail, i.e., the old head is removed and the new head is the first item from the tail and the remaining items become the new tail.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 29
Step 2: The FP-growth Algorithm For Finding Frequent Itemsets
Input: Fp-tree and minimum support, minsOutput: frequent patterns (itemsets)procedure FP-growth (tree, alpha);Begin if tree contains a single path P then for each combination, beta of the nodes in the path generate pattern (beta U alpha) with support = minimum support of nodes in beta else for each item, i, in the header of the tree do begin generate pattern beta = (i U alpha) with support = i.support; construct beta’s conditional pattern base; construct beta’s conditional FP-tree, beta_tree; if beta_tree is not empty then FP-growth(beta_tree, beta); end; End;
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 30
Generating Association Rules:The Partition Algorithm
Divide the database into non-overlapping subsets.
Treat each subset as a separate database where each subset fits entirely into main memory.
Apply the Apriori algorithm to each partition. Take the union of all frequent itemsets from each
partition. These itemsets form the global candidate
frequent itemsets for the entire database. Verify the global set of itemsets by having their
actual support measured for the entire database.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 31
Complications seen withAssociation Rules
The cardinality of itemsets in most situations is extremely large.
Association rule mining is more difficult when transactions show variability in factors such as geographic location and seasons.
Item classifications exist along multiple dimensions.
Data quality is variable; data may be missing, erroneous, conflicting, as well as redundant.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 32
Classification
Classification is the process of learning a model that is able to describe different classes of data.
Learning is supervised as the classes to be learned are predetermined.
Learning is accomplished by using a training set of pre-classified data.
The model produced is usually in the form of a decision tree or a set of rules.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 34
An Example Rule
Here is one of the rules extracted from the decision tree of Figure 28.7.IF 50K > salary >= 20K
AND age >=25
THEN class is “yes”
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 35
Clustering
Unsupervised learning or clustering builds models from data without predefined classes.
The goal is to place records into groups where the records in a group are highly similar to each other and dissimilar to records in other groups.
The k-Means algorithm is a simple yet effective clustering technique.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 36
Additional Data Mining Methods
Sequential pattern analysis Time Series Analysis Regression Neural Networks Genetic Algorithms
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 37
Sequential Pattern Analysis
Transactions ordered by time of purchase form a sequence of itemsets.
The problem is to find all subsequences from a given set of sequences that have a minimum support.
The sequence S1, S2, S3, .. is a predictor of the fact that a customer purchasing itemset S1 is likely to buy S2 , and then S3, and so on.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 38
Time Series Analysis
Time series are sequences of events. For example, the closing price of a stock is an event that occurs each day of the week.
Time series analysis can be used to identify the price trends of a stock or mutual fund.
Time series analysis is an extended functionality of temporal data management.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 39
Regression Analysis
A regression equation estimates a dependent variable using a set of independent variables and a set of constants.
The independent variables as well as the dependent variable are numeric.
A regression equation can be written in the form Y=f(x1,x2,…,xn) where Y is the dependent variable.
If f is linear in the domain variables xi, the equation is call a linear regression equation.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 40
Neural Networks
A neural network is a set of interconnected nodes designed to imitate the functioning of the brain.
Node connections have weights which are modified during the learning process.
Neural networks can be used for supervised learning and unsupervised clustering.
The output of a neural network is quantitative and not easily understood.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 41
Genetic Learning
Genetic learning is based on the theory of evolution.
An initial population of several candidate solutions is provided to the learning model.
A fitness function defines which solutions survive from one generation to the next.
Crossover, mutation and selection are used to create new population elements.
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 42
Data Mining Applications
Marketing Marketing strategies and consumer behavior
Finance Fraud detection, creditworthiness and investment
analysis Manufacturing
Resource optimization Health
Image analysis, side effects of drug, and treatment effectiveness
Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 28- 43
Recap
Data Mining Data Warehousing Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) Goals of Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Association Rules Additional Data Mining Algorithms
Sequential pattern analysis Time Series Analysis Regression Neural Networks Genetic Algorithms