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Industrialization and Ideology

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The Industrial Revolution1750-1850

A process which led to gradual, long-term growth rates over a sustained period of time.

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Change in the Industrial Revolution can be seen in the following:

Structural/Institutional Changes Technology Energy – fossil fuels Organization – the factory and the corporation Labor – wage-based, division of labor Global Dimension – migration/immigration

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Why is England the first to industrialize? Contributing

Conditions: Colonies – “ghost acres” and raw materials Agricultural changes – greater productivity (Ex.,

Jethro Tull, agronomist) – population growth Mobile labor supply Capital available Mindset of the gentry/landowning/ middle classes

– entrepreneurship Political stability – Constitutional Monarchy

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Andrew Carnegie’s Life1. Did Andrew work in Scotland? Did his mother?

2. How did technology affect the Carnegie family in Scotland? In America?

3. What is the role of Andrew’s mother?

4. How do they get to Pittsburgh?

5. How do Pittsburgh and Coketown compare?

6. Was Andrew’s father a “victim” of the Industrial Revolution?

7. Are there similarities in the story with America today ?

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Problems with early industrialization“the Industrial Revolution has created the ugliest world that humans have ever known.”

Industrializationpromoted rapidUrbanization

By 1800, 20% of British peoplelived in cities of 10,000 or more.

By 1900s, 75%.

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By the end of the 19th century, a new “job” for children…

By the way, industrialization helps explain why you are sitting hereat BCC …

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New Sources of Power

050

100150200250300350400

Lbs. (mill.)

1760 1840

Cotton Imports to UK Steam Engine

James Watt (1736-1819) Coal fired Applied to rotary engine,

multiple applications 1760: 2.5 million pounds

of raw cotton imported 1787: 22 million 1840: 360 million

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Population Growth (millions)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

1700 1800 1900

Europe

Americas

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Overview: Creation of New Classes

The Industrial Middle Class - Bourgeoisie Urban Proletariat – Factory workers Shift in political power to the Bourgeoisie Inspiration for new political systems—

Liberalism (Bourgeois Middle classes) and its competitor, Marxian Socialism.

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Industrial Europe ca. 1850

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The Question of Equality:

“the myth that ANYONE can make it is confused with the notion that EVERYONE can make it.”

Japanese CEO-average Japanese worker = 10XUS CEO – average American worker = 531X

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Stats on Inequality: Richest 1% of Americans held 32% of nation’s wealth

in 2001. Income inequality in America has increased-from

1980-2005, income for white men has declined by 20%.

Between 1970’s and today, the % of income of the middle class rose by 15%, the upper middle class, by 23%, and of wealth, 63% = growing income inequality.

Why hasn’t economic growth led to greater equality?

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Reactions to early industrialization

Union movements

Socialist movements

Marxism

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Marx and Engels

“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-mastery and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin or the contending classes…”

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Economic consequences of industrialization Large quantities of cheaper

products…

But consuming them becomes imperative

Global division of labor: Industrialized countries Suppliers of raw materials

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Social consequences of industrialization New social classes

New experience of work

New sense of space Emergence of “private” and

“public” realms family, gender implications

New sense of time Agricultural time vs. factory time “Time is money”

Modern Times, Charlie Chaplin

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Implications: Slave Labor

Cheap cotton from American south Benefit of transatlantic slave trade Irony: early British abolitionism, yet profit motive

retained

Note: All major English capitalists invested in the slave-sugar trade and other trade ventures that relied on colonies and slavery, with huge returns on their investments. At the same time, many also championed the abolition of slavery.

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Rail Transport

1804 first steam-powered locomotive Capacity: Ten tons + 70 passengers @ 5 mph The Rocket from Liverpool to Manchester (1830),

16 mph Ripple effect on industrialization Engineering and architecture

Note: Until the railroad it was impossible to have a unified market for easy transport of goods. Humans lived in a 4 mile an hour world. But with trains like the Rocket, the price of goods plummeted, the transport of goods was quicker and more reliable. Thus, a national market was born.

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The Industrial Middle Class: The Bourgeoisie

New class, evolved from guild merchants in cities

“bourgeoisie” From Capitalists (upper middle class) to

shopkeepers (lower middle class) Begin to eclipse power and status of agrarian

landed classesNote: They project an image of “respectability,” “clean collars,” professionals, rationalism, pious, frugal and hard-working, family men, sober, civic-minded, men of property, moral.

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Bourgeoisie Liberalism: The ideology of the Middle

Classes Based on Enlightenment ideas: Laissez-faire economics Popular sovereignty – (not democracy) men of

property should rule, but power should come from them.

Constitutionalism – sharing power Rights and freedoms – press, assembly, religion,

property. Individualism and free thought. Poverty – new definition—character over birth.

“If you’re poor it’s because of your own failure—sink or swim”

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The Proletariat

Blue-collar factory workers Tremendous growth in numbers as

industrialization expands. Worked in ecologically disastrous conditions for

long hours. Regarded as “dangerous, the mob, irrational,

dirty, lazy, drunkards, immoral, “breeders,” not religious or civic-minded, criminals.

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Overview: Unexpected Impact of the Industrial Revolution

Genesis of an environmental catastrophe Intellectual origins of human domination over

natural resources Unforeseen toxins, occupational hazards Reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels.

Social ills Landless proletariat Migrating work forces Definition of poverty changed: individual failure

rather than the norm; poverty = deviance.

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Spread of Industrialization

Spread throughout Europe—France, Germany, Russia, America and Japan by the end of the 19th century.

Development of technical schools for engineers, architects, etc.

Government support for large public works projects (canals, rail system).

Huge financial institutions supporting the global demands of industrialization.

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Big Business: New Organizations as Industrialism spreads. Large factories require start-up capital Corporations formed to share risk, maximize

profits Britain and France lay foundations for modern

corporation, 1850-1860s Private business owned by hundreds, thousands or

even millions of stockholders Investors get dividends if profitable, lose only

investments in case of bankruptcy

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Industrialization in the United States 1800 US agrarian

Population 5 million No city larger than 100,000 6/7 Americans farmers

1860 US industrializing Population 30 million Nine cities 100K + ½ Americans farmers

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Mass Production

Eli Whitney (U.S., 1765-1825) invents cotton gin (1793), also technique of using machine tools to make interchangeable parts for firearms “the American system”

Applied to wide variety of machines Henry Ford, 1913, develops assembly line

approach Complete automobile chassis every 93 minutes Previously: 728 minutes

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Distribution of Wealth in the U.S.

01020304050607080

Percentage of Total US

Weath

1800 1860

Richest 10

Other 90

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Mature Industrialism at the end of the 19th century. Monopolies, Trusts, and Cartels Large corporations form blocs to drive out

competition, keep prices high John D. Rockefeller controls almost all oil drilling,

processing, refining, marketing in U.S. German IG Farben controls 90% of chemical

production Governments often slow to control monopolies

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The Demographic Transition

Industrialization results in marked decline of both fertility and mortality by the end of the 19th c.e.

Costs of living increase in industrial societies Urbanization proceeds dramatically

1800: only 20% of Britons live in towns with population over 10,000

1900: 75% of Britons live in urban environments

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Contraception

Ancient and medieval methods: Egypt: crocodile dung depository Asia: oral contraceptives (mercury, arsenic) Elsewhere: beeswax, oil paper diaphragms

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) predicts overpopulation crisis, advocates “moral restraint”

Condoms invented in England Made from animal intestines in 17th century, latex in

19th century

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Transcontinental Migrations

19th-early 20th centuries, rapid population growth drives Europeans to Americas 50 million cross Atlantic Britons to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid potato

famines of 1840s, Jews to abandon Tsarist persecution United States favored destination

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Women in the Workforce Agricultural, cottage industry work involved women:

natural transition But as industrialization progresses, development of men

as prime breadwinners, women in private sphere, the “Angel of the Hearth” to care for the home.

Double burden: women expected to maintain home as well as work in industry, if not middle class.

Related to child labor: as children’s labor restricted by law, and schools created, lack of day care facilities.

Women worked as the demands of the family required.

“Women live like bats or owls, labor like beasts and die like worms.” Duchess of Newcastle, 17th century.

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Child Labor

Easily exploited Low wages: 1/6 to 1/3 of adult male wages High discipline

Advantages of size Coal tunnels Gathering loose cotton under machinery

Cotton industry, 1838: children 29% of workforce Factory Act of 1833: 9 years minimum working age

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The Socialist Challenge to Capitalism

Socialism first used in context of Utopian Socialists Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and Robert Owen (1771-1858) (The Phalanx, one of the agricultural cooperatives started in France but spreading to the U.S. existed for about 20 years and gave its name to Phalanx Road.

Opposed competition of market system Attempted to create small model communities Inspirational for larger social units

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What all Socialists Believed

Optimists – believed society could be reformed, including the economic system.

Social activists-as individuals and that government should guarantee basic needs.

Cooperative—Humans were cooperative by nature, but society forced them to compete.

Property was the key to equitable distribution of resources.

Economic Democracy – popular sovereignty in the economic sphere.

Industrialism is good.

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Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-

1895): Marxian Socialism “Scientific” Two major classes, always in conflict:

Capitalists, who control means of production Proletariat, wageworkers who sell labor

Exploitative nature of capitalist system Religion: “opiate of the masses” Argued for an overthrow of capitalists in favor of a

“dictatorship of the proletariat” Economic Determinism – your economic situation

influences everything you do, think, eat, say, believe.

Marx’s chief contribution: A society cannot be understood without an analysis of its economic system.

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Social Reform and Trade Unions

Socialism had major impact on 19th century reformers Reduced property requirements for male suffrage Addressed issues of medical insurance, unemployment

compensation, retirement benefits

Trade unions form for collective bargaining Strikes to address workers’ concerns

Evolutionary Socialism: workers and their political representatives get the right to vote by the end of the 19th century and are elected to office to change existing wrongs.

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ARE PATRIOTISM AND NATIONALISM THE SAME? “By patriotism, I mean devotion to a particular

place and a particular way of life, which one believes to be the best in the world but has no wish to force on other people.”

“Patriotism is of its nature defensive, both militarily and culturally.”

“Nationalism, on the other hand, is inseparable from the desire for power.”

George Orwell, 1945.

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A Definition of Nationalism

“Nationalism, of course, is intrinsically absurd. Why should the accident—fortune or misfortune—of birth as an American, Albanian, Scott, or Fiji Islander impose loyalties that dominate an individual life and structure a society so as to place it in formal conflict with others? In the past there were local loyalties to place and clan or tribe, obligations to lord or landlord, dynastic or territorial wars, but primary loyalties were to God or God-king, possibly to emperor, to a civilization as such. There was no nation.

William Pfaff

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Nations and Nationalism

“Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in 19th century

Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities Usually based on shared language, customs, values,

historical experience Sometimes common religion

Idea of nation has immediate relationship with political boundaries

Origins with the French Revolution and Napoleon’s armies spread it throughout Europe.

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Types of Nationalism“Tell me where you’re from

and I’ll tell you who you are.” Cultural nationalism = ethnic identity=linked with the

Romantic literary movement, with its focus on the unique ethnic makeup of each people. Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the Volk

(“people”) Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist:

“spirit of the people” Political nationalism = political identity

Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities – “Each nationality should have its own political house.”

Unification of national lands Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”

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The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 1773-

1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire

Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of nationalism

among multi-national empires like the Austrian

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National Rebellions

Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence from Ottoman Turks, 1821 With European help, Greece achieves independence in

1830 Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848

Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees But rebellions put down by 1849 Cultural Nationalism fails to unite

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Unification of Italy and Germany Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of

regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical states Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous jurisdictions

Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and Giuseppe

Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under King Vitttore Emmanuele II

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) advances Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”), uses wars with neighbors to unify Germany

Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named Emperor

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Unification of Germany and Italy

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Darwin: Biological Evolution and Natural Selection

Traditional beliefs: Idea of evolution not new Geology—age of earth believed to be no more than

4000 years old, but scientists like Lyell suggest erosion and natural forces suggested earth far, far older.

All species created by God as they presently existed.

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Darwin’s Ideas: Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871) Natural Selection

Variations exist within species. Variations are inherited. Nature is a scene of struggle for resources. Species best able to survive (through adaptation) will survive

this struggle. Process of natural selection operates randomly, without

God’s intervention.

Darwin did not know how natural selection took place (Mendel’s genetic research would later provide the answer)

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Social Darwinism

Sociologists like Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s ideas to human societies.

Spencer coined the term, “survival of the fittest”-but what constitutes “the fittest” in humans?

“The fiercely competitive environments is cruel for weak individuals but promotes the overall good of the species

by strengthening the fittest and stimulates overall enterprise; too much government holds back the strong

and gives unnatural advantages to the weak. “

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Racism

Theories of Race developed by anthropologists. “Scientific” Racism developed

Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882) Combines with theories of Charles Darwin (1809-

1882) to form pernicious doctrine of Social Darwinism

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Global Ramifications of Industrialism Global division of labor

Rural societies that produce raw materials Urban societies that produce manufactured goods

Uneven economic development – creation of rich-poor world.

Developing export dependencies of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and south-east Asia Low wages, small domestic markets

Note: Industrialism and Nationalism will be a powerful combination that will lead to further inequities and conflict throughout the world, even as the benefits of industrialism are spread.