Copyright 2002, The Lake Huron Centre for Coastal...

Copyright 2002, The Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation Updated 2007

This kit was produced by The Lake Huron Centrefor Coastal ConservationP.O. Box 178 Blyth, Ontario, Canada N0M 1H0

(519)523-4478email: [email protected]: www.lakehuron.on.ca

ISBN 978-0-9783621-0-2

Recommended citation:

Peach, G.H., and P. Donnelly, 2002. “Changing Our Future: Great Lakes and Climate Change,” educational resources kit for elementary schools. Produced by the Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation. (Revised 2007).

The Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation is a registered non profit, charitable organization dedicated to the conservation and wise stewardship of Lake Huron’s coastal ecosystems. The Centre’s priorities include water quality, biodiversity, coastal processes and climate change. Its programs to implement positive environmental change include research, education, and community outreach.

Funding for the development of this kit was provided by Environment Canada’s Climate Change Action Fund and from Ontario Power Generation. Funding was also provided from the Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptations Research Network (C-CIARN), Coastal Zone sector office and Ontario regional office, to equip all elementary schools within the Avon-Maitland District School Board.

The purchaser of this kit is granted permission to make copies of the student resource sheets where use is intended in an educational setting. Photo or digital reproduction of any part of this kit is expressly forbidden without the written consent of the Centre for Coastal Conservation.

Table of Contents

Table of ContentsTable of Contents

i

iii

iv

Curriculum Connections vi

Rubrics x

Teacher’s Notes 1-1

Student Resource Sheets 1-6

Activities

Climate Change Alphabet 1-10



Activities

Demonstrating the Greenhouse Effect 2-8

Oral History Project: Climate Then and Now 2-11



Activities

Climate Change and Ecosystems 3-27

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

.. continued

Table of Contents

Maples on the Move 3-33

How trees Migrate 3-27

Climate Art 3-41



Activities

Climate Change and Disease 4-13


Activities

Adding it all Up 5-3

What Can You Do? 5-5

Pledge on Climate Change 5-7

Field Trips

Douglas Point 5-13

Goderich 5-17

Pinery 5-19

Student Resource Sheets

G1 + B1

Foreword

Foreword

It is a great honour to write this small piece relating to the work of the Lake Huron Cen-tre for Coastal Conservation, ‘Great Lakes and Climate Change’. I visit many of our schools in Ontario and meet students at all levels. Our young people are concerned about the future. Unlike many of our leaders in politics and business, they will be here in fifty years (I hope!). We are living in a new world. As the former British Ambassador to the United Nations recently wrote: “It would be nice to think that the solutions to some of our present problems could be drawn from past experience, but in this case the past is a poor guide to the future. Our current situation is unique.” After the birth of Jesus Christ, it took 1700 years to double the human population. The population has doubled twice since then, Our environment is changing rapidly. We have changed the chemistry of the atmosphere and that change has led to climate change at a rate never seen before. Recently, the fa-mous British Journal, the New Scientist, published a supplement on the Global Envi-ronment called Judgement Day. Among the topics discussed was the statement “In the second half of the 20th century, the Earth lost 300,000 species. Humanity has created its own mass extinction.” What are our life support systems which determine our quality of life, health, etc.?

They include:

• Clean air to breathe

• Clean water to drink

i

Foreword ~ ~ ~

• Quality food, which depends on climate, soil, water quality and biodiversity. Biodiversity is necessary for security so that we can live through climate fluctuations, etc.

• Intelligent management of our waste production, reduction of wastes

• Clean energy, and in many parts of the advanced world, energy is going solar (e.g. Sweden, Germany)

• Clean cities

We are fortunate in Canada. We are not overpopulated and we have space. While our population is going urban (77%), we are always near nature. We have vast resources of all types. There is a great question we all must consider. Will I leave the planet in better condition for future generations than when I arrived? For my generation, the generation of 1900-2000, the answer is “no, we have been careless.” I have a dream, a hope, that we can use our schools and young people at all levels, to monitor change. Our schools should become, in part, natural observatories (monitor climate, rain quantity, biodiversity - plants, animals, microorganisms, soil quality and erosion, bioproduction, etc.) And if you do this, you learn science (chemistry, physics, geology, biology, mathematics...) We must moni-tor change of all types in our parks, etc., where there is minimal human disturbance, and we must monitor our towns and villages and the changes in them and their surroundings (including health).We must reduce waste, and if we do we will save money (for example, in much of modern Europe, there are no plastic bags in the supermarkets)! It is interesting that the wonderful British Journal, The Ecologist, this year (2001), published a little book for schools called “Go M.A.D.”, which means Go Make A Difference. It has wonderful exam-ples of how we can improve our environment and save money! I want us to produce another book of that type, “Go O.N” - Go Observe Nature. I congratulate all involved in the production of “Changing Our Future”. It is a model of what we need, for Canadians must better understand their life support systems. We must take care of our na-tion and our planet!

ii

Professor W. S. Fyfe, C.C., PhD, F.R.C.S. Professor Emeritus Department of Earth Sciences ...

Introduction

The following people are acknowledged for their contributions towards the development of this kit. Dr. Dan Scott and Linda Mortsch from the Adaptations and Impacts Research Group, Envi-ronment Canada, for their encouragement in developing this resource package. Thanks also to Ryan Schwartz for sharing his research work on the implications of climate change on Goderich, Ontario. Thanks to Alan Powell for web design, Karen Stewart for design assistance and marketing, and Darene Yavorski for assisting with graphics development. The kit was reviewed by the falling educators:

Jim Gowan Port Elgin-Saugeen Central Public School Bluewater District School Board Kyla Dickson, James Hallman, Cheryl Peach, Janice Shaw and Bill Thomson Wingham Public School Avon Maitland District School Board Sabina Freemantle Great Lakes Public School Peel District School Board Dr. W.F. Fyfe Department of Earth Science University of Western Ontario

Special thanks to the Climate Change Action Fund, and Ontario Power Generation for supporting the development of this kit.

We also appreciate the contributions from the Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network C-CIARN (Coastal Zone and Ontario).

iii

Introduction

The Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network, C-CIARN is a national network that facilitates the generation of new climate change knowledge by bringing researchers together with decision-makers from industry, governments, and non-government organizations to address key issues of climate change impacts and adaptation. C-CIARN strives to improve our knowledge of Canada’s vulnerabilities to climate change, identify ways to minimize the negative effects of future impacts and explore opportunities that take advantage of any positive impacts. Printing of these school kits is supported by the Government of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, through the Coastal Zone and Ontario offices of the Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network (C-CIARN).

iv

Introduction

Climate Change has emerged as one of humankind’s most important environmental, social and economic issues. The Earth’s climate has undergone dramatic changes over geologic time. This natural change has occurred gradually, and has allowed natural systems to evolve with the chang-ing climate. Over the last 200 years, the burning of fossil fuels, and the deforestation of the landscape by human populations have altered the concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. While climate change is global in nature, the implications to the Great Lakes region and lo-cal communities are important to understand if we are going to make the necessary changes to deal with the issue. Educating students, and the broader community, about these implications is critical if we are going to affect positive change. This resources kit was designed to assist in teaching about climate change and relating it to the local environment. The kit is arranged sequentially in the following five sections:

(1) The natural greenhouse effect - the changes to the Earth’s natural climate over geologic time;

(2) The human influence on climate change - a look at how humans have altered the Earth’s climate;

(3) Implications to ecosystems - climate change will have enormous effects to local ecosystems around the Great Lakes;

(4) Implications to local communities - similarly, these climate changes will affect local com-munities along the lakeshore, and may cost some communities millions of dollars to adjust;

(5) Changing attitudes - our abilities to respond to the need to cut our own personal emis-sions of greenhouse gases, and to adapt to changes already underway, will require a shift in our current attitudes and behaviour toward the environment.

Introduction

iv

Introduction

Each section is divided into three units including Teacher’s Notes, Student Resource Sheets and Activities. The Teacher’s Notes provide a detailed background of the topics provided in each section. Student Resource Sheets are summary sheets that provide the student with some basic knowledge about a topic. These can be photocopied and provided to each student. Activities of various complexity are provided to engage the students and encourage exploration and research. To aid both the teacher and the student, a CD has been included with this kit which includes a slide show, as well as a number of resource materials for use in more in-depth research. In addition, The Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation has included a number of resources and links on its website which are referenced in the kit. It provides teachers and students with easy access to pertinent information and resources. The Centre’s website can be found at www.lakehuron.on.ca. While websites noted in the kit may become outdated, the Centre will endeavour to maintain up-to-date links on its website.

A series of colour overheads have been included for class use to highlight some of the key concepts. Finally, the kit provides you with a glossary of some of the more important climate change words and phrases. This kit is a cross-curricular program that needs to be taught in its entirety to ensure student understanding of the content. Where more than one teacher delivers science and geography subject areas it is recommended that this kit is team taught through these subjects also allowing cross-curricular links to numeracy and literacy.

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

v

For better visual graphics, refer to the CD enclosed with this kit.

Curriculum Connections

with the Ontario Elementary Curriculum Guidelines (1998)

Changing our FutureThe Great Lakes and Climate Change

Curriculum Connections

Sample Rubrics

SECTION 2 - THE HUMAN INFLUENCE ON CLIMATE CHANGE

A WRITING ASSIGNMENT: NEWSPAPER ARTICLE

NAME:

EXPECTATIONS7g49 • demonstrate an understanding of how human activity affects people and the environment.7e3 • organize information to develop a central idea, using well-linked and well-developed paragraphs7e7 • revise and edit their work, focusing on content and elements of style (e.g., diction), independently and in collaboration with others7e8 • proofread and correct their final drafts, focusing on grammar, punctuation, spelling, and conventions of style7e70 • create a variety of media works (e.g., a class newspaper, a story board, a radio documentary).

CRITERIA CRITERIA/ LEVEL COMMENTS Failure to follow these basic instructions may result in the re-writing of this assignment.

Rubric Sample 1

The student has written a newspaper article. The assignment is on topic.

Assignment Process and Quality

The work is evidence that the student has followed the process outlined in the lesson and shows that thought has been given to the requirements of the evaluation.

YES NO

YES NO

x

Assignment Form

Sample Rubrics

Supporting Details

The paragraphs clearly express the main idea. The paragraphs are unified by a clear focus. Multiple/Unclear Simple ComplexR 1 2 3 4

The article contains sufficient detail to support the opinion or main idea.None/Inaccurate Unrelated/ Insufficient Numerous/RelevantR 1 2 3 4

The article is organized with topic sentences, supporting details and a conclusion. Paragraphs contain a variety of sentence structures and use transitions (connecting words and phrases) to maintain flow.Random Inconsistent Simplistic Smooth FluidR 1 2 3 4

The paragraphs use an appropriate level of language and vocabulary for the intended audience.R 1 2 3 4

The student has edited the paragraphs so that grammar and punctuation errors do not interfere with the communication of the ideas.R 1 2 3 4

The student has edited the work so that spelling errors do not interfere with the communication of the ideas.R 1 2 3 4

Organization

Tone

Grammar and Punctuation

Spelling

STRUCTURE & FORM

Main Idea

xi

Sample Rubrics

SECTION 4 - IMPACTS TO LOCAL COMMUNITIES

ORAL PRESENTATION NAME: EXPECTATIONS7g55 • use appropriate vocabulary, including correct geographic terminology (e.g., disease vectors, sustainable development), to describe their inquiries and observations;7g57 • locate and record relevant information from a variety of primary sources (e.g., eyewitness interviews, field studies) and secondary sources (e.g., maps, illustrations, diagrams, print materials, videos, CD-ROMs, Internet);7g60 • communicate the results of inquiries for specific purposes and audiences, using media works, oral presentations, written notes and reports, drawings, tables, charts, and graphs.7e51 • contribute and work constructively in groups;

CRITERIA CRITERIA/ LEVEL COMMENTSFailure to follow these basic instructions may result in the re-writing of this assignment.

Rubric Sample 2

The students have created an oral presentation.

The assignment is on topic(disease vectors).

The work is evidence that the student has

followed the process outlined in the lesson

and shows that thought has been given to the

requirements of the evaluation.

YES NO

Assignment Process and Quality

YES NO

xii

Assignment Form

Sample Rubricsxiii

STRUCTURE & FORM

Supporting Details

Voice

Non-Verbal

Organization

Tone and Vocabulary

ORAL/VISUAL PRESENTATION

Main Idea The presentation clearly expresses the main idea.

The presentation is unified by a clear focus.

Multiple/Unclear Simple/Complex

R 1 2 3 4

The presentation contains sufficient detail to sup-

port the opinion or main idea.

None/Inaccurate Unrelated/Insufficient Numerous/Relevant

R 1 2 3 4

The presentation is organized with topic sentences,

supporting details and a conclusion and uses tran-

sitions (connecting words and phrases) to maintain

flow.

Random Inconsistent Simplistic Smooth Fluid

R 1 2 3 4

The presentation uses an appropriate level of

language and vocabulary for the intended audience.

R 1 2 3 4

Variation in tone, rate and volume is used for effect.

R 1 2 3 4

Eye contact, gestures and body language are used

effectively.

R 1 2 3 4

Sample Rubrics

Rubric Sample 3

CRITERIA

Understanding of basic

concepts -

Natural climate history

and cycles

Understanding of basic

concepts -

Human Influence on

climate change

Relating of Science

and technology to each

other and to the world

outside the school

Communication of

required knowledge

LEVEL 1

- shows little understanding

of natural Earth climate

history and cycles

-incomplete explanations

-demonstrates little

understanding of how

human activities affect the

Earth’s cycles and climate

- significant misconceptions

- shows little understanding

of human activities and

climate change on various

ecosystems in familiar

contexts

- communicates with

little clarity and precision,

rarely using appropriate

science and technology

terminology and units of

measurement

LEVEL 2

- shows limited understand-

ing of natural Earth climate

history and cycles

- gives partial explanations

- demonstrates limited un-

derstanding of how human

activities affect the Earth’s

cycles and climate

- few misconceptions

- shows some understand-

ing of implications of hu-

man activities and climate

change on various ecosys-

tems in familiar contexts

- communicates with some

clarity and precision, some-

times using appropriate

science and technology and

units of measurement

LEVEL 3


ing of natural Earth

climate history and cycles

- usually gives complete

explanations

- demonstrates some un-

derstanding of how human

activities affect the Earth’s

cycles and climate

- minor misconceptions


ing of human activities and

climate change on various

local ecosystems and else-

where in the real world

- generally communicates

with clarity and precision,

using appropriate science

and technology terminol-

ogy and units of measure-

ment

LEVEL 4

- shows understanding

of natural Earth climate

history and cycles

- always gives complete

explanations

- demonstrates

understanding of how

human activities affect the

Earth’s cycles and climate

- no misconceptions

- shows understanding of

implications of human

activities and climate

change of various eco-

systems in both familiar

and unfamiliar contexts

-consistently

communicates with

clarity and precision using

appropriate science and

technology terminology

and units of measurement

xiv

Natural Climate History

Climate History 1-

Introduction

Climate is the average weather of a particular location on earth. It is measured and analysed over long time periods. In contrast, weather is the term used to describe short term events such as storms, heat waves, wind and cloud cover. Both climate and weather are described by such factors as temperature and precipitation.

We know that climates have changed considerably throughout history. Tropical plants and animals, including dinosaurs used to inhabit areas of North America now much too cold for such species. After this time period, glaciers covered huge expanses of the continent when temperatures dropped for very long periods of time. These factors all suggest that climate does change over long time periods such as hundreds or thousands of years.

This chapter will introduce the elements of climate and will illustrate that natural climate change has occurred in the past. Climatic factors are analysed at a global, regional, and local scale. The impacts of climate change are discussed

SECTION 1

’

in relation to the Great Lakes, their past and present water levels. These past changes have had significant impacts on local soils, vegetation, and the way that coastal communities have developed.

HEAT EXCHANGE

Climate is defined and directed by the way in which heat from the sun is absorbed, then re-radiated from the earth and exchanged and dispersed throughout the earth’s atmosphere. This dispersal creates the weather patterns which we experience on a daily and a seasonal basis. It is accomplished by atmospheric circulation, or air movement, and assisted by the process of convection (the rising of hot air).

ATMOSPHERE

The earth’s atmosphere is a thin layer of gases which are most dense closest to the earth’s surface. A useful comparison is an apple representing the earth, and the apple peel

Natural Climate History

1

Climate History 1- 1-

representing the earth’s atmosphere. The thickness of the peel is best shown by cutting the apple in half and showing the students the cut portion. This relatively thin atmospheric layer contains the weather that affects our daily lives.

FIGURE 1:Earth’s Atmosphere X Section (see Resource #18, page13)

MISSING GRAPHIC

Most weather occurs in the lowest 20 km of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is most dense near the earth’s surface due to gravity. Air content is primarily oxygen and nitrogen. Air temperature generally drops (lowers) as you increase in elevation away from the earth in the lower portion of the atmosphere.

CONVECTION

The process of convection is greatest near the equator where the sun provides the most direct source of energy to the earth. Higher latitudes receive sun’s radiation at a greater angle of intersection, therefore less absorption. The equatorial region is therefore the “engine” for the global circulation system. Heat and moisture are transferred to the air at several locations between the equator and the poles. These transfer or convergence points are pre-determined by the prevailing winds on the

surface of the earth. These points are found at approximately 30 degree intervals of latitude measured from the equator and roughly correspond to the tropics (Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn) and the polar circles (Arctic and Antarctic Circles).

In summary, the process of convection assists in redistributing energy from the sun to all areas of the earth. The sun heats the earth; the earth re-radiates heat which warms the atmosphere; most heat is generated at the equator; convection currents are created that move warm moist air towards the poles.

CIRCULATION

Regionally, the Great Lakes basin is located in the latitude where the prevailing wind is known as the “Westerlies”. Most storms follow the west winds moving from west to east across the region.

2

Climate History 1-

Locally, in Ontario, west winds off Lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron contribute to an increased amount of precipitation due to the moisture content contributed by the lakes. Southwestern Ontario’s climate is mild and wet due to the influence of the large water bodies located nearby.

These conditions create local climates and growing conditions. The City of London is considered Canada’s thunderstorm capitol. Southwestern Ontario is also home to a variety of vegetation and animal species that are more commonly found in the Carolina area of the U.S.A. The existence of this Carolinian life zone is directly related to the proximity to the lakes and the influence of circulation on the local climate.

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The movement of water on the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere is described as the hydrologic cycle, or water cycle. This is one of several very important cycles in nature. Other cycles include the nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and the carbon cycle, the latter which is further explained in Section 2.

The earth’s water supply is finite. In the water cycle, water circulates, or cycles, between oceans, lakes, land and air. Rain and other forms of precipitation fall on the land and on bodies of water. Energy from the sun causes evaporation of water in the form of water vapor. In addition, animals release water vapor during respiration and plants release water vapor during

3


transpiration. When air becomes saturated or conditions change, condensation will occur. During condensation, the water vapor changes back to water in its liquid form; this change produces clouds.

Lake water levels will depend on a number of factors all related to the water cycle. Using Lake Huron as an example, there are periods of time when more rainfall and less evaporation occurs. During these periods, the water inputs (recharge) are greater than the water outputs (discharge) and the lake levels will rise. Drier conditions with warmer temperatures will cause more evaporation and will result in lower lake levels. The balance of water input and output for Lake Huron will generally tend to average out over longer periods of time (25 to 50 years). This water balance is one of the key factors that is being altered by climate change.

GREAT LAKES HISTORY

Historically, the Great Lakes have evolved in size and location based on the various stages of glaciation that have impacted the region. Glaciation in the Great Lakes region is divided into four major periods with the last period, known as the Wisconsin period, occurring between 10,000 and 100,000 year ago. The glacial ice was over 2 km thick, therefore it altered the landscape by the weight of the ice depressing the land and scouring the surface of the earth as it moved. The Great Lakes went through such a dramatic change in elevation and extent that researchers have given each new lake level a new name.

For example, between 12,000 and 14,000 years ago, Lake Huron evolved through several stages in size and location in succession while the remainder of the lake basin was still occupied by glacial ice. Glacial Lakes Warren, Algonquin, and Stanley are all predecessors of Lake Huron and are all significantly different. Their evolution is caused partly due to the changing outlets of meltwater from the glacial ice. This was also caused in part due to the rate of isostatic rebound (uplift of the land following the removal of the weight of the ice). This rebound is measured in millimeters per year. However the rebound is significant when considering such long term processes as water levels and shore erosion.

Post Glacial Development of the Great Lakes

4

Climate History 1-

WATER LEVELS: Ocean Coasts versus Great Lakes Coasts

Although melting glacier ice “fed” the Great Lakes during their historic evolution, these conditions no longer exist. Great Lakes water levels are now solely dependent on climatic factors such as precipitation and temperature; glaciers are no longer a factor in lake water levels. This fact is in contrast to the ocean water levels which are still hydrologically connected to ice caps and glaciers near the earth’s poles. Although variations will occur, warmer and drier climatic conditions due to global warming will generally increase ocean levels due to the melting of the ice caps. Conversely, warmer and drier conditions over the Great Lakes will decrease lake water levels primarily due to increased evaporation.

Perhaps one of the greatest impacts of climate change on the Great Lakes will be the lack of ice cover during the winter months. The warmer winter months projected by the effects of climate change will reduce or eliminate the ice layer that has generally protected shorelines from winter lake storms. This change has implications

5

on the shipping industry, shore erosion, and on the rate of evaporation. Recent observations show the ice free season is increasing on all of the Great Lakes.

Lake Huron Water Levels

Student Resource Sheet 1-

The Air We Breathe

Did you know the farther you climb up a mountain, the thin-ner the air becomes? This layer of air, called the atmosphere, is composed of many

different gases including oxygen and is very thin. The thickness can be compared to the skin on an apple: the earth is the pulp and the apple skin is the atmosphere.

Did you also know that the air temperature gets cooler as you rise in elevation while climbing up the mountain? This is because the energy that heats the atmosphere comes primarily from the surface of the earth. This heat exchange from the earth to the air means that those areas of the earth that receive the most energy from the sun have the warmest average air temperatures. What part of the earth has these warmest temperatures? Have you heard of the terms “equator” and “tropics” and do you know where they are? If the equator continues to get the most energy from the sun, why does it not continue to get hotter and hotter? Will this area eventually burn up?

The earth is covered with many surfaces. Different surfaces of the earth absorb different amounts of energy and therefore re-radiate different amounts of energy, The re-radiated energy is often in the form of heat and is affected by colour and density.

Dark surfaces, like black shingles on a roof will absorb energy, heat up and radiate heat during sunny days. Surfaces with different densities will also absorb energy in different ways creating variations in energy transfer. Near shorelines, water in a lake or pond will absorb more energy and not re-radiate as much as the land. This means that the air tem-perature over water is often cooler than air temperatures over land. Now you know why you hear weather forecasters indicate that “the temperature will be slightly cooler by the lake”. Do you think that this cooling effect along shorelines is one reason why shorelines are where people like to live? Look at the maps of countries like Australia and see where all the large cities are located.

The Air We Breathe

6

1- Student Resource Sheet

The Heat is OnThe Heat is On

Have you ever watched a hawk or a seagull soar through the air? Have you wondered how that bird flies so far without flapping it’s wings?

Hawks are experts in using certain air currents, called convection currents to keep them flying. These convection currents are warmer air in the atmosphere that rise because they are lighter in weight. This is the same principle that keeps a hot air balloon off the ground. The warmer rising air that the hawk floats on is one way that heat from one area of the earth’s atmosphere is moved to another area. This exchange of heat from one area to another creates the movement of air, or winds.

Wind is one mechanism that moves air from one area of the earth to another. If we did not have wind, the heat near the equator would never move to other areas of the planet. This also applies to the cold air near the north and south poles which moves away from the poles to other areas of the earth based on these same principles. The circulation of these warmer and cooler air masses ensures that the earth’s atmosphere does not continue to heat up or cool down. If it does not heat up or cool down then it is said to be in bal-ance.

Along the shorelines of large water bodies like the Great Lakes, wind patterns can be found that change from day to night. These wind patterns may not be as strong as some winds and are therefore referred to as breezes. These winds are created by the day time heating and night time cooling of the land in relation to the water. This differential heat-ing caused by the air over land heating and cooling faster than over water create onshore breezes by day and offshore breezes by night. This breeze is an-

other reason why people enjoy liv-ing by the shorelines of our oceans and large lakes.

7

Left graphic: Onshore Breeze (daytime) Right graphic: Offshore Breeze (night time)

Student Resource Sheet 1-

The Winds of Change

Does the wind blow from only one direction where you live? If you measured the wind direction for two months (for the whole summer, for instance) would it be the same each day? Probably not however, one direction would be most common.

Wind patterns around the world are based on the factors of air heating and cooling. The winds that are most commonly found in an area are referred to as the prevailing winds. The Great Lakes region of North America is located in the climatic zone with prevailing winds from the west. This means that most weather systems, including storms move from west to east across North America. Weather forecasters who are attempting to predict the weather in the Great Lakes region will watch what is happening to the west of the Great Lakes in the Prairie region of the continent. They will then warn the weather forecasters to the east in the Atlantic Provinces and New England States what is heading their way.

Areas of the earth are divided into regions or zones because of the common or prevailing wind direction. In Ontario, the “prevailing westerlies” as they are called, move storms and weather patterns across the Great Lakes and influence Ontario’s weather. Rain-storms are very common in southwestern Ontario after air masses move across Lake Michigan and Lake Huron absorbing moisture from the lakes. That is the reason why the City of London is known as Canada’s thunderstorm capital.

The Winds of Change

8


The Ice Age Blues

Did you ever wonder what caused the Great Lakes to form as they did? Wonder where all the water came from?

Much of the water came from melting glaciers thousands of years ago. These glaciers covered most of Canada and the northern U.S.A. This time period is known as the ICE AGE. Each time the glaciers advanced and retreated they carved the landscape, moving large quantities of the earth’s surface.

If you know where to look, these changes to the earth’s surface can be seen along the Great Lakes by old shorelines and beach deposits located great distances from the exist-ing lake locations. Field activities later in this education kit will introduce you to specific locations near your school.

These historic shorelines are a reminder of past climatic conditions that were colder allowing such large ice sheets to form and cover such a large portion of North America. The Great Lakes changed in size in relation to the location of the ice sheets and the quantity of water. The changes were large enough that researchers refer to the lakes by different names. Lake Huron, for example is called Lake Algonquin, Lake Nipissing, and Lake Stanley depending on the time period and the size of the lake. How many other names did Lake Huron go by during the Ice Age?

Do you think these climatic conditions could ever return? In your lifetime? Does climate change suggest that we will return to a period of glaciers with ice and snow? Or does the description of climate change suggest just the opposite?

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

The Ice Age Blues

9

Student Activities 1-

Climate Change Alphabet

Creative Writing Exercise: Making an Environmental Alphabet

OVERVIEW:

This activity allows students to practice using new words and concepts related to climate change.

SKILLS:

interpretation reasoning

using reference material

research

MATERIALS:

paper

Climate Change Alphabet

pencils

dictionary

encyclopedia and other reference materials PROCEDURE:

1. Divide the students into groups and assign each group 5 or 6 letters of the alphabet.

2. Print each letter clearly, one at a time. After each letter, students should write a concept or item that is related to climate change or to the environment. After the idea, concept or item, students should write a fact or piece of information they have learned from the climate change materials.

10

1- Student Activities

3. After each group has completed its letters, the Climate Change Alphabet can be put together as a booklet or displayed on the bulletin board.

Some examples: A - atmosphere. The Earth’s atmosphere consists primarily of oxygen (about 21%) and nitro-gen (about 78%). The remaining gases include small amounts of water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and other trace gases. F - fossil fuels. Every day we use fuels formed millions of years ago from the remains of plants and animals. Oil, coal and natural gas are fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is a byproduct from the burning of fossil fuels.

Adapted from the Teacher’s Resource Manual on Global Warming, “Understanding the Forecast”. American Museum

of Natural History, Environmental Defense Fund.

11

Human Influenceon Climate

Change

The Human Influence on Climate Change 2-

SECTION 2

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The Human Influence on Climate Change

Introduction Human population on earth increases each year. We have grown from 600 million at the turn of the 18th Century to 5 billion today. With this population increase and a reliance on burning fossil fuels to heat our homes and run our vehi-cles, we are impacting the earth and it’s systems far greater than ever before. The tropical and temperate forests provide a regulating effect on the global climatic patterns. Deforestation of these areas has meant that the “earth’s lungs” are becoming unable to provide the regulating ability they once had. Carbon di-oxide, methane, and nitrous oxides are being re-leased into the atmosphere at a much higher rate than ever before in human history. These gases add to the existing quantities of greenhouse gases that naturally occur in the atmosphere and create an “enhanced” greenhouse effect. This en-hanced effect is the unnatural increase in global temperature and the resultant changes to climate (ie. elements such as precipitation, wind pat-terns, and ocean circulations) and, consequently ecosystems.

GLOBAL WARMING The ten warmest years in the 20th Century have all occurred since 1980. This could be as a result of natural temperature variation however, scientific opinion is that global warming is the reason. Global warming is also referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect. This effect which increases global temperatures is well document-ed, however scientists are unsure of the rate at which the warming will happen. Global average temperatures have increased steadily since 1861 with a brief cooling period in the 1940’s. The ten warmest years in global history have been since 1980. If this trend con-tinues, we will experience climate change con-ditions unlike any which has occurred within the last several hundred thousand years. These changes will dramatically alter weather systems and their impact on us.

FIGURE 1

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2- The Human Influence on Climate Change

NATURAL GREENHOUSE EFFECT The greenhouse effect is the term used for one of the functions the atmosphere plays in the earth’s ecosystem. This term is used as it is simi-lar to the function that a greenhouse plays in influencing heat and humidity for the growth of plants in a glass-sided greenhouse. However, our greenhouse being discussed in this case is much larger; the entire Earth. The Earth receives energy from the sun in the form of short wave radiation. This radiation is generally visible light that scatters easily and cre-ates the blue colour (blue = shortest wavelength of visible light) for the sky that we see on clear days. Although most of this energy is absorbed and re-emitted as infrared radiation, some es-capes into space immediately. What is re-emit-ted by the Earth is long wave radiation that is trapped in the lower atmosphere due to the pres-ence of naturally occurring gases, or greenhouse gases. This warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.

The present average temperature on Earth is about 15o C. Without the greenhouse effect the mean temperature would be minus 18o C or 33 degrees colder. Imagine how life on earth would be different without this blanketing effect of the layer of greenhouse gases. If we increase the quantity of these greenhouse gases, then we will increase, or enhance this effect. The average temperature increases and global warming oc-curs. THE CARBON CYCLE Similar to the water cycle, there is a finite amount of carbon on the Earth and in the sur-rounding atmosphere. Carbon accumulates and is removed into the natural environment by a number of processes. These processes combined are considered as the carbon cycle. Carbon is found in the atmosphere, vegeta-tion, the lakes and oceans, in sedimentary rocks and in fossil fuels. Things that absorb and store carbon are known as carbon “sinks”. When carbon dioxide in released from carbon “sinks”, these sinks become carbon “sources”. A balance between carbon storage and carbon release is important to the maintenance of a habitable environment for most organisms. Carbon dioxide (CO

2) is a gas and a source of

carbon released from the burning of fossil fuels. Since the Industrial Revolution, huge increases in the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, have increased emissions of carbon dioxide and other associated gases such as nitrous oxides. This increase in the levels of

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The Human Influence on Climate Change 2-

sink. These forests, sometimes called the Earth’s lungs, turn atmospheric carbon dioxide into other beneficial gases including oxygen for use by humans and other animals. Other methods by which the carbon cycle has been upset includes the removal of carbon from storage in the Earth as hydrocarbons, or fossil fuels. These fuels are burned and emit carbon di-oxide into the atmosphere. Methane from agri-culture and from landfill sites also contribute to the expansion of the greenhouse gases. Vegeta-tion removal for agriculture, draining wetlands, and the removal of other vegetation types con-tributes to the change from these areas serving as carbon “sinks” to being a carbon “source”. These changes in the carbon cycle mean that carbon is now “stored” more abundantly in the atmosphere and less in the earth as oil and gas, and on the earth as forests. The result is that it is now available in much greater quantities to interfere with the natural greenhouse effect in the atmosphere.

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have doubled since pre-industrial times. But this factor alone is not the reason why we have upset the balance of the carbon cycle. Plants make food using atmospheric carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water. This process is known as ”photosynthesis”. During the growing season, this process removes billions of tons of CO

2 from the air which is stored in vegetation

as a carbon “sink”. With increased deforestation of the tropical and temperate forests around the world, we are removing a critical component of the carbon cycle by reducing a carbon storage

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2- The Human Influence on Climate Change

“Keeling curve” measures atmospheric buildup of carbon dioxide. The amount drops each summer as plants suck up more carbon dioxide but then increases once leaves are shed each Fall. This curve shows the concentration of atmospheric CO

2 in

parts per million for the period 1960 to 1990.

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Student Resource Sheet 2- 7

The balance of the Carbon Cycle has been altered by the impact of humans and their activities. Can you think of what activities these are?

The world keeps getting more and more people. This increase in population, from about 600 million at the beginning of the 18th Century to about 5 billion today is putting more of a stress on the earth’s resources. And this increase in population has not been balanced by a change in the impact we have on this earth. Our impact appears to be getting greater especially in the industrialized countries of North America and Europe.

Exhaust from vehicle engines is creating carbon dioxide through the burning of fossil fuels. Car exhaust is combined with the added impact of gasoline engine exhaust associated with lawn mowers, leaf blowers, and boat engines.

Forests are being cleared to meet the growing demand for fuel, building materials and agricultural land. But this clearing is being done at the expense of the value that forests provide. Rain forests play a major role in regulating world climate patterns. They do this by storing carbon dioxide in their plant tissues and releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere through plant respiration and decay. Rain forests are often referred to as the “lungs of the earth”.

Increases in the emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2, nitrous oxides and methane

have occurred at the same time as carbon sinks have been altered through deforestation and wetland destruction. These changes have increased the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere and decreased the amounts stored in sinks. These gases are all considered to be “greenhouse gases” that perform the important task of regulating the earth’s atmospheric temperature. These increases in greenhouse gases have caused an “enhanced” greenhouse effect which has raised and will likely continue to raise the average temperature in some areas of the earth.

The enhanced greenhouse effect is one of the main reasons for climate change.

Human Impacts on the Natural Carbon Cycle

Human Impacts on the Natural Carbon Cycle


The Natural Carbon Cycle

The Natural Carbon Cycle

Carbon is an element found in more than just pencil leads. All living matter contains some quantity of carbon. So where would you find the largest quantities of carbon?

Carbon is found in the atmosphere, vegetation, the oceans, sedimentary rocks, and in fossil fuels (oil and gas). The greatest storage of carbon can be found in the oceans in sedimentary rocks, and in fossil fuels. Vegetation however, plays an important role in the carbon cycle. Plants use more carbon than they release. Just as humans inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide, plants perform the opposite process. They inhale carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen through a process called photosynthesis. The carbon from plants is again released into the atmosphere when plants die and decay, or when plants are removed and burned to clear land for other uses such as agriculture. Plants can also be transformed into fossil fuels when heat and pressure are applied over long periods of time.

Carbon is used, stored and released in varying amounts however, the total amount of carbon is always the same on the Earth and in the associated atmosphere. A balance in carbon use, storage, and release ensures that the cycle can be maintained.

Things that absorb and store carbon are known as carbon “sinks”. Carbon sinks are considered to be the atmosphere, water, vegetation, and sediments. These sinks become carbon “sources” when they release carbon back into the system. These sources are considered to be the processes of burning fossil fuels, decomposing vegetation, respiration and digestion from animals. A balance between carbon storage and carbon release is important to the maintenance of a habitable environment for most organisms.

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Student Resource Sheet 2- 5

The Natural Greenhouse Effect

The next time you help your mom or dad purchase plants from a greenhouse, remember how hot and steamy it is inside these buildings. What causes that to occur?

Greenhouses are made of glass or some other clear material. This clear material allows the sunshine to pass through and heat the interior. This same material does not let the heat escape. Staff in the greenhouse keep the plants watered which means that there is abundant moisture available to be absorbed by the warmer air.

The result = a hot, steamy environment for plants to grow!

This heat trapping concept is also used to describe certain atmospheric gases that surround the earth. These naturally occurring gases also allow the sun’s rays to penetrate through without allowing all the heat to escape back out into space. This process keeps the earth’s atmospheric temperature steady and keeps the earth climate habitable.

The result = a warm, steady temperature that allows various types of plants and animals to live. Without this natural process, the temperature of the atmosphere would drop and life on earth would be much different.

RELATED QUESTIONS:

Do you know how to live in an igloo?

Does your dog know how to pull a sled over snow and ice?

Would you like to eat frozen popsicles for the rest of your life?

The Natural Greenhouse Effect

Student Activities

OVERVIEW:

Students learn how a greenhouse traps heat using an analogy for the Greenhouse Effect

SKILLS:

observation

interpretation

recording data

MATERIALS:

� 1 large mayonnaise jar with lid

� 2 small thermometers

� 2 pieces of cardboard

� rubber bands

� bright desk lamp (optional: if sunny window sill is available)

BACKGROUND:

A greenhouse is a building especially constructed for growing plants when the weather outside is cold. The walls of a greenhouse are made of glass or clear plastic. Sunlight passes through the walls and is absorbed by the soil and plants and is then emitted as heat energy which warms the air inside the greenhouse. The walls prevent the heated

Demonstrating the Greenhouse Effect

Demonstrating the Greenhouse Effect

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Student Activities2-9

air from escaping, and it remains trapped inside the greenhouse. Do you think the tem-perature inside the greenhouse is hotter or colder than outside the greenhouse? (Hotter). Certain gases in the atmosphere, called greenhouse gases, act like the glass in the green-house. These gases allow sunlight to pass through to the Earth’s surface. When sunlight hits the Earth it heats the surface (think of a blacktop parking lot in the summer). As the heat rises, some of it is trapped by the greenhouse gases. What are the major natural greenhouse gases, not including water vapour? (Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide). Without the greenhouse gases creating what is called the natural greenhouse effect, the atmosphere and climate on Earth would be too cold to sustain life.

In this experiment, you will observe that the temperature inside a greenhouse is warmer than the temperature outside the greenhouse.

PROCEDURE:

1. Using rubber bands, attach the top of each thermometer to a piece of cardboard. Make sure the numbers are facing out when you stand the thermometers.

2. Place one of the thermometers inside the mayonnaise jar and put the top on the jar.

3. Put the jar with the thermometer and the thermometer with only the cardboard attached next to each other in a sunny window or beside a desk lamp. Be sure that both thermometers are shaded from direct sunlight by the cardboard.

4. Record the temperatures of both thermometers every 10 minutes for an hour.

5. You might want to continue the experiment and record the two temperatures daily for a week. Make sure you do it at the same time every afternoon. Use the data for discussions on how the temperature fluctuates from day to day or for lessons on making graphs.

Student Activities

DISCUSSION:

Ask the students which thermometer indicates a higher temperature. (The one inside the jar.) Ask them why? (The glass jar traps the heated air inside and does not allow it to escape; the temperature rises and stays higher than that shown by the thermometer out-side).

Talk about why the “mayonnaise jar greenhouse” was more effective on some days than others, or perhaps varied with the time of day. (Variations will result from different light conditions and length of time exposed to direct sunlight).

Discuss how the jar is behaving like the Earth’s atmosphere. Ask the students what in the atmosphere acts like the glass of the jar or in a greenhouse. (Atmospheric greenhouse gases: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorocarbons.)

Ask what this process is called an why? (The greenhouse effect; because the gases in the atmosphere act like the glass in a greenhouse).

Ask what the Earth’s climate would be like if we did not have the greenhouse effect. (Cli-mate would be too cold for life).

Adapted from the Teacher’s Resource Manual on Global Warming, “Understanding the Forecast”. American Museum

of Natural History, Environmental Defense Fund)

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Student Activities

Oral History Project: Climate Then and Now

OVERVIEW

Students interview older residents in the community about climate changes during their lifetime and compare the results to a climate change index that is based on historical tem-perature measurements.

OBJECTIVES

Students will:1. Explore the factors that determine human perceptions of weather and cli-mate;2. Compile community survey results on local climate change;3. Examine the historical record of climate change in their area;4. Discuss the implications of human perceptions of local climate change on global climate change policy.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION– TEACHER Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place whereas climate

is the average weather taken over a long time period for a given place or region. Climate change is the long-term alteration in the average weather conditions for a particular location. To evaluate whether or not climate is changing, scientists study historical records of temperature and precipitation or the timing of weather-related events such as lake ice formation, animal breeding or migration, and the length of the growing season.

The “Common Sense Climate Index” has been proposed as a measure of whether an area has experienced a temperature change that should be noticeable to most people who have lived at that location for a few decades. A positive value for the index means that climate is warmer than average (The average value for the index

Oral History Project: Climate Then and Now

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Student Activities

is zero. It is based on the average value of the index for the period 1951 to 1980). The scientists who developed the index hypothesize that a persistent index value of +1 or greater represents a climatic warming noticeable to the people of a region.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION – STUDENT

* Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place whereas climate is the average weather taken over a long time period for a given place or region. Climate change is the long-term alteration in the average weather conditions for a particular location.

* Historical temperature and precipitation data are evaluated relative to a “normal,” which is the average for a particular sub-period of time or the average of all the years of record.

MATERIALS

Computers with Internet accessSurvey form for interviews

PROCEDURE

EngageAsk the class to characterize the climate of their region of the Great Lakes. They should consider such factors as the average temperature and precipitation, the magnitude of the temperature change from one season to another, the seasonal distribution of precipita-tion, the nature of the air masses that affect the climate, proximity to the Great Lakes, etc. Then ask each student to list the ways in which this climate directly affects his or her

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Student Activities

life (for example, winter snow allows me to go skiing, mild climate lets me bike to school most of the school year, spring rain floods the soccer field). Next have the students make a judgment, based on their own observations, as to whether climate now is significantly different from when they were younger, and if so what was different about it. Have each student record their answer on a sheet of paper and then tally the results for the entire class. Ask students to write a short essay discussing the results of the class survey. The essay should include a discussion of any similarities and differences among individual responses, in particular considering how different lifestyles affect how people perceive weather and climate and how their own lifestyle influenced their perception of climate change.

Explore 1. Lead a class discussion about the reliability of the results of the class survey on

climate change. In addition to lifestyle differences, students should recognize that the time frame over which people evaluate climate change influences the results. Ask the class how they might design a study to look more closely at hu-man perceptions of climate change.

2. For a class project, students can interview older local residents to see if they have perceived any changes in climate during their lifetimes. They will then compare the results of the survey to climate change in their region as measured by the “Common Sense Climate Index.” The tabulated results of the survey could eventually be written up as an article for the school or local newspaper, or as a presentation to a local radio or television station.

3. Divide the class into small groups to work on the design of the survey. The goal is to determine if people living in the area for a long time believe there has been a noticeable change in climate. Ask students to take into account the results from the activity (that is, students will need to include a question about the resident’s lifestyle). When each group has finished a draft survey, bring the class back together to decide which questions should be included and how they will be presented. This could be done by class discussion and vote.

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Student Activities

4. Ask each student to interview two or three older residents, depending on the size of the community. If possible, students should interview people who have been in the area for at least three decades. Students should make it clear to the interviewees that their answers are completely anonymous, and students should not write the names of the residents anywhere on the data sheet.

5. Have students debrief in the classroom to share their experiences of how the interviewing went and to compile and analyze the group results. Depending on the survey design, the class might want to create an overall continuum or some other chart of opinions—for example, “no change-----some change-----signifi-cant change-----very large change.”

6. After students have compiled the survey results they can compare the data to the Common Sense Climate Index. Go to www.giss.nasa.gov/data/update/csci/ and click on “U.S. and World Average Climate Index Maps.”

7. Ask students to summarize the comparison between the survey results and the Climate Index in the form of either a science journal article or an informative news article. The article should incorporate answers to the following questions:• What were the results of the resident survey? Was there a clear opinion on

change in climate or did answers differ from one resident to another? If they differed, were there any clear patterns relating the answers to the length of time the resident lived in the area, lifestyle, occupation, or other factors?

• What does the Climate Index say about climate change? Has climate been warming, cooling, fluctuating, or more or less consistent (both over the entire period of record, and for the period of record that corresponds to the lifetime of the interviewed residents)? According to the index, should the climate changes over the last few decades be noticeable to older residents (i.e. has the Climate Index been persistently greater than 1, or less than 1?)

• Do the results between the survey and the Climate Index agree? If they do agree can you say anything about the usefulness of the Climate Index, or do you still need more information? If they do not agree, can you suggest

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Student Activities

reasons for the disagreement (i.e. people’s perceptions are not always consist-ent with reality, Climate Index is not a perfect measure of noticeable climate change, etc.)?

Putting it all together: After students have completed all the exercises, have a final discussion on how perception of climate change might affect a person’s position on climate change policy. For example, people who believe there has been a noticeable change in local climate might be more in-terested in supporting efforts to curtail greenhouse gas emissions. (This is, of course, only one of many possible factors that influence political position—encourage students to list other factors affecting opinions on climate change policy).

Extend1. The results of the class project could be written up as an article for the school or lo-

cal newspaper, presented to local radio or television stations, or posted on the Web. If an article is written for the local newspapers or posted on the Web, students could also include a copy of the survey for others to fill out and return to the school. In this way students could add to the results from their interviews.

2. Invite a local weather service employee or weather newscaster to speak about his or her job and opinions of the ways in which climate influences people’s lives. Ask the speaker to show weather data on local historical climate trends. If desired, these data could supplement the Climate Index data in the assignment. Local conservation au-thorities also track weather data for purposes of flood forecasting. They might also be a good source for information, or for speakers.

3. Find a partner school in another area of the Great Lakes to complete the Climate Change Survey. Compare the results between the two classes by posting them on the Internet.

Adapted from the Union of Concerned Scientists activities in “Global Warming: early warning signs”, Curriculum Guide

for High School Courses in Biology, Environmental Science, Geography, Earth Science and others focussing on the

society-environment interface.

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Student Activities

Impacts toEcosystems

Impacts to Ecosystems

SECTION 3

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Figure 1

CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION

A changing climate has always been a part of life on our planet. Recently, human-induced cli-mate change has become one of the most impor-tant global environmental issues. Due to human activity, carbon dioxide (CO

2) and other green

house gas levels have increased in our atmos-phere.

Greenhouse gases create an atmospheric blan-ket that traps heat from the sun and warms the earth. Although a certain level of atmospheric heat is required, we are creating an environment in which unnaturally high and dangerous tem-peratures may be reached. Changes in tempera-ture and precipitation resulting from climate change affect runoff, and ultimately, lake levels. Decreasing water levels are of concern to the Great Lakes community.

Climate impact assessments are carried out to study the potential effects of a doubling of CO

2

in the atmosphere. Assessments of “what if ”scenarios, or plausible climate futures, demon-strate that climate change may affect our ability

to enjoy the Great Lakes. “What if ” climatescenarios are provided here from the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis 2.

TEMPERATURE

Average temperatures are projected to increase in the Southern Lake Huron region approximately 3oC by 2050 and 6oC by 2090 as the atmospher-ic concentration of greenhouse gases continues to rise. The three temperaturecurves in Figure 1 represent the current tempera-ture based on a 30-year average from the Sarnia station and the average monthly temperaturesprojected for 2050 and 2090.

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Figure 2

2050: Seasonally, temperature is projected to increase on average by 4.3ºC in winter; 4ºC in spring; 2.7ºC in summer; and 2.3ºC in the fall. There is a projected temperature increase for each month, however the greatest temperature increase is likely to be experienced in January,February, and March (at 5ºC, 7ºC, and 6ºC, respectively).

2090: Average seasonal temperatures are pro-jected to increase, with the most significant change experienced in the months of Febru-ary and March (10oC increase). The summer months from June through August are projectedto be 4oC to 5oC warmer, while December may experience the smallest temperature increase of 3oC.

PRECIPITATION

Figure 2 illustrates how monthly precipitation levels are projected to change relative to historic patterns in the southern Lake Huron region(baseline represents 30-year average precipitation

patterns at the Sarnia station). Precipitation change is represented as a percentage of baselinefor ease of interpretation.

2050: Changes in precipitation projected by the model for 2050 indicate small increases in spring and fall, and decreases in summer and winter. March may experience a 10% increase in precipitation, whereas August may experience a reduction in precipitation of 32%. On aver-age, annual precipitation is projected to decrease by 4%.

2090: The model scenario for 2090 also projects that precipitation levels may increase in spring and fall, while summer and winter precip-itation levels may decrease. The climate scenario suggests projected precipitation levels for Febru-ary may increase by 6% and precipitation during March could increase by as much as 36%. June, July, and August may experience an average reduction in precipitation of 18%. September and October are projected to experience a 40% and 10% increase, but November and Decem-ber may experience a reduction of 6% and 11%. These projections represent an average annual decrease in precipitation of 3% in the southern Lake Huron region.

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Figure 3

TIMING OF TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION CHANGES

The model’s climate scenarios for southern Lake Huron project an annual temperature increase, with monthly mean temperatures in winter ap-proaching 0oC. The model also projects precipi-tation increases during winter anddecreases during summer. Higher temperatures imply that less wintertime precipitation may fall as snow and more as rain, resulting in decreasedsnowpack accumulation, and less water storage. Snowmelt would occur earlier in the year due to warmer temperatures, and there is a possibilityof an increased frequency of rain-on-snow events. These climate changes would alter the flow patterns of snowmelt dominated rivers, shifting the period of peak runoff from spring-time toward a rainfall-dominated peak inthe winter. Flow in rainfall-dominated rivers is likely to increase because of a higher percentage of precipitation falling as rain.

LAKE HURON WATER LEVELS

Figure 3 is a graph showing Lake Huron water levels between 1918 and 1998. Levels have fluctuated between record highs of 177.5 metres (582.2 feet) above sea level experienced in 1985-

86, and record low levels of 175.5 m (575.6 ft) experienced in 1964.

The climate change model produced a water level scenario for Lake Huron that projected a maximum lake level of 175.6 metres (576 ft) above sea level, and a minimum lake level of 173.6 m (569.5 ft).

However, researchers have found that the maxi-mum and minimum lake levels preferred by waterfront cottage owners are 177.1 metres (581 ft) and 175.6m (576 ft), respectively. Thus, the maximum water level conditions projected by the model would only meet the minimum water level desired by waterfront cottagers.

IMPACTS ON LOCAL ENVIRONMENTS

The changes expected to temperatures, precipi-tation and water levels could have a profound impact to the ecosystems of the Great Lakes. In this section, we will look at some of the possible changes that we could expect to see to our local environment, like beaches and dunes, coastal wetlands, forests and water habitat, as a result of climate change.

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Wetlands are an interface between terrestrial and aquatic environments, and are areas that are permanently or temporarily submerged or wa-ter saturated, such that the vegetation growing within them are adapted to wet soil conditions. The development and ecological integrity of wetlands depend on water saturation for at least part of the year within the wetland complex.The length of time the water is retained in the wetland, and the depth of the water within the wetland are key influences on the amount and variety of vegetation, as well as their distribution and ecological diversity. In Great Lakes coastal wetlands, the water table is tied to lake levels.

Three types of water level fluctuations occur on the Great Lakes. (1) Short-term fluctuations are measured in minutes, hours or days; (2) Seasonal fluctuations follow a regular sea-sonal cycle; (3) Long-term fluctuations reflect changes in water levels over years or decades. Water Levels

SHORT-TERM VARIABILITY

Temporary water level extremes can occur through phenomenon like storm surges and seiches caused by winds or atmospheric pressure changes, and tend to occur locally. They tend to occur over a short time span since the water

Coastal Wetlandslevels return to the way they were in a few hours or days. The impact of this type of fluctuation on coastal wetlands ecology is minimal.

SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS

Lake levels are affected seasonally by evapo-ration, precipitation, watershed runoff and groundwater flow. Water levels have a fairly regular seasonal cycle, with minimum levels in winter, and maximum levels in summer. Levels are low in winter because precipitation as snow, storage of the water on the land as snowpack, and frozen conditions, reduce runoff. Dur-ing spring, levels rise due to runoff, increased groundwater flow and spring rainfall, and reach a summer maximum on Lake Huron in July. The combined effects of higher air temperatures, increased evaporation and reduced runoff lead to a decline in water levels through the autumn.

LONG-TERM VARIABILITY

Long-term fluctuations in water levels do not occur cyclically, since there are no regular pat-terns, or predictable changes. The range in thesefluctuations can be up to two metres between maximum and minimum levels. On Lake Huron, record high levels occurred in 1986; record low levels occurred in 1964. Long term fluctuations are due to climatic variations which occur over several years. Precipitation, evapora-tion and temperature are the dominant factors which control water levels on the Great Lakes.Changes in these elements caused by climatic variations affect the supply of water to the lakes.

Coastal Wetlands3-4


Coastal wetlands along the Great Lakes, which consist primarily of marshes and swamps, are affected most by long term water level fluctua-tions. These wetlands are different than the wetlands found inland because they tend notto develop into more xeric (dry soil) commu-nities, due to a buildup of sediments, soil and organic material. They are also in a continual process of adapting to the long-term fluctuations in water levels. Water level change is necessary for these wetlands to maintain optimum pro-ductivity and diversity of vegetation.

Long-term fluctuations in water levels can dra-matically change vegetation patterns within a coastal wetland. It can take up to three to five years to re-establish vegetation communities. While water levels may not necessarily elimi-nate a particular vegetation community, indi-vidual species can disappear once their tolerance threshold for disturbance has been reached.

During low water levels, plant communities shift lakeward and displace plant communities as they migrate towards the shoreline. The landwardmargins of the wetlands become dry and mud-flats are exposed. Species such as submergents and emergents either migrate or die, and they may have to colonize new areas further lake-ward. They are displaced by plants with drier habitat requirements, like sedges, grasses, shrubs and trees. These plants expand into areas where the water depth was once too deep.

During high water levels, plant communities shift landward. The high lake levels flood the wetlands causing trees to die off, while emer-gents,grasses and sedges are flooded and replaced by submergents, floating leafed plants and open water. But this shift can only occur if the slope within the wetland is very gentle, if there are no natural or human barriers to confine this shift or the movement of water, if there is suitable soilstructure, and if the rate of water level change is slow enough for vegetation to re-establish itself.

The seasonal Great Lakes water levels that rise in the spring to reach their maximum in summer, followed by a decline in the fall and reaching aminimum in the winter, is opposite to the pat-tern that occurs in most inland wetlands. In-terior wetlands reach a maximum water level during spring, after the snowmelt, and are at their minimum during the fall.

Importance to Wildlife

Coastal wetlands are essential to maintaining fish populations. Abundance and diversity of fish is relatively high in and adjacent to shorelinemarshes. The littoral zone is important for food, shelter, spawning and nursing for a wide variety of fish. It is estimated that of the 120 GreatLakes fish species, over half are known to inhabit coastal wetlands for at least part of their life cycle.

Other wildlife, like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates are reliant on these

Coastal Wetlands 3-5


wetlands for feeding resting, breeding and rear-ing their young. Vegetation patterns and chang-es influences the number and species of wildlife a wetland can support. Higher lake levels are preferred to maintain higher wetland wildlife diversity. Low water levels usually lead to poorer conditions for wildlife This is because wildlife depends on the diversity of plant life, size of wetland, water quality within the wetland, and soil conditions. Low lake levels tend to result in less species diversity.

Water Quality

Coastal wetlands act as a natural buffer zone cleansing surface and groundwater before it enters the shore waters. Not only do the wet-lands slow down the movement of sediments and, thereby, trap pollutants, but the vegetation absorbs many of the more persistent pollutants, such as heavy metals. Chemicals like nitrogen, phosphorous and pesticides, are taken upby the wetland plant’s root system. Without these wetlands, even greater amounts of pollu-tion would end up in the Great Lakes.

Climate ChangeClimate change could alter the water level con-ditions under which the Great Lakes coastal wet-lands were formed and are maintained. These wetlands would be altered through changes in the average long-term level, annual range of levels and seasonal cycles. The wetlands would have to adjust to a new pattern of water level fluctuations (Mortsch, 1998).

Climate change brought on by the greenhouse effect has been projected to alter key aspects of our climate, like: temperature, precipitation,evaporation, and snow cover, creating a new range of climatic conditions, and changes in the water cycle regime for the Great Lakes.

Warmer temperatures (projected to increase by 3 to 6oC in the Lake Huron region), with seasonal temperatures being warmest in winter months, may mean more winter precipitation falling as rain instead of snow. This wouldmean the snow pack and the length of the snow season would be reduced.

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Beaches & Dunes

The drop in water levels on the Great Lakes anticipated under climate change, will result in a corresponding widening of beaches. This would likely be welcome news to beach-goers who will find ample room to spread their beach towels. Lakefront landowners may also be pleased be-cause lower lake levels often mean less threat from lake-effect erosion. However, there may be some less evident drawbacks to this situation.

More sand erosion will result from wind effects (aeolian transport) as there is more surface area exposed for wind to pick up sand and carry it inland.

This will result in higher maintenance costs to waterfront communities that have to clear sand accumulations from streets, sidewalks, catchba-sins and sewers.

Beach sand quality could decline where no dune protection programs exist. As wind picks up the finer sand particles and carry them inland, the coarser sand

and gravel remains behind. This could have a negative impact on tourism and recreation un-less communities adopt dune conservation meas-ures to control sand erosion and retain the sand on the beach.

Where dunes exist, they will grow in height initially, then as dune vegetation migrates toward the lake, the dunes will

grow in area. This may have a positive effect on dune ecosystems, and the aerial extent of these environments may expand. As a result, there may be a corresponding increase in biodiversity in dune ecosystems. This might be an attraction to naturalists, bird-watchers, and hikers inter-ested in the life sciences aspects of dune ecosys-tems.

Waterfront parks and municipalities with boardwalks or other amenities may have to extend them lakeward, as these facilities may be stranded too far

from shore as a result of lower water levels. This may be particularly true along Lake St. Clair whose shoreline may shift hundreds of metres lakeward due to the shallow nature of the lake.

Beaches & Dunes 3-7


River watershed which outlets into Lake Huron at Goderich, has about 18% forest cover. The Ausable River watershed to thesouth, which outlets at Grand Bend, has been estimated to have 14% remaining forest cover. This forest cover loss has resulted not only in asignificant release of CO

2 through the cutting

and burning to make way for agricultural pro-duction, but also has, in part, removed an im-portant carbon reservoir, or ‘sink’.

The amount of carbon held in reservoirs, or sinks, that are directly under biotic control is large, compared with the amount held in the atmosphere. These biotic reservoirs are based on land (forests, grasslands, croplands, etc.) and water (phytoplankton). Any future alteration of these reservoirs through human impacts, further erodes the capacity of these areas to absorb CO

2.

Forest composition is known to change over time. Researchers have studied these changes by looking back through time (as early as the last ice age 15,000 years B.P.), and analysing preserved pollen samples. More recent forest changes, occurring within the past several hun-dred years, have been identified by studying old records of major events such as fires andclear-cutting, historical records of travellers’ journals and land surveyors notes. These forest changes provide clues as to how forests evolve over time, and how global climate change might affect the forests of the Great Lakes region (Ohio Sea Grant).

Forests

Over very long periods of time, the composition of forests changes naturally with changing cli-matic conditions. The forests of the GreatLakes region have all developed on land churned up by glacial activity within the last 15,000 years. Treelines migrate, species migrate and soils are built up and destroyed as physical and chemical conditions change. But the response time for forests are usually measured in decades to centuries, not years to decades. When cli-matic changes occur rapidly, some species can-not adjust fast enough, and their populations decline, or suffer extinction.

Researchers are concerned that our present cli-mate is warming at an unprecedented rate, due largely from human activities. The carbon di-oxide content in the earth’s atmosphere has been rising throughout the last century. The amount of CO

2 now present in the atmosphere is about

25 to 30% higher than that present last cen-tury. While the cause of the increase is generally accepted to be the combustion of fossil fuels, it has also been suggested that the destruction of forests over the last 1.5 centuries was the major source of CO

2 released into the atmosphere until

the mid-1960’s.

The forests in watersheds feeding into Lake Huron have been altered dramatically over the last 150 years. The forest cover prior to Europe-an Settlement has been estimated to be 90% or greater. Currently, watersheds, like the Maitland

3-8 Forests


Forest Migration

Climate change is expected to generate a migra-tion of species northward. When global change occurs slowly, plants adapt or migrate to other more favourable geographic locations. If climate change occurs rapidly, as is expected in the com-ing years, plants are unable to adapt or migrate quickly enough and, consequently, die out. Other challenges include limitations insoil depth and type as they migrate further north. Also, the presence of urban areas and intensive agriculture in southern Ontario could impede migration. Huge expanses of land with few trees limits the effective amount of seed dispersal. There is also a limit on how much a forest can propagate in one year. Those that are unable to reproduce quickly may suffer decline.

While changes will occur quickly in terms of forest ecology, they will still seem slow in human terms. The effects may not become noticeable for decades. In the meantime, the established trees in the forest canopy could appear the same, giving the illusion that there has been little, or no change. Changes in precipitation patterns could also af-fect flower and fruit production of adult plants, lessening the chance of offspring survival.Consequently, when our existing, established trees age and begin to die off, there will be fewer replacement trees. Symptoms of an unhealthyforest may appear too late for people to recog-nize a problem.

Anticipated drier conditions within the basin maybe stressful for some tree species. Eastern White Cedar, which is common along the Great Lakes shorelines, tend to be shallow rooted trees. Conditions may be better suited to deep rooting species, like oak, maple and birch. The depth and quality of soils will be limiting factors.

Forest Insects

Significance - the Canadian Forestry Service esti-mates that, each year in Canada, insects destroy an average of 90 million cubic metres of com-mercial timber. That is about 50% more than losses due to fire. Under the projected climate changes, forests will come under increased stress. The damage caused by insects may change sig-nificantly, especially where manyinsects are presently confined in their geographic range and their occurrence by climatic factors.

Warmer climatic conditions could make forests vulnerable to insects whose range will expand into the Great Lakes region. Forest pest out-breaks are expected to increase for two reasons: (1) milder winters will result in increased over-winter survival; (2) drought conditions and wa-ter stress may reduce a tree’s defense mechanisms against insect outbreaks, like forest tent caterpil-lars, spruce budworm and birch borer.

Air Quality

The quality of our air may also have an influ-ence on forest decline. Trees already stressed by climate change, disease and insect infestations,

Forests 3-9


may have those stresses made worse through acid rain, heavy metals and ground-level ozone.

Acid rain is primarily due to the presence of two chemical compounds in the atmosphere - sul-phur and nitrogen oxides. Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide, which produce acid rain, are produced in large amounts by the burning of fossil fuels (particularly coal-fired power plants. When these pollutants combine with moisture and oxygen in the atmosphere, they produceboth sulphurous and sulphuric acid. These acidic compounds fall to the ground with pre-cipitation. Acid rain contributes to forest de-cline by leaching nutrients from the soil directly damaging leaf cuticles; nutrientcycling process. As a result of these processes, tree growth rates are reduced and tree health generally declines, making them more suscep-tible to disease, infestations and climate change related stress. Ozone pollution, or smog, has become a big problem in Ontario in recent years. Nitrogen and hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone. The sources of these pollutants include cars, trucks, industries, or wherever natural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, or oil are combusted. These gaseous compounds mix like a thin soup in the atmosphere and when they interact with sunlight, ozone is formed. Coastal areas of the Great Lakes seem to be the most susceptible to ground-level ozone, because as it forms over wa-ter, there is nothing for the ozone molecules to attach themselves to. As it comes inland, where there are less pollutants, it begins connecting

with plant life. This process takes ozone out of the air, but damages the plants.

Economic Implications

The forest industry is significant in the Lake Superior and northern Lake Huron region of northern Ontario. Species die-back and migra-tion resulting from air pollution and climate change could seriously impact the industry.Softwood species like pine, fir and birch, used in pulp and paper manufacturing, may be dis-placed by hardwood species like maple and beech. Hardwoods, used in furniture manufac-turing, take much longer to mature.

Recreation and tourism activities are dependant on forests. Hiking, camping and birding attract hundreds of thousands of people each year. De-pending on the extent to which these ecosystems change, this industry may be affected as well.

Forest History

Forest composition is known to change over time. Research-

ers have studied these changes by looking back through time

(as early as the last ice age 15,000 years B.P.), and analysing

preserved pollen samples. More recent forest changes, occur-

ring within the past several hundred years, have been identi-

fied by studying old records of major events such as fires and

clear-cutting, historical records of travellers‛ journals, and land

surveyors notes. These forest changes provide clues as to how

forests evolve over time, and how global climate change might

affect the forests of the Great Lakes region.

3-10 Forests


Map of the southern Ontario region showing forest cover for the time period between 1985 and 1991. The pre-settlement pattern would show most of this area as solid black.

Researchers Prove Past Cooling Trend Caused By Move From

Forests To Agriculture

LIVERMORE, Calif.- Researchers in Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory’s Atmospheric Sci-ence Division have demonstrated a cooling of up to 2-degree Fahrenheit over land between 1000 and 1900 AD as a result of changes from natural vegetation, such as forests, to agriculture.

Through climate model simulations, the LLNL research team made up of Bala Govindasamy, Ken Caldeira and Philip Duffy, determined that a previously recognized cooling trend up to the last century could, in part, be attributed to the land-use change.

Previous studies had attributed cooling to natural climate variations. The Livermore research, however, suggests that much of this cooling could have been the result of human activity.

Source: Ontario Power Generation, 1998

continued on next page...

Forests 3-11


Forests tend to look dark from the sky, but agricultural lands, with their amber waves of grain, tend to look much lighter. Dark colors tend to absorb sunlight, and light colors tend to reflect sunlight back out to space. Changing from forests to crops results in more sunlight reflected back to space. This reflection of solar energy to space tends to cool the Earth, especially in regions such as the eastern and mid-western United States, where huge tracts of land have been converted to crops. In the 20th century, some of this cropland has been reverting back to forest, especially in the eastern United States.

Greenhouse gas emissions in the 20th century likely overcame any cooling trends that took place up to that time. Growing more trees has been suggested as a way to soak up carbon diox-ide, a greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere. However, earlier studies demonstrate that growing dark forests could actually heat the earth’s surface more because dark colors tend to absorb more sunlight, despite the uptake of carbon dioxide.

“The Earth land surface has cooled by about 0.41 K (= by about 3/4 of a degree Fahrenheit) due to the replacement of dark forests by lighter farms growing wheat, corn, etc.,” said Caldeira, a climate model researcher who also is co-director for the Department of Energy’s Center for Re-search on ocean carbon sequestration. “This is an example of inadvertent geoengineering — we changed the reflectivity of the Earth and have probably caused a global cooling in the past. This is now probably being overwhelmed by our greenhouse gas emissions.”

The research, published in the Geophysical Research Letters, also shows a slight increase in the annual means of global and Northern Hemisphere sea ice volumes in association with the cooling. The simulated annual average cooling due to land-use change during this period is almost a half a degree Fahrenheit globally, 0.66 °F for the Northern Hemisphere and .74 °F over land. In the simulations, land use data for 1000 AD uses potential natural vegetation, made up mainly of forests, while data for the 1900 AD period uses standard current vegetation data, which is a mix of forest and croplands, taken from the Community Climate Model developed at the National Center for Atmospheric Research. The greenhouse gas levels in both simulations are in concentrations taken at pre-industrial levels.” The estimated temperature change in the continental United States as a result of change from forests to agriculture is up to a 2-degree Fahrenheit cooling,” Caldeira said. “So, when we talk about global warming, we can no longer take for granted that this global warming is starting from some natural climate state, undisturbed by human activities.”

Founded in 1952, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is a national nuclear security labora-tory, with a mission to ensure national security and apply science and technology to the im-portant issues of our time. The National Nuclear Security Administration’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is managed by the University of California.

Source: Canadian Climate Impacts and Adaptation Research Network

3-12Impacts to Ecosystems


Life in the Lake

Fish

Since the last period of glaciation affecting the Great Lakes region, about 10,000 years ago, hundreds of fish species have colonized the Great Lakes. Some of these fish have migrated elsewhere, or become extinct, while othershave become the current lake residents.

Humans have had an increasing impact on Great Lakes fish populations since the 1800’s. Fish, like the muskellunge (Muskie) lost much of their spawning grounds in the Great Lakes when European settlers began building dams (restrict-ing upstream migration), draining wetlands, and converting forests into farm land. This habitat destruction, as well as the over-fishing of adult fish, has caused some fish populations to go into serious decline. Sturgeon, for example, has never recovered from itsdecline and is now considered an endangered species.

The emergence of climate change has brought yet another human change to the environment that will affect aquatic ecosystems. Warmer temperatures and changes in the pattern of flows in spawning rivers could reduce the abundance of species like salmon, trout and bass. In some instances, the expected reduction in flows in some rivers and streams could make thesewatercourses impassible for migrating species.

Precipitation patterns in the Great Lakes region are expected to change, such that there will be more intense precipitation in shorter time peri-ods. Most of it would occur during the spring and fall, while the summer season would be more droughty. This could lead to incidences of flash flooding, more soil erosion, and an increase in the amount of chemical runoff from agricul-tural fields. This additional sedimentation and chemical pollution could be hazardous to many fish species in the Great Lakes. For instance,walleye is a species which prefers a rocky lake bottom habitat. These living conditions may be seriously impacted by siltation.

Lower lake levels, projected under climate change, would mean that harbours and marinas would have to be dredged more frequently and more deeply in order to maintain boating access. This would resuspend sediments in nearshorewaters, exposing resident plants and animals to toxic materials that had been settled to the lake bottom.

Fish in the Great Lakes generally live in one of three temperature related habitats. Coldwater fish prefer temperatures around 150C, or colder, cool water fish around 240C, and warm water fish around 280C. With warmer lake temper-atures likely under climate change, cold water species would likely move to deeper, colder wa-ter. According to the climate change modelresults, both the length of the growing season and the areas of suitable water temperatures (thermal habitat), are expected to increase for most Great Lakes species.

Life in the Lake 3-13


Warmer water temperatures over the year would speed up fish metabolism. Whether this would lead to accelerated growth would depend on theavailability of prey (food). If the prey popula-tions do not increase with increasing water tem-peratures, predator species may not find enough food to meet their daily intake requirements.

Plankton

Phytoplankton production is expected to increase by 1.5 to 2.7 times their current levels. Increased phytoplankton production would provide more forage for zooplankton which would, in turn, provide more forage for young fish. However, increases in certain phytoplank-ton populations may become a problem. Plankton eating fish prefer green algae to blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria), and blue-green algae has generally been a problem in shallow waters of the Great Lakes. When blue-green algae populations multiply rapidly, and then die en masse, lake bottom decomposers must consume large quantities of dissolved oxygen to break down the remains. This can cause sections of the lower lake to become anoxic (oxygen deficient) in the late summer until the fall turnover replenishes oxygen supplies. The overall effect is that bottom dwelling fish such as perch, walleye and catfish suffocate unless they move to another location during these low oxygen periods. Invertebrates, such as Mayfly larvae, that live in the lake’s substrate, are not as mobile, and often die when water quality

becomes poor. Since invertebrates are an important food source for fish, declines in their population could create a ripple effect in the food chain.

Alien Invasive Species

Humans have also affected fish populations through the accidental introduction of alien, invasive species. One of the most well known is the Zebra Mussel, a prolific bi-valve that filter feeds. It has had the effect of reducing plank-ton populations that support lake food webs. Warmer lake waters, anticipated under climate change, may actually make the proliferation of species like the Zebra Mussel worse. This is particularly true in Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior, where, because of their colder water temperatures relative to the other Great Lakes, the Zebra Mussel populations appear to have leveled off. Warmer water will likely spur anincrease in the population of this, and other, invasive alien species.

3-14 Life in the Lake

Student Resource Sheet

What will our lives be like under climate change? What will climate change ‘feel’ like? How will it affect the environment and how people make a living?

In this series of student resource sheets, you will gain an understanding of the kinds of climatic changes expected, and how these climatic changes will affect specific ecosystems and industries in the Great Lakes region.

Scientists from all over the world have concluded that climate change is occurring primarily be-cause of human inputs of carbon dioxide, and other greenhouse gases, into the atmosphere. As a consequence of this, it is anticipated that average global temperatures will rise, polar ice caps will begin to melt, ocean levels will rise, and we will experience more extreme weather events, like storms, tornados, droughts, etc.

Researchers studying the Great Lakes region are concluding that three important, climate de-pendent factors would happen under climate change. Average temperatures will rise, precipita-tion patterns will change and lake levels will go down.

The GreatLakes

Climate Change and The GreatLakes

Average temperatures are projected

to increase in the Southern Lake

Huron region by about 3 degrees

Celsius by 2050 and 6 degrees

Celsius by 2090 as the atmospheric

concentration of greenhouse gases

continue to rise.Tem

pera

ture

3-15


Changes in precipitation by 2050 will see small increases in the spring and

fall, and decreases in summer and winter. March may experience a 10%

increase in precipitation, whereas August may experience a reduction in

precipitation of 32%. On average, annual precipitation is projected to de-

crease by 4% over the Great Lakes region.

In the Lake Huron region, annual temperatures will increase, with average

monthly temperatures in winter approaching 0oC. The model also projects

precipitation increases during winter and decreases during summer.

Higher temperatures suggest that less wintertime precipitation may fall as

snow and more as rain, resulting in decreased snow accumulation, and less

water storage. Snowmelt would occur earlier in the year due to warmer

temperatures.

The GreatLakes

Climate Change and The GreatLakes

Prec

ipit

atio

n

Water levels on Lake Huron could drop by as much as two metres below its current levels. Scientists estimate that Lake Huron’s maxi-mum lake level could be around 175.6 metres (576 ft) above sea level, and a minimum lake level of 173.6 m (569.5 ft).

Lake

s Lev

els

3-16


What’s a Wetland? Look at the two root words wet and land, and that pretty much describes these special ecosystems. Wetlands are areas of land that are covered with shallow water or where water is at, or near, the surface for all or part of the year. They form where land and water meet.

A coastal wetland, then, is a wetland that exists along the coast, or shore-line. Coastal wetlands along the Great Lakes are rare environmental features, limited in their size and limited in their location. They are extremely important to plants and animals which rely on these places to live, eat and rest. It has been esti-mated, for example, that of the 120 fish species known to inhabit the Great Lakes, over half rely on coastal wetlands to raise their young. Amphibians, like frogs and salamanders, birds, like herons and egrets, and mammals, like muskrats, rely on these wetlands, as well. Coastal wetlands expand and contract with changing lake levels. During periods of low water levels, the wetland soils are aerated (exposed to oxygen) and de-caying vegetation acts as fertilizer. The newly exposed beach comes alive with vegetation, as many plant species and vegetation types begin to grow from seeds that have been buried in the beach. During low water level periods, animals like red-winged blackbirds, marsh wrens, rails, deer, rabbits and smaller mammals thrive.

During high lake levels, the vegetation which dominated during low lake lev-els gets drowned, or removed by waves. This creates a gap that other species can take advantage of when lower lake levels return. Waterfowl, terns, herons, muskrats and many reptiles and amphibians flourish during high lake levels. Fish populations increase because there is better access to spawning grounds during high lake levels.

Climate Change and Coastal Wetlands

It makes

my Blood boil.

3-17


Coastal wetlands act as a natural cleaning filter, removing pollutants that wash off of the land from rain run-off before they enter the shore waters. Chemicals like nitrogen, phosphorous and pesticides, are taken up by the wetland plant’s root system. Without these wetlands, even greater amounts of pollution would end up in the Great Lakes. Al-though wetlands are a fundamentally important element of the Great Lakes eco-system, their numbers continue to decline at an alarming rate. Over two-thirds of the Great Lakes wetlands have already been lost and many of those remaining are threatened by development, drainage or pollution.

So what could happen to coastal wetlands as global warming occurs?

Global warming has been projected by scientists to increase lake water evaporation, decrease precipitation and cause lake levels to lower. If this happens, we could see some big changes to coastal wetlands. As levels drop, the wetland vegetation will migrate toward the new shoreline. But this will only occur if conditions allow it. The slope of the land, for instance, will have to be very gentle for this migration to oc-cur successfully. The change in conditions will also have to occur slowly enough to allow sediments to accumulate and form the new soil for the wetland plants. Some wetlands may not be able to migrate with the shoreline, and that will mean they will no longer be able to provide the same habitat functions, pollutant filtering and flood protection that they did before.

Climate Change and Coastal Wetlands

3-18


Carbon Dioxide, Plants and

Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide fertilizes plants. It stimulates plant growth and it improves efficiency

of water use the link between increased atmospheric CO2 and increased growth is

photosynthesis. Through photosynthesis, plants take in CO2 from the atmosphere

and convert it into food and fibre.

Laboratory experiments with increased atmospheric CO2 have also shown improved

water use efficiency. CO2 from the atmosphere enters plants through small pores

in the leaves called stomata. While stomata are open to take in CO2, they also re-

lease water vapour from the plant into the atmosphere (transpiration). When CO2 is

abundant, however, stomata do not open as wide, and less water vapour loss occurs,

resulting in increased water use efficiency. As a result, under global warming, most

plants would be more likely to tolerate drought. Also, with the stomata less open,

plants may be less vulnerable to airborne pollution.

One important question is whether or not plants will sustain their present nutritional

level. If plants grow larger in response to rising concentrations of atmospheric CO2,

the carbohydrate content of the plant may increase, upsetting the present balance

of carbohydrates and protein. In an experiment with insects that feed on soybean

leaves, where the soybeans were grown under elevated CO2 concentrations, the

feeding insects maintained their growth, but ate 25 percent more leaves than they

presently do.

Carbon Dioxide, Plants and

Photosynthesis

3-19

Student Resource Sheet3-20


Beaches and Dunes

Lake levels are expected to drop under climate change. If this happens, beaches will become wider. That’s good news for people who like to go to the beach. It may also be good news for peo-ple who have cottages along the waterfront, since they won’t be threatened by storm waves that could erode their property.

However, when beaches become wider, they also become more prone to wind erosion. As wind blows in off the lake and across the beach, it picks up fine grains of sand and blow them inland. They will keep blowing inland unless something stops them. That’s where vegetation plays a big role. Special vegetation, like Beachgrass, helps to ‘capture’ the sand. As the sand builds up around the plants, it forms mounds of sand, called dunes.

Dunes are a very special home for many plants and animals, a number of which are rare in Ontario (some are even globally rare!).

Climate Change and Beaches and Dunes

3-21

Sand

dunes

along

the

shores

of Lake

Huron.


Beaches and Dunes

People have often not had a really good understanding of dunes, and their important role and function along the shore-line. Some municipalities have graded their dunes flat and removed beach and dune vegetation to make their beach more attractive to visitors wanting to lie on the beach. Without dune vegetation, the sand on the beach is exposed to wind, and wind

erosion. As sand blows in off the beach it can become a real nuisance as sand drifts accumulate on streets, clog gutters and drains, and other places where sand isn’t wanted. It becomes costly for municipalities to have to regularly clean up sand drifts. Under climate change, this situation could get worse, as wider beaches are exposed to wind erosion.

Dune it right

Beaches and dunes are a major at-traction for the Lake Huron region‛s tourism economy. Thousands of travelers from all over the world come to Lake Huron‛s shores each year. These tourists spend millions of dollars, making tourism one of the region‛s leading economic sectors. How might this economic sector be impacted by changes to beaches and dunes?

Coastal sand dunes are vulnerable to human activity. Uncontrolled or inap-propriate activities can easily destroy what took nature thousands of years to create. Dunes along Lake Huron, and throughout the Great Lakes, should be considered collectively as a unique and fragile system that, with-out our stewardship, are irreplace-able features that will vanish. What measures could communities take to protect sand dunes?

Climate Change and Beaches and Dunes

So, how will climate change affect dunes along the Great Lakes?

With a drop in lake levels of one to two metres expected,

beaches would get wider. Wider beaches would mean

more beach is exposed to the wind. As the wind sweeps

across the beach, it will pick up sand and move it landward.

More sand movement will likely result in bigger dunes, and

more dune habitat.

Dune habitatDune habitat

Dune destructionDune destruction

In places where beach and dune vegetation has been removed,

and greater sand erosion occurs, the result will be poorer sand

quality. The fine grained sands that we like on our beaches will

be eroded by wind, leaving the more coarse grained sand and

cobbles behind. What could communities be doing now to

prevent this situation from happening?

Sand QualitySand Quality

3-22


Forests Over very long periods of time, the com-position of forests changes naturally with changing climatic condi-tions. The forests of the Great Lakes region have all developed on land churned up by glacial activity within the last 15,000 years. Treelines migrate, species migrate and soils are built up and destroyed as physical and chemical conditions change. But the response time for forests are usually measured in decades to centuries, not years to decades. When climatic changes occur rapidly, some species cannot adjust fast enough, and their populations decline, or suffer extinction.

Scientists are concerned that our present climate is warming at rates we’ve never experienced before, due mainly because of human activi-ties. The carbon dioxide content in the earth’s atmosphere has been rising throughout the last century. The amount of CO

2 now present in

the atmosphere is about 25 to 30% higher than what was present last century. The main culprit? - The combustion of fossil fuels. But the destruction of forests over the last one and one half centuries was the major source of CO

2 released into the atmosphere until the mid-1960’s.

The forests in watersheds feeding into Lake Huron have been altered dramatically over the last 150 years. Forest cover in the southwestern Ontario region prior to European Settlement has been estimated to be 90% or greater. Today, watersheds, like the Maitland River watershed which outlets into Lake Huron at Goderich, has about 18% forest cover. The Ausable River watershed to the south, which outlets at Grand Bend, has been estimated to have 14% remaining forest cover. This forest cover loss has resulted not only in a significant release of CO

2 through the cutting and burning to make way for agricultural pro-

duction, but also has, in part, removed an important carbon reservoir, or ‘sink’.

Climate Change and Forests

Forests on the move?How might the southern Ontario landscape be different under climate change?

Forests can absorb a lot of carbon from the air and store it in the plants and soil that make up the forest. Yet in southern Ontario, much of our forest has been removed. How might this affect our ability to cope with the effects of climate change? What kinds of things could we do to make the situation better?

How could forests be threatened?

How could the threats to our forests impact the economy?

3-23


Forests

Air Pollution

The forest industry is significant in the Lake

Superior and northern Lake Huron region of

northern Ontario. Species die-back and migra-

tion resulting from air pollution and climate

change could seriously impact the industry.

Recreation and tourism activities are dependant

on forests. Hiking, camping and birding attract

hundreds of thousands of people each year.

Depending on the extent to which these ecosys-

tems change, this industry may be affected as

well.

The quality of our air may also have an influence on forest decline. Trees already stressed by climate change, disease and insect infes-tations, may have those stresses made worse through acid rain, heavy metals and ground-level ozone.

Warmer climatic conditions could make forests vulnerable to insects whose range will expand into the Great Lakes region. Forest pest outbreaks are expected to increase for two reasons: (1) milder winters will result in these insects increased ability to survive over the winter; (2) drought conditions and the stress caused by lack of water may reduce a tree’s defense mecha-nisms against insect outbreaks, like forest tent caterpillars, spruce budworm and birch borer.

Climate Change and Forests

So, how will climate change affect forests in the Great Lakes region?

Climate change is expected to cause plant species to migrate

northward. As global climate change occurs slowly, plants adapt

or migrate to other more favourable geographic locations. If

climate change occurs rapidly, as is expected in the coming years,

plants will be unable to adapt or migrate quickly enough and will

die out. Plant species will face other challenges like limitations in

soil depth and type as they migrate further north (think of how

little soil is on the Canadian Shield). Also, the presence of urban

areas and intensive agriculture in southern Ontario could have an

impact on migration. For instance, huge expanses of land with

few trees limits how much seed dispersal will occur. There is also

a limit on how much a forest can reproduce in one year. Those

that are unable to reproduce quickly may suffer decline.

Forests on the MoveForests on the Move

EconomyEconomyInsectsInsects

Air Pollution

3-24


Life in theLake

Something‛s fishy around here ...

With warmer water tem-peratures occurring as a result of climate change, what effect might this have on plankton popula-tions?

What will happen to invasive alien species like Zebra Mussels?

What specific problems might there be for mi-grating fish species like salmon and trout?

What might be the overall effect on fish populations in the Great Lakes?

Since the last period of glaciation affecting the Great Lakes region, about

10,000 years ago, hundreds of fish species have colonized the Great Lakes.

Some of these fish have migrated elsewhere, or become extinct, while oth-

ers have become the current lake residents. Climate change will dramati-

cally affect aquatic ecosystems. Warmer temperatures and changes in the

pattern of flows in rivers where fish spawn could reduce the amounts of

species like salmon, trout and bass. In some cases, the expected reduction

in the water flowing in some rivers and streams could make migration dif-

ficult or impossible.

Precipitation patterns in the Great Lakes region are expected to change.

There will be more intense precipitation in shorter time periods. Most

of it would occur during the spring and fall, while the summer season

would be more droughty. More flash flooding, more soil erosion, and an

increase in the amount of chemical runoff from agricultural fields will add

sediment and chemical pollution which could be hazardous to many fish

species in the Great Lakes. For instance, walleye is a species which prefers

a rocky lake bottom habitat. These living conditions may be seriously

impacted by siltation.

Lower lake levels would mean that harbours and marinas would have to

dredge more frequently and more deeply in order to maintain boating

access. This would resuspend sediments in the water, exposing plants and

animals in the area to toxic substances that had been settled to the lake

bottom.

Warmer water temperatures over the years would speed up fish metabo-

lism. Whether this would lead to faster growing fish would depend on the

availability of prey (food). If the prey populations do not increase with

increasing water temperatures, predator species may not find enough

food to meet their daily intake requirements.

Climate Change and Life in theLake

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Mussel Beach

Life in the LakeClimate Change and Life in the Lake

Plankton - The production of phytoplankton (the microscopic plants floating in the lakes) is expected to increase by 1.5 to 2.7 times their current levels. Increased phytoplankton production would provide more food for zooplankton (microscopic animals floating in the water) which would, in turn, provide more food for young fish. However, increases in certain types of phytoplankton populations may become a problem. Plankton eating fish prefer green algae to blue-green algae (also called Cyanobacteria), and blue-green algae has generally been a problem in shallow waters of the Great Lakes. When blue-green algae populations multiply rapidly, and then die off, lake bottom decomposers must consume large quantities of dissolved oxygen to break down the remains. This can cause sections of the lower lake to become anoxic (oxygen deficient) in the late summer until the fall turnover replenishes oxygen supplies.

The overall effect is that bottom dwelling fish such as perch, walleye and catfish suffocate unless they move to another location during these low oxygen periods. Invertebrates, such as Mayfly larvae, that live in the lake’s substrate, are not as mobile, and often die when water quality becomes poor. Since invertebrates are an important food source for fish, declines in their population could create a ripple effect in the food chain.

Invasive Species - Fish populations have been seriously affected through the accidental introduction of alien, invasive species. One of the most well known is the Zebra Mussel, a European mollusk that breeds and spreads rapidly. It is also a filter feeder, and has had the effect of reducing plankton popula-tions that support lake food webs. Warmer lake waters, anticipated under climate change, may actually make the proliferation of species like the Zebra Mussel worse. This is particularly true in Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior, where, because of their colder water temperatures relative to the other Great Lakes, the Zebra Mussel populations appear to have levelled off. Warmer water will likely spur an increase in the population of this, and other, invasive alien species.

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Student Activities

Climate Changeand Ecosystems

Climate Changeand Ecosystems

OVERVIEW:

Students research the interdependencies among plants and animals in an ecosystem and explore how climate change might affect those interdependencies and the ecosystem as a whole.

OBJECTIVES:

Students will:

1. Explore the complexity of ecosystem interdependencies ;

2. Explain how climate change could affect the components of an ecosystem;

3. Suggest ways to detect the impacts of climate change on ecosystems.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION – TEACHER

* The geographic ranges of plant and animal species are affected by climatic factors such as temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, humidity, and wind. A shift in the magnitude or variability of these factors in a given location due to global climate change will likely impact the organisms living there.

* Species sensitive to temperature may respond to a warmer climate by moving to cooler locations at higher latitudes or elevations. The shorelines of the Great Lakes tend to have a more moderate climate than areas inland. A more moderate climate along the lakeshore may expand the range of Carolinian species, which, until now, have been limited to the southern extremes of southern Ontario.

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Student Activities

* Factors other than climate may limit the extent to which organisms can shift their ranges. Physical barriers such as the Canadian Shield or extensive human settlement may prevent some species from shifting to more suitable habitat. In the case of the Canadian Shield, thin soils may make it impossible for some species to colonize. Even in cases where no barriers are present, other limiting factors such as nutrient or food availability, soil type, and the presence of adequate breeding sites may prevent a range shift.

* In addition to the direct effects of temperature on organism physiology, projected climate changes under an enhanced greenhouse effect might change the availability of food, space, shelter, or water; upset the predator/prey balance of an ecosystem; increase susceptibility to pests/disease; change the frequency of natural hazards such as fires, droughts, and flash flooding. These effects might lead to local population declines or extinctions for some species.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION – STUDENT

* Students should understand the concept of an ecosystem, including the relationship between abiotic and biotic factors and how a food chain works.

* Students should know the physical/atmospheric measurements that are used to characterize a region’s climate.

MATERIALS � Regional nature guides; biology or environmental science textbooks

� Computers with Internet access (desirable, but not necessary) � “Changing Our Future” kit resources

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Student Activities

PROCEDURE:

EngageUsing their prior knowledge only, ask students to answer the question: In what ways does climate affect plants and animals? Ask them to consider how latitude and altitude determine what types of species live in a region. Have students look at a world map of vegetation and evaluate how climate influences the distribution of plants. Ask students to identify the ways in which temperature affects the life cycle of animals (for example, migration, hibernation, breeding).Develop a list of climatic effects on plants and animals from student answers that can be used as a reference guide for student research.

Explore1. Have students use their knowledge of the Great Lakes region to name the

ecosystems found in nearby natural areas (such as dunes, wetlands, forests, alvars, a river, or lakeshore bluff ). Have the class vote on one ecosystem to study in more detail. Alternatively, if time and resources allow the teacher should pick an ecosystem that students can visit in one or two field trips to collect data.

2. Ask students to research as a class the basic components of the ecosystem they have chosen. Students should look for organisms in each category of Producers, Herbivores, Omnivores, Carnivores, and Decomposers. Nature guides, library books, and the Internet could all be sources of information for this exercise. The web sites of the Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation, Provincial Ministries of Natural Resources, Environment, and Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, or local Conservation Authorities, or the Federation of Ontario Naturalists would be good resources. If at all possible, take students on a field trip to collect data on the types of plants and animals found in the ecosystem. Students or the teacher can design a species observation sheet, and guidebooks can be used to assist with identifications in the field. Supplement the field observations with Internet or library research, especially for the larger mammals or nocturnal animals.

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Student Activities

3. After the class has finished their research, have each student create a web (using drawings or pictures, for example) of the basic components of the ecosystem showing interrelationships. The web should include physical factors such as the Sun, atmosphere, water, soil, and nutrients. At this point, students can begin to develop hypotheses concerning how climate change might affect the ecosystem. Students can review some of the reports on the “Changing Our Future” CD, namely, “Preparing for a Changing Climate” and “Impacts on Unmanaged Ecosystems”, (both found in Section 3), to learn some examples of how climate change affects organisms. Then have each student prepare a report to be presented orally to the class on how climate change could affect one of the plants or animals in the regional ecosystem. Give students some example questions to help them focus their research (See the example handout,“Guidelines for Students”). Students can also use the information generated by the class in the “ENGAGE” activity above.

4. Each student should present their research findings in the form of hypotheses concerning how the projected climate changes might affect their organism, and the reasoning behind the hypothesis. Tell the class that they will each be expected to write a summary essay in which they reflect on how the ecosystem as a whole might be different if the projected climate changes occur. In this way, each student will be responsible for understanding the material presented by other members of the class.

5. As a final exercise to hand-in, have each student prepare a description of the ecosystem as it is today, using their web for illustration, and a description of what they think the ecosystem might look like in 2090 if the projected climate changes occur, using a new web for illustration.

Extend1. Ask students to make a list of the measurements that could be taken to try to detect

the beginning signs of climate change in the ecosystem. Ask them to consider physical, biological, and chemical measurement possibilities. This exercise could be done as a class activity, or this could be included in the writing assignment in #5 above.

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Student Activities

2. Have students research the possible effects of climate change on an ecosystem sig-nificantly different from the one they have just studied. Depending on your school location this might be a coastal area with dune, bluff, wetland, estuary or alvar sys-tems.

SUGGESTED RESOURCES:

Environment Canada’s website on climate change http://www.ec.gc.ca/climate/

Canadian Institute for Climate Studies, University of Victoria http://www.cics.uvic.ca/scenarios/index.cgi

Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Unmanaged Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Wildlife (avail-able on “Changing Our Future” CD).

Canadian Wildlife Service http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/wildlife_e.html

Ontario’s Biodiversity Field Guide - Royal Ontario Museum http://www.rom.on.ca/ontario/fieldguides.html

Adapted from the Union of Concerned Scientists activities in “Global Warming: early warning signs”, Curriculum Guide for High School Courses in Biology, Environmental Science, Geography, Earth Science and others focussing on the society-environment interface.

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Student Activities

Maples on the Move

OVERVIEW:

Scientists today are concerned that ecological zones may shift northward as a result of climate change. This will have a dramatic effect on some trees, such as the sugar maple population found in the Great Lakes region. Use a Canadian flag to illustrate the importance of maple trees in Canada - the larger the flag, the larger the maple leaf shape for students to examine.

Different tree species will migrate at different rates of movement based on several factors. Two such factors are the ability of tree seeds to scatter and germinate. Figure 1 identifies the existing extent of Sugar Maples in North America and 2 possible scenarios with climate change. Figure 2 illustrates the migration rate of selected tree species based on paleoecological studies. From the chart it is evident that only 2 species of those listed have the properties required to migrate at the speed needed to accommodate climate change.

OBJECTIVE:

An outdoor activity to illustrate the dominant forest species, succession or migration as a result of climate change

Maples on the Move

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Figure 1: Changes that may occur in the range of sugar maples if atmospheric CO were to double

Figure 2: Trees Species Migration Rates from Palaeoecological Stud-ies. Reprinted with permission of the World Wildlife Fund, 1995, Conservation Issue, Vol.2 No.1 February

Student Activities

SKILLS: - identifying maple trees and associated species of a maple forest identifying on a map

the present extent of the North American Sugar Maple forest and where they may be going with climate change.

- assessment of dominant species in a forest and prediction of future dominant spe-cies if sugar maples are removed from the forest.

REASONING / RESEARCH

- measuring and plotting data on graphs

- data analysis

MATERIALS:

�a forest (or wooded area of any size) with maple trees and associated species �12 stakes at least 60 cm long and pointed at one end �rope or twine, about 70 m �several metre sticks or rope cut to specific lengths for measuring the height of trees �paper, pencil, and clipboard �graph paper or prepared grid sheets �tree and plant field guides for identification

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Student Activities

PROCEDURE:

Students will identify and count trees in three different size plots, each nested within each other. Since maple trees are the main concern of this activity, it is important that students can identify them. One way to help with tree recognition is to bring in twigs from several types of trees and have the students examine the differences and pick out the maples. Some distinguishing characteristics of maple twigs are their buds, bud scars, and opposite branching.

1. Using stakes and twine, students mark off three plots in a woods containing maple trees. The plots are nested within each other and are squares measuring 10 x 10 m , 4 x 4 m and 2 x 2 m. The two smaller plots do not have to be in the exact centre of the larger one, but they should be nested within one another inside the 10 x 10 m plot.

2. In each plot, the students will inventory different size of trees. Each tree of the specified height must be identified and plotted on a grid sheet. In the 10 x 10 m plot, the canopy and understory trees 3 m or taller are identified and recorded. In the 4 x 4 m plot, the trees between 1 and 2 m tall are identified and recorded, and in the smallest plot (2 x 2 m) any tree 30 cm and shorter is identified and recorded.

3. After all the trees have been identified and recorded in their successive plots, have the students compare their data from each plot for similar species. Overhead transparencies work well for this step.

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Student Activities

4. If any one species is found in all plots and all sizes, it is possible that it may become a dominant species of the maple forest. After comparing all of our data, what prediction can your class make for the dominant species of your maple forest if maple trees would die our or migrate northward?

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

A. Why are people concerned that sugar maples and other tree species will be lost with climate change?

B. How and why do forests get displaced (migrate)? C. Predict the impact of maple “migration” on other trees and on animal and human

communities. D. What characteristics will “new dominant trees” have compared to those which were

displaced? E. Will climate change damage the overall health of maple forests?

-adapted from Great Lakes Instructional Materials for the Changing Earth System Ohio Sea Grant Program and The

Ohio State University, 1995

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Student Activities

Student Activities

OVERVIEW:

A previous activity “ Maples on the Move” provided 2 figures that show where maple for-ests are predicted to migrate due to climate change; and the migration rates of different tree species. In this activity, students will experience the mode of travel that “trees” use to migrate from one area to the next.

OBJECTIVE:

This outdoor activity will demonstrate to students how plants can colonize new areas if those areas are hospitable.

SKILLS: - reasoning and research - measuring and plotting data on graphs

- data analysis

MATERIALS:

enough seeds of maple, ash, milkweed or dandelion for each team of 3 to 4 students to have a handful; - one metre stick or tape measure per team;

graph paper;

magnetic compass (optional).

How Trees Migrate How Trees Migrate

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Student Activities

NOTE about seeds - winged tree seeds will work best for this activity because they are heavy,

fly erratically, and are easy to see when they land. Use the fluffier milkweed or dandelion

seeds only if no tree seeds are available.

PROCEDURE:

1) With your team, stand in a spot marked by your teacher. Measure the wind direc-tion with a compass. Record this direction on your worksheet. On your graph paper, place a mark in the centre to represent the present day forest (your team’s starting point).

2) Toss 4 or 5 seeds high into the air so the wind catches them. Watch where they go. Measure the distance and direction from you starting point to each seed and plot the seed’s position on your graph paper. Decide with your team how many squares you will use to represent on metre. You will be tossing sees at least 4 times so gauge your plotting.

3) Send one team member to the spot where each seed landed. Have each member toss 3 more seeds and mark their new positions on the graph.

4) For the next toss, each team member will go to the location of a seed that is farthest away from the original “forest.” Toss 3 more seeds and mark their positions.

5) Repeat step 4 once or twice more, then examine your graph with your team.

6) Draw a line on the graph paper that encircles our starting point and all the seeds whose positions you plotted. Describe the area through which your trees migrated;

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Student Activities

its general shape, direction from the original forest, width and length, any overlap with other teams, etc.

7) What conditions are necessary for seed germination? Did each seed get the same chance to germinate? Why? Did any seeds fall on rocky or paved areas or other spots where their chances to grow were very small? If a maple forest were migrating through North America from where it is now, what obstacles might be in its path? Could the obstacles stop the migration? Discuss with your team and class.

8) Summarize how plants might be able to move into the areas that climate models predict as their future range.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

A. Seed dispersal occurs in the fall season. Do you think it is a coincidence that trees choose the windy season to perform this function?

B. Not all tree seeds rely on the wind to disperse them. Can you think of other tree seeds and how they are dispersed to grow in other areas? (Example: acorns from oak trees and the role that squirrels play in dispersing them)

C. Can you predict what the impact of climate change might have on the dispersal of tree seeds?

-adapted from Activities for the Changing Earth System (ACES), The Ohio State University, 1993. 3-39

Student Activities

Climate Art

SKILLS:

�interpretation

�observation

�teamwork

MATERIALS:

�“hat” (a box)

�scraps of paper

�blackboard

�chalk

�blackboard eraser

PROCEDURE:

1. Divide the class into 2 teams.

2. Fill the “hat” (box) with scraps of paper, each containing one word or concept re-lated to climate change and the Great Lakes. A sample list is provided below.

3. Have one member of Team One reach into the box and select a scrap of paper. (Only the student who selects the paper should find out the word or concept written on it.)

Climate Art(This is a version of the popular games Pictionary and Win, Lose or Draw)

3-41

Student Activities

4. On the blackboard, using only chalk and an eraser, the student must draw ONLY PICTURES to entice his/her teammates to say the exact word or phrase chosen. Students should be given 2 or 3 minutes to illustrate the phrase.

NOTE: The “artist” may not speak, make sounds, write words or num-bers in the illustration.

5. If the team guesses, they score 1 point. If they fail to guess the exact word or phrase, an “artist” from the other team (Team Two) is selected and has 2 or 3 minutes to present the same word or phrase. If Team Two guesses, they score the point. However, if they fail as well, the point is given to the first team - Team One.

6. The next “artist” is chosen from Team Two. Continue the game until everyone from each team has had a turn at the board.

SAMPLE WORDS AND PHRASES:

deforestation / aerosol

extinction / low lake levels

fossil fuels / precipitation

Great Lakes / recycle

water cycle / greenhouse

glacier / air pollution

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

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Impacts to Local Communities

Impacts to Communities

SECTION 4

’

Impacts to Local Communities

Climate change could have profound impacts on the local communities in which we live. A number of key economic sectors will face some major adaptations to cope with the changes to the environment discussed in Section 3. Agriculture, shipping and recreational boating, municipal infrastructure, and tourism and recreation are four economic sectors that will be discussed in more detail in this section.

AGRICULTURE

The potential impact to local farmers includes the following: · Drier summers and falls – in effect, more

distinct wet and dry seasons, and more difficulty matching crop moisture needs with moisture availability.

· Higher levels of CO2 could help plant

growth, but this would likely be offset by higher evapotranspiration and lower water availability, combined with additional pest and weed pressures.

· Since we will experience more intense rainfall events, there will be an increased potential for soil erosion on agricultural land, and more streambank erosion, leading to higher sedimentation of rivers, streams and the lakeshore.

Farmers will have to make some adaptations to adjust to this climate variability. There will be a greater need to adopt practices in all sectors of the economy that will help to conserve and protect the health and resiliency of our river and lake systems, prime agricultural land and remaining forests. Some of the major adaptations recommended by Environment Canada include: · Adopting conservation tillage practices; · Rotations that include cover crops; · Conversion of agricultural land with low

moisture retention capacity to other uses; · Planting more wind breaks and hedgerows; · Increasing forest cover in headwater areas,

river valleys, floodplains and stream corridors to help retain runoff and summer base flows.

Farm operations will have to be structured in such a way that water storage and movement are not unduly compromised by the combination of extreme heat, drought and variable rainfall patterns. There are many farms that, over significant periods of the year, have minimal soil cover, inadequate soil organic matter, soil compaction and drainage systems that are more

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likely to take away excess water (through tile drains) rather than conserve it. All of these conditions are likely to lead to reduced capacity to adapt to climate change.

SHIPPING AND RECREATIONAL BOATING

A drop in water levels on the Great Lakes, resulting from climate change, could have big impacts on marinas and harbours. These facilities were built based upon what historical records showed were a “normal” range of water levels. They were designed to operate within the high and low ranges of water level fluctuations. With levels projected to drop by a metre or more below what we have experienced since water level records have been taken, marinas and harbours may have problems dealing with these new conditions. (See “Case Study: Town of Goderich, Ontario” - Student Resources Sheets)

• in some instances, boat launch facilities may be left high and dry. Some will have to be re-located; others may have to be abandoned because it would be too costly to rebuild them to meet the new water levels.

• extensive dredging may be required in order to maintain access to the open lake.

• some facilities may have to re-build support walls and other infrastructure so that they can continue to function under the new water level conditions.

These changes that the operators of these harbours and marinas would face would be at a

considerable cost. In many cases, these facilities are owned by local municipalities. Whether or not they would be able to afford the multi-millions of dollars that could be required to make the necessary changes to these facilities remains a big question.

Shipping is a major industry on the Great Lakes, and harbours, like the Port of Goderich on Lake Huron, are key to the economy of local coastal communities. A drop in lake levels poses a significant challenge to shipping companies. The shipping industry will be required to either ship less tonnage, or make more frequent trips. Consider that for every 1 centimetre decline below Chart Datum, 93 metric tonnes must be subtracted from the total load that a Great Lakes ship can carry.

[Chart Datum: for navigational safety, depths on nautical charts are shown from a low water elevation called chart datum. According to the Canadian Hydrographic Service, chart datum is selected so that the water levels seldom fall below that number. Only rarely will there be less depth than the readings portrayed on the maps. On Lake Huron, chart datum is 176 metres above sea level. ]

The draft of a boat is the depth of water displaced when it is afloat. With lower lake levels, ships would have to carry lighter loads in order to sit higher in the water. With less cargo on board, ships would have to take more trips to carry the same amount of goods as before. (Ohio Sea Grant info sheets).

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MUNICIPAL INFRASTRUCTURE

Municipalities along the lakeshore tend to get their water supplied from the lakes. Water intakes may have to be relocated if water levels drop below a point where the intakes are too shallow and water quality becomes a bigger issue. Municipalities would then have to extend their intakes into deeper water.

TOURISM AND RECREATION

Many of the tourism and recreation activities that take place in coastal areas are dependent to a large extent on weather and climate. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns and water levels can have a positive or negative affect depending on the nature of the activity.

Activities requiring a greater degree of direct contact with the outdoor environment are more sensitive to weather conditions. For instance, swimming is more sensitive to temperature and precipitation conditions than sightseeing through a car window.

Under climate change, the Great Lakes region will experience longer summers and shorter winters. As a result, there will be greater recreational opportunities for warm-weather activities like swimming, boating, camping, windsurfing and hiking, but less time for cold-weather activities like skiing, snowmobiling and ice fishing.

Changes in the regional climate will also influence local ecosystems in ways that could

impact regional recreation. For example, increases in water temperature would affect fish populations. Exotic species, like Zebra Mussels, which have taken hold on Lakes Erie and Ontario because of their warmer waters, could proliferate in Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior. Likewise, other exotic, invasive species like the Round Goby and the Eurasian Ruffe could expand their present territories. These aggressive species are likely to outcompete native species.

In addition, there may not be enough productivity lower in the food chain to support larger or more numerous top predators, like Walleye or Lake Trout.

A loss of species desirable to sport fishers could result in a decrease in recreational fishing, resulting in economic losses.

Lower lake levels would have both positive and negative implications.

• on the positive side, lower levels means wider beaches for beach goers.

• decreased water volumes in the lakes will increase concentrations of pollutants, heightening water quality concerns. Bac-

terial pollution along the shoreline would result in beach postings; greater intake of toxins either directly or through the food chain, would endanger the health of popular game fish, like salmon and trout, and the humans who eat them.

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• recreational boating is one of the most economically important recreational activities in the Great Lakes region. Low lake levels would make it difficult for boats to gain docking and berthing access and channels would have to be dredged deeper and more frequently to maintain access to the open water.

In Lake Huron:

• Warmer temperatures may make the lake-shore a more popular destination. This increased tourism and recreation may place more stress on both land and water environments. Care will need to be taken to enusre that the larger crowds do not cause a deterioration of these ecosystems.

• Rainbow Trout populations may decline in this area as warmer temperatures and lower lake levels impact their tributary migrations.

• Zebra Mussels have taken a firm hold on Lake Huron, but have levelled off, presumably because water temperatures are cold enough to keep them from proliferating further. If water temperatures increase under climate change, Zebra Mussels might increase, upsetting the base of the food chain. Ultimately, this would impact recreational fishing in the region, as fish populations go into decline.

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Zebra mussels may also become a nuisance in local swimming areas.The sharp edges of their shell pose a real danger to swimmers who may cut their feet risking infection.


Agriculture is a huge economic activity in the Great Lakes basin. Southern Ontario has some of the best agricultural land in Canada. Agriculture depends very much on climate. Precipitation, temperature and sunlight are all key climate-related elements that are necessary for growing crops.

How could things change for agriculture in the Great Lakes region under climate change? There could be both benefits and drawbacks as a result of global warming.

What about the possible benefits?

There could be three major benefits to agriculture in the Great Lakes region:

(1) Northward, Ho!!Higher temperatures could shift the range of certain crops northward. But because the soils in northern Ontario are thinner and less fertile than in the south, the expansion of agricultural production in this region may be limited.

(2) It’s a jungle out there!A longer growing season will result. The expected greater number of frost-free days would allow for earlier planting and harvesting.

(3) “Eat your CO2 if you want to grow big and strong”.Increased levels of atmospheric CO2 would make more carbon available to plants for food (carbohydrate) production. As a result, the rate of photosynthesis may increase in some plant species, producing higher crop

Agriculture

Climate Change and Agriculture

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Climate Change and Agriculture

yields. Increased CO2 may also have an effect on a plant’s water requirements by reducing transpiration, and making more efficient water use by lowering the plant’s requirement for water.

What are the possible drawbacks?

(1) More lunch, less punchEven though some crops may produce more under higher CO2 levels, food quality would decline. Experiments have demonstrated that insects need to eat more plant material to satisfy their nutrient requirements when the plants have been grown under higher CO2 conditions.

(2) Sucking the SoilPlants grown under higher CO2 conditions will draw more nutrients from the soil. This will cause the soil to become less fertile, and farmers may become more dependent on using chemical fertilizers.

Soil nutrient loss? So what? Increased use of chemical fertilizers means increased costs for farmers to produce food, and will mean increased costs at the supermarket as a result. Increased fertilizer use will also mean greater potential risks of pollution.

(3) Those Pesky PestsWarmer temperatures could increase the activity and the geographic range of unwanted insects and plants. For example, disease causing organisms that are currently restricted to sub-tropical areas could expand into the Great Lakes region affecting crops and livestock. Insects could produce more generations per year and have a higher overwinter survival rate under global warming.Fourteen of the world’s Eighteen most troublesome weeds have been observed to thrive under higher CO2 levels. These weeds could out-compete many of the ‘good’ plants.

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... bottom line ...Farmers may feel compelled to use more fertilizers to fight against these nox-ious weeds, and use more insecticides against unwanted insects.

[internet research - what other alternatives could farmers use to reduce their reliance on fertilizers and pesticides?]

(4) Dry as a BoneHigher temperatures, less precipitation and more evaporation in the Lake Huron region will mean less soil moisture for plant growth. To make matters worse, southern Ontario has been extensively drained over the past fifty years, or so (field tiles, ditches, municipal drains) in an effort to remove excess water as quickly as possible.

Climate Change and AgricultureAgriculture

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CASE STUDY

Town of Goderich, Ontario

Goderich Harbour is an industrial harbour that is owned by the Town of Goderich. Each year approximately

100 large lake and ocean freighters visit the port to load salt from the Sifto salt mine, the largest salt mine

in the world, and to deliver and load other commodities such as grains and calcium chloride. These vessels

are easily observed in the harbour from many vantage points. Goderich Harbour is one of the few locations

on the Great Lakes where close access is available to observe the vessels plying their trade. Goderich has

the only seaway depth port on the east side of Lake Huron and is open approximately 9 months of the year

depending on winter ice conditions. Local wharfage is 1,400 metres (4,600 feet). Lake and ocean vessels up

to 222 metres (730 feet) in length can be accommodated. A 17 million dollar harbour dredging and docking

facility project was completed in 1986. The harbour depth is 8 metres (27 feet – seaway depth) in the main

harbour channel and harbour approaches. If lake levels drop a significant amount, as they are expected to

under climate change, the Town of Goderich may have to consider additional dredging to keep the depth ad-

equate for ships coming into that harbour. One of the problems is that the harbour bed is already at bedrock.

To deepen the harbour would require blasting the bedrock with dynamite.

What problems could you imagine could happen blasting the bedrock in the harbour area?

Climate Change, Impacts to a Coastal Community

Impacts to a Coastal Community

Special points of interest:

* For every one centimetre decline in Great Lakes water levels, 93 metric tonnes must be subtracted from the total load a Great Lakes boat can carry, if water levels are below chart datum.

* On Lake Huron, chart datum is 176 metres above sea level. If levels drop to 175 metres, how much must be subtracted from the total load?

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water levels

Goderich waterfront with one

metre drop in water levels

Goderich waterfront with two

metres drop in water levels

What would the Great Lakes look like with a drop in water levels by as much as two metres?

It will vary from one location to the next, but at Goderich, researchers have developed three dimensional imag-

es of the Goderich waterfront showing what the shoreline here would look like. On the positive side, the wider

beaches may be good for tourism and recreation. On the negative side, three major impacts might occur at

Goderich:

• Massive reconstruction of the Harbour wharfs and facilities may be required. Low water levels may expose

parts of the harbour to rotting and deterioration.

• The Town’s water supply intake may need to be extended out in to deeper water. It currently sits on a flat

lakebed “shelf”. The intake pipe may need to be extended a great distance to get to deeper water.

• Water quality along the shoreline may get worse. Experience has shown that low water levels and the

more shallow nearshore waters can accelerate algae and bacterial growth. This may lead to more fre-

quent beach closings for public health reasons.

What would Goderich look like under climate change?

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Goderich waterfront 2001


Human Health ImpactsClimate Change and

Human Health Impacts

ISSUE FOCUS HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS

Air pollution already contributes to a significant number of premature deaths

and increased illness in Canada and around the world. Climate change, may pose a

more serious threat to human health. The effects of global climate change include heat waves, disruption of

previously stable weather systems, more frequent, violent weather, increased risks of infectious diseases, and

threats to food supplies.

An important point that is often forgotten is that the same human activities, like the excessive use of fossil

fuels (gasoline, oil, coal, etc.) for energy, are the major cause of both problems. Climate change has an

additional local impact in that as the global climate changes and the atmosphere warms, air pollution will

likely worsen because heat and sunlight are critical factors in the production of smog. At ground-level, ozone

is a toxic and irritant gas which, even in very minimal quantities, has adverse human health effects. Smog is

usually associated with cities where there is a concentration of cars, trucks and industries that tend to produce

air pollution. However, the mainly rural shores of Lake Huron from Sarnia to Tiverton, have had some of the

highest smog readings in the Province of Ontario (see the page titled “SMOG” to learn more about this type

of pollution). In Toronto, between 1951 and 1980, there were on average 10 days each summer when the

temperature was above 30 degrees. With a doubling of carbon dioxide levels, this would increase to 53 days

per summer.

Computer models project that climate change will expand the incidence and distribution of many serious

medical disorders.

Heating of the atmosphere can influence health through several routes. Most directly, it can generate more,

stronger and hotter heat waves, which will become especially dangerous if the evenings fail to bring cooling

relief. Unfortunately, a lack of night-time cooling seems to be something we need to be prepared for; the

atmosphere is heating unevenly and is showing the biggest rises at night, in winter and at latitudes higher

than about 50 degrees. In some places, the number of deaths related to heat waves is projected to double by

2020. Prolonged heat can enhance production of smog and the dispersal of allergens. Both effects have been

linked to respiratory symptoms.

Moving high-risk individuals to air-conditioned locations may save lives in the short term, but relying on such

measures is counter-productive in the long term. Increased dependence on air conditioners, refrigerators and

freezers during-hot weather periods intensifies air pollution by increasing demand for electricity, which in

many parts of Canada is supplied by fossil fuel-burning power plants.

4-10


Human Health ImpactsClimate Change and

Human Health Impacts

An increase in average air temperature projected by climate models would

likely extend the territorial range and increase the abundance of insects

like mosquitoes, which carry diseases such as malaria, dengue, and several

kinds of virus encephalitis. Some animals that can carry dangerous diseases,

including rodents and bats, could also expand their range and become

more abundant. Many pathogenic organisms and diseases could pose an increased risk to Canadians

because of climate change and associated ecosystem changes. These diseases include: toxoplasmosis; west-

ern and eastern equine encephalitis; snowshoe hare virus; dengue; yellow fever; malaria; Lyme disease; Rocky

Mountain spotted fever; hantavirus pulmonary syndrome and seasonal respiratory infections that would be

exacerbated by climatic instability. The spread of dengue, eastern equine encephalitis, and similar diseases

is made more likely because of the recent arrival in North America of the Asian Tiger mosquito, which is har-

dier than anophelene mosquitoes and has already spread as far north as Nebraska and Iowa. Climate model

projections indicate that the geographical zone of potential malaria transmission could expand in response

to global mean temperature increases. This would increase the affected proportion of the world’s population

from approximately 45 per cent to approximately 60 per cent by the latter half of the next century. At present

malaria infects more than 250 million people a year, killing almost 2 million.

Global warming may also increase the risk of respiratory diseases. Grasses and allergenic pollens grow more

profusely in a warmer environment than a cool one. This result, in combination with heat-intensified smog

episodes and higher levels of atmospheric particulate matter, could increase the risk of allergic respiratory-

diseases, particularly asthma.

The scientific and medical evidence is compelling. To prevent further harm, and to promote immediate and

long-term improvements in health, we need to initiate and implement effective strategies to reduce the rate of

fossil fuel combustion, greenhouse gas emissions, and air pollution. Implementing solutions today will reduce

the burden of serious health problems tomorrow, especially the burden on the generations to follow. The chal-

lenge of curbing global warming also presents a positive opportunity to reduce air pollution and to improve

human health.

On a per capita basis, Canada is the largest consumer of energy in the world and the second largest producer

of greenhouse gases. With a population of less than 30 million, we use as much energy as the entire continent

of Africa, home to 700 million people, and contribute 2 per cent of overall global emissions.

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4-11


SMOG

What is ground level ozone, and why is it a problem along the Lake Huron shoreline?

We hear about ozone as something that protects us from the sun’s ultraviolet rays. That relates to the ozone

layer up in the stratosphere, about 15 to 25 kilometres above the earth’s surface. However, accumulations of

ozone at ground level is air pollution and can be harmful to people, animals, crops and other materials.

Ozone pollution, or smog, is mainly a daytime problem during summer months because sunlight plays a key

role in its formation. Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone.

The sources of these pollutants include cars, trucks, industries, or wherever natural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel,

kerosene or oil are combusted. These gaseous compounds mix like a thin soup in the atmosphere and when

they interact with sunlight, ozone is formed.

In lakeshore areas, the conditions are prime for the formation of ground level ozone because, as it forms over

water, there is nothing for the ozone molecules to attach themselves to. As it comes inland, where there are

less pollutants, it begins connecting with plant life. This cleans up the ozone, but damages the plants. The On-

tario Ministry of the Environment estimates that over 50% of Ontario’s ground level ozone can be attributed to

sources from the United States.

Establishing trends in ground level ozone occurrence is difficult because levels are strongly influenced by

the weather. Summers with a high number of hot, sunny days may produce more smog days than those with

lower numbers.

With the Lake Huron shoreline being prone to high levels of ground level ozone, the big question is how it

affects people, who typically populate the lakeshore during the summer season. Doctors warn that short

term exposure can result in shortness of breath, coughing, chest tightness, or irritation of the nose and throat.

Individuals exercising outside, children, the elderly, and people with pre-existing respiratory illnesses are

particularly susceptible.

Climate Change and Human Health Impacts

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Student Activities

Climate Change and Disease

OVERVIEWStudents research the relationship between hosts, parasites, and vectors for commonvector-borne diseases and evaluate how climate change could affect the spread of disease.

OBJECTIVES

Students will:1. Explain how vector-borne diseases are transmitted;2. Describe how climate affects the life cycle of vectors;3. Explore how social factors affect the occurrence and spread of disease.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION – TEACHER

* Climate models project a global mean warming by 2100 in the range of 1 to 3.50C. Increasing temperatures will be accompanied by changes in rainfall and humidity, including a likely increase in the frequency of heavy precipitation events. Some areas will become drier because higher temperatures also increase evaporation.

* A vector-borne disease is one in which the disease-causing microorganism is transmitted from an infected individual to another individual by an arthropod (e.g. mosquito or tick) or some other agent. Other animals, wild and domesticated, sometimes serve as intermediary hosts. Key vector-borne diseases of concern include malaria, Lyme disease, dengue fever, yellow fever, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, and several forms of encephalitis.

* Climate constrains the range of many vector-borne diseases. VBDs are currently found mainly in tropical and subtropical countries and are relatively rare in temperate zones. Mosquitoes, for example, are limited to seasons and regions where temperatures stay above a certain minimum. Winter freezing kills many eggs, larvae, and adults. Climate also influences the availability of suitable habitat and food supply for vectors.

Climate Change and Disease

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Student Activities

* Weather affects the timing and intensity of disease outbreaks. Within their tem-perature range of tolerance, mosquitoes will reproduce more quickly and bite more in warmer conditions. Warmer temperatures also allow the parasites within mosquitoes to mature more quickly, increasing the chances that the mosquito will transfer the infection. Floods can trigger outbreaks by creating breeding grounds for insects. Droughts can reduce the number of predators that would normally limit vector populations.

* Several modelling studies have predicted that increasing temperatures will lead to the spread of malaria and other diseases into previously unaffected areas. Climate change may also affect the severity of the disease at a given location. Due to the complexity of the relationships, the models do not account for all of the ways in which climate can affect the vector, human host, and parasite, and the interactions among them.

* Socio-economic factors also affect the distribution of vector-borne diseases. A good public health infrastructure, including prompt treatment of cases to reduce the risk of spread of the disease and mosquito-control measures, help to limit disease transmission in developed countries. For example, malaria once extended into the northern U.S. and Canada, but by 1930 was confined to southern regions of the U.S., and by 1970 had been eradicated. International travel increases the likeli-hood of an outbreak in non endemic areas (although weather also plays a role by making conditions suitable for the spread of the disease). An increase in drug and pesticide resistance as a consequence of overuse makes control of vector-borne diseases more difficult. Land-use by humans can change the availability of habitat for vectors.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION - STUDENT* Students should understand the concept of an ecosystem, including the relation-

ship between abiotic and biotic factors and how a food chain works.*

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Student Activities

Students should know the physical/atmospheric measurements that are used to characterize a region’s climate.

MATERIALSAccess to the Internet, or school and public library for research.Maps of malaria distribution (these can be printed from the Internet--see SuggestedResources)

PROCEDUREEngageHave students look over maps of the present-day distribution of malaria in order tocharacterize the countries where malaria occurs.

Specifically, they should consider the climate of the country, such as average annual tem-peratures, average nighttime (low) temperatures, and precipitation, and whether it is a developing or developed nation. A world atlas with maps of global temperature and pre-cipitation distribution is probably the easiest way to search for this information. General information on climate for individual countries can be found in the U.S. Central Intelli-gence Agency’s World Factbook at http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/. Climate statistics for world cities can be found at http://www.weatherbase.com/. ] Ask students to write a short essay comparing countries with malaria to those without ma-laria, and suggesting possible reasons for the differences between the two groups.

Explore1. Write the names of different vector-borne diseases, along with the name of the

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Student Activities

vector, onto 3 x 5 index cards (see list of diseases below). Assign students into pairs and have each pair pull an index card out of a box. One student in the pair should research how the disease spreads from one human to another, and another student in the pair should research the life cycle of the vector. Ask the students to create a poster or diorama that illustrates the relationships between the host, parasite, and vector, and how the disease can be transmitted from one human to another. The students should present their findings orally to the class.

2. Bring the class together as a group and ask them to use what they have learned from the oral presentations to brainstorm about how climate might influence the spread of the diseases discussed. Guide the discussion by having students consider the question from three perspectives:

a. How does climate impact the vector directly? b. How does climate impact the vector’s (or intermediary host’s) habitat? c. How does climate impact the parasite? Students should consider the role of climatic factors such as temperature, precipi-

tation, presence of surface water, humidity, wind, soil moisture, and frequency of storms or droughts. Record ideas on an overhead at the front of the room, and provide a summary sheet for the students to use as reference.

3. Divide students into new groups of four to explore in more detail the impact of climate on vectors. Assign each group a specific vector: tick, rodent, mosquito, snail, bird. Ask the students to fill out a chart highlighting how projected climate changes due to an enhanced greenhouse effect might impact their vector. This can be done as an in-class group activity, with students drawing on the ideas and examples from the previous exercises. Alternatively, students could research the vector in more depth individually as a take-home assignment, and then complete the chart as a group during the next class period. An example chart format is shown on the following page. Students can research climate changes for the Great Lakes region by reading “Preparing for a Change” section on human health (see suggested resources).

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Student Activities

Students may not be able to fill in all of the spaces in their chart for their vector, but they should try to fill in as many as possible.

4. Have each student write a reflective essay in which they comment on the group’s predictions of the potential effects of climate change on disease transmission. Questions to consider include: How easy/difficult was it to evaluate the impacts on the vector and vector habitat? How easy/difficult was it to evaluate the impacts on disease transmission? What, if anything, made the evaluation difficult? How accurate does the group think their predictions are? What additional information would the group like to have to complete the chart? If possible, the teacher should follow up this activity with a discussion on the use of models to predict the impact of climate change on disease. A colour map showing model projections of changes in malaria distribution with a warming climate can be found in the Epstein (August 2000) Scientific American article.

ExtendStudents can examine a specific example of how weather affects disease by reading about the West Nile virus outbreak in New York City (see http://www.globalchange.org impactal/westnile.htm) or hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the U.S. Southwest. The sequence of extreme weather events that likely contributed to the outbreaks in described in the passage “Opportunists Like Sequential Extremes” from the Epstein (2000) article. Have the students read this passage and draw a timeline or flow diagram illustrating the sequence of events leading to the outbreak. An example for the West Nile virus outbreak is shown in the article. Then ask students to look at their diagrams and mark places where changes in human behavior (both individual and community level) could have helped curb the spread of the disease. As a final assignment to turn in, students redraw their first diagram incorporating the changes in human behaviour and illustrating how those changes influenced the outcome.

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Student Activities

Vector-Borne Diseases

DISEASE VECTOR Malaria Anopheles mosquito Yellow fever mosquito Dengue fever Aedes mosquito Schistosomiasis water snails West Nile virus Culex mosquito Leishmaniasis Sand flies Lyme disease Tick Plague Flea Rodent Japanese encephalitis Culex mosquito African trypanosomiasis Tsetse flies Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome Rodents St. Louis encephalitis Culex mosquito Dracunculiasis Cyclops (minute crustacean) Onchocerciasis blackflies

Student Name___________________________Group_________________________

Vector-Borne Diseases

More heat waves Change in flooding Change in droughtfrequency Heavier snowfalls

Lake level decline

Extreme weather

ClimateChange

Direct Impacton Vector

Impact onVector Habitat

Impact onParasite

Potential Impact on DiseaseTransmission

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Student Activities

SUGGESTED RESOURCES

“Taking Our Breath Away”, the health effects of air pollution and climate change. David Suzuki Foundation (available on “Changing Our Future” CD).

Canada Country Study, Ontario Region http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/canada_country_study/intro.html

Preparing for a Change: potential consequences of climate variability and change, United States Global Change Research Group, October, 2000. (available on “Changing Our Future” CD).

Malaria Maps:The Center for Disease Control’s “Yellow Book,” entitled Health Information forInternational Travel, 1999–2000, can be downloaded for free at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/reference.htm. (It is also on the CD “Changing Our Future” Section 4). This resource includes a section on malaria and a map showing countries in which malaria is endemic. A separate listing at the front of the book shows disease risk for specific countries.

A world map showing countries in which malaria is endemic can also be found at theMalaria Database, “Introduction” section. http://www.wehi.edu.au/MalDB-www/intro.html

GENERAL INFORMATION ON VECTOR-BORNE DISEASES:Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control andPrevention http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/index.htmThis site provides fact sheets, images, and world maps showing the distribution of several types of vector-borne diseases. A good resource for student research.

Health Canada’s website on the health effects of climate change http://www.hc_sc.gc.ca/english/climate.htm

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Student Activities

VECTOR LIFE CYCLES:

Mosquito Bytes http://whyfiles.org/016skeeter/index.html

Climate Change and Human Health:Epstein, P.R., 2000. Is global warming harmful to health? Scientific American (August2000) http://www.sciam.com/2000/0800issue/0800epstein.html

Epstein, P.R., 1997. Climate, ecology, and human health. Consequences 3 (2), GlobalChange Research Information Office. http://www.gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/vol3no2/climhealth.html

World Health Organization Climate and Health http://www.who.int/peh/climate/climate_and_health.htm

Web page providing information on the effects of climate on human health and links toWHO publications. The report Climate Change and Human Health: Impact andAdaptation contains an informative section (Chapter 3) on the impacts of climate change on vector-borne diseases. It can be downloaded as a pdf file at http://www.who.int/environmental_information/Climate/climchange.PDF

Adapted from the Union of Concerned Scientists activities in “Global Warming: early warning signs”, Curriculum Guide for High School Courses in Biology, Environmental Science, Geography, Earth Science and others focusing on the society-environment inter-face.

4-20

ChangingAttitudes

Changing Attitudes

SECTION 5

’

Changing Attitudes

Everyone is responsible for contributing to the greenhouse effect. Our society’s reliance on fos-sil fuels, and its willingness to remove forested landscapes for the sake of development, contrib-ute to the problem.

We as individuals can take stock of our climate change emissions and begin to take efforts to re-duce them. We can also begin to think of ways that we can change our consumption patterns, and even change our energy sources to renew-able ones.

In this section, a number of activities, internet links and resources will help the student begin to connect how they might be part of the prob-lem, and begin to think of ways that they can become part of the solution. Students should begin to think of all the ways that they can cut greenhouse gas emissions by changing some of their habits.

Three field trips have been prepared to pro-vide opportunities for students to relate what they have learned in the classroom to the world around them. Two of the trips include visit-ing some alternative energy examples. Back in the classroom, students should be encouraged

to learn more about alternative energy sources, like solar, wind, geothermal, fuel cells, biosolids, etc. Divide the class into groups and have each group study a particular alternative energy type in detail. Have each group share their findings with the class.

INTERNET RESOURCES

(these links are all accessible from the Lake Huron Centre for Coastal Conservation’s web site at www.lakehuron.on.ca )

E-Zone - Ontario Ministry of the Environment’s website for environmental education. Includes climate change information and action ideas http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/ezone

Climate Change Solutions - ideas for individu-als and families, towns, schools and business for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.http://www.climatechangesolutions.com/english/ default.htm

5-1

Changing Attitudes

Citizens for Renewable Energyhttp://www.web.net/~cfre/

Climate Change in Canada - Natural Resources Canada website - teacher resources and lesson plans available. http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/posters/guides/ ontario_e.php

Ontario Ministry of Energy - conservation, renew-able and heating and cooling your home - http://www.energy.gov.on.ca/

Canadian Solar Industries Associationhttp://www.cansia.ca/

Ontario Sustainable Energy Association - an umbrella organization formed to implement community sustainable energy projects across Ontario. http://www.ontario-sea.org/

Natural Resources Canada renewable energy divisionhttp://www2.nrcan.gc.ca/es/erb/erb/english/View.asp

5-2

Student Activities

Pledge onClimate ChangePledge onClimate Change

OVERVIEW:Students and their family make a pledge to reduce their consumption of fossil fuels and quantifytheir reductions of CO

2 into the atmosphere. This exercise personalizes the issue of climate

change, and begins to involve the wider community in understanding the issue and the role theycan play in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

PROCEDURE:Make a copy of the attached pledge form for each student in the class. Encourage students to notonly pledge to the activities listed on the pledge, but to DO them.

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5-7

Student Activities

Dear Parents and Students,

We hope you will fill out the following pledge to save two tonnes of CO2. (Note: That’s at least

$800 in energy savings each year!) If you work together, and take time to measure your progress,

you will achieve your goal. Please begin today!

1. Car Smarts

a) Treat our car to a tune-up once a year ... SAVE 400 kilograms ____

b) When it’s safe walk or bike three kilometres a day instead of

pushing the gas pedal (and we won’t forget to wear our helmets)... SAVE 180 kilograms ____

c) Combine our car errands into one fuel-saving trip ... SAVE 375 kilograms ____

d) Keep our car tires inflated ... SAVE 115 kilograms ____

e) Trade in the gas-guzzler for a car that gets five more kilometres per litre

... SAVE 1,000 kilograms ____

CO2 total saved here: ____

2. Electricity Simplicity

a) Replace a 100-watt incandescent bulb with

a 27-watt compact fluorescent bulb ... SAVE 75 kilograms for each bulb____

b) Replace a 75-watt incandescent bulb with an

18-watt compact fluorescent bulb ... SAVE 50 kilograms for each bulb____

c) Lights out when we leave a room ... SAVE 50 kilograms for each room____

Total CO2 saved here:____

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Student Activities

3. Getting Into Hot Water

a) Give our water heater a warm-up jacket of insulation to make it more efficient..... We use:(Electric) SAVE 300 kilograms____(Oil) SAVE 150 kilograms ____(Gas) SAVE 110 kilograms____

b) Cool the hot-water heater down by 3 degrees Celsius (but not below 35 degrees Celsius)...(Electric) SAVE 300 kilograms____(Oil) SAVE 190 kilograms____(Gas) SAVE 120 kilograms____

c) Chill out our washing machine by doing four out of five laundry loads in cold water...(Electric) SAVE 220 kilograms ____(Oil) SAVE 120 kilograms____(Gas) SAVE 80 kilograms____

d) Make our hot water go further with low-flow showerheads...(Electric) SAVE 500 kilograms ____(Oil) SAVE 250 kilograms____(Gas) SAVE 180 kilograms____


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Student Activities

4. Home is Where the Heat is

a) Nudge our thermostat down one degree this winter...(Electric) SAVE 200 kilograms____(Oil) SAVE 120 kilograms____(Gas) SAVE 80 kilograms____

b) Give that overworked heating system a 3 degree rest when we’re in bed at night...(Electric) SAVE 1100 kilograms____(Oil) SAVE 1000 kilograms____(Gas) SAVE 650 kilograms____

c) Turn our air conditioner’s thermostat up a single degree....SAVE 100 kilograms____

d) Get an annual tune-up

... of our air conditioner.... SAVE 100 kilograms____

... of our furnace (electric).. SAVE 500 kilograms____

...(Oil) SAVE 300 kilograms____

...(Gas) SAVE 220 kilograms____

e) Plug up leaks around windows & doors with weather-stripping and close the curtains andshades at night.

...(electric) SAVE 700 kilograms____

...(Oil) SAVE 450 kilograms____

...(Gas) SAVE 300 kilograms____


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Student Activities

5. Turning Over a New LeafPlant a tree on the south or west side of our home to provide cooling shade...

SAVE 75 kilograms____

6. Making Old as Good-as-Gold

Recycle one aluminum can a day... SAVE 60 kilograms____Recycle one glass bottle a day... SAVE 45 kilograms ____Recycle one newspaper a day... SAVE 20 kilograms ____

Our GRAND TOTAL: The CO2 we will save this year: ________

To help save the planet from the effects of climate change, I,

pledge with my family to send TTTTTwwwwwooooo TTTTTonnesonnesonnesonnesonnes less carbon dioxide (CO2) gas into the atmosphere this year! We’ll

do it by taking the energy-saving steps we’ve checked below— our Family Savings Plan.

Pledge (Developed by the Children’s Earth Fund - 40 W. 20th St., NY, NY 10011)

5-11

Student Activities

Student Activities

WhatCan You Do?

OVERVIEW:Students brainstorm some of the ways that individuals can reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

PROCEDURE:Have the students, as a class, make a list of the things which each of them can do to save energyand reduce greenhouse gas emissions. You might include in this list, or on another, other impor-tant conservation and preservation actions students can take.

Sample List:

1. Turn out lights when you’re not using them.

2. Use natural light whenever possible.

3. Turn off appliances when not using them: televisions, stereos, radios.

4. Turn down the thermostat or radiators in the house or apartment and wear an extrasweater. Turn it down a little more when you are not home.

5. Get your parents to help plug air leaks in windows and doors.

6. Save hot water by using cold or warm water for washing clothes.

7. Walk or ride a bicycle whenever possible.

8. Don’t open the refrigerator unless you have to; and don’t stand with the door open decid-ing what you want from inside!

9. Try not to use electrical appliances if you can use manual ones: open cans with a manualopener, sharpen pencils by hand, use the stairs instead of the elevator.

10. Use paper wrap and paper cups instead of styrofoam or plastic.

11.Students should discuss how each of the above actions can conserve energy.

WhatCan You Do?

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Student Activities

INTERNET RESOURCES

Earth Day Canada - climate change resources and ideas about what you can do to help reduceyour impact.

http://www.earthday.ca/EDy2k/YearRnd/YearRndfrmCLM8.html

Climate Change Solutions - ideas for individuals and families, towns, schools and business forreducing greenhouse gas emissions.

http://www.climatechangesolutions.com/english/default.htm

Learning to be water and energy efficient

http://www.getwise.org/

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5-6

Student Activities

Student Activities

ADDING IT ALL UP: How Much Carbon Dioxide Does a Family Produce?

ADDING IT ALL UP: How Much Carbon Dioxide Does a Family Produce?

OVERVIEW:

Students calculate the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere that each familyproduces.

SKILLS:

interpretation

calculation

MATERIALS:paper

pencil

INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases found in the Earth’s atmosphere. It warms the

Earth by trapping heat that would otherwise escape into space. To meet the growing demand for

energy, more fossil fuels are burned, adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. This increasing

amount of carbon dioxide is contributing to climate change. You and your family, as well as

everyone around the world, share in the responsibility for reducing the impact of climate change.

We all can take steps to reduce the amount of energy we use. This project illustrates how to learn

more about your family’s energy consumption and those of your class as a whole. Then you, your

classmates and their families may want to take the steps needed to reduce energy consumption.

To solve the problems below you must know the following fact:

burning 4 litres of gasoline releases about 10 kilograms of carbon dioxide into the

atmosphere.5-3

Student Activities

PROBLEM 1:Find out how many kilometres your family car is driven in one month. Assume that this car uses4 litres of gasoline for every 45 kilometres travelled. How many litres of gasoline did this carconsume in one month? How many kilograms of carbon dioxide were released into the atmos-phere from the car’s monthly gas consumption? Compare your family car’s usage to those of yourclassmates.

PROBLEM 2:Suppose your family car is more efficient than the example used and travels 2 kilometres moreper litre, how much gasoline would it use per month? How many litres of gasoline would besaved? How many fewer kilograms of carbon dioxide would be released into the atmosphere?

(From: “Global Warming- understanding the forecast”, Environmental Defense Fund, 1997)

INTERNET RESOURCESBelow are some web sites where students can calculate emissions and quantify the effects:

Carbon Calculator http://www.climcalc.net/

Emissions Calculator http://www.airhead.org/Calculator/

Personal CO2 Calculator http://www.iclei.org/iclei/co2calc.htm

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5-4

Student Activities

LOCATION:

The area around the Bruce Nuclear Power Development and the Information Centre. ESTIMATED TIME:

Full day OVERVIEW:

On this trip, students will see evidence of past climate history, become familiar with a number of ecosystems and see examples of alternative energy. Evidence of past climate history is evident as you travel west along County Road on your way toward the Bruce Nuclear Power Development. Just west of the Bruce Energy Centre you will descend down a hill. This hill, or slope, is part of a remnant shoreline bluff from Lake Algon-quin, the post glacial lake that existed here about 10,000 years ago. During Lake Algonquin, lake levels were about 8 metres higher than they are now on Lake Huron. During the last period of glaciation, global temperatures were only about 4 to 6 degrees Celsius colder than they are today. The coastal environment in this part of Bruce County is an interesting one and students will be able to observe many of the ecosystems described in Section 3, including a coastal wetland at Baie du Dore, dunes at Inverhuron Provincial Park and forests in the Huron Fringe Forest which runs parallel to the lakeshore. As discussed in Section 3, these environments will be vulnerable to change their structure and composition under climate change.

Field Trip - The Douglas Point areaField Trip - The Douglas Point area

5-13

Student Activities

This part of the Lake Huron shoreline is also unique as far as energy production goes. Students will see some examples of energy alternatives that do not include the burning of fossil fuels. The most obvious facility is the Bruce Nuclear Power Development. The area is also home to Huron Winds, a partnership of Bruce Power and Ontario Power Generation to produce wind generated electricity. DESCRIPTION: Stop 1 - The Algonquin Shoreline

As you travel down the County Road toward the lake, you will pass the Bruce Information Centre (an information and interpretive centre on your right hand side) As you pass this building you will come to the top of the hill you are about to drive down. Stop at the top of the hill and tell the students that they are at the top of the Algonquin Bluff, part of the shoreline that existed 10,000 years ago as the glaciers started to recede. Give the students an opportunity to look to the west and see how far they are away from the present day Lake Huron shoreline. Drive down to the base of the slope and stop. Look to the north and south to observe the Algonquin bluff. This feature is prominent from Southampton to Point Clark, and appears again south of Grand Bend.

Stop 2 - Inverhuron Provincial Park

At this stop, students will be able to observe a dune ecosystem. Have the students look at the vegetation in the dunes. How is it different from other ecosystems? Note the quantities of sand. The sand deposits observed here were deposited over the last several hundred years. Similar dune deposits can be found between here and the Algonquin bluff. As water levels dropped from Lake Algonquin levels 10,000 years ago, and then Lake Nipissing 6,000 years ago, the dunes from these former lakeshores were left stranded. What might happen to dunes along Lake Huron with water level decline of one metre or more?

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Student Activities

Stop 3 - Baie du Dore wetlands

The Baie du Dore wetland is an example of a coastal wetland ecosystem. These wetlands are very sensitive to water level fluctuations. Observe the emergent vegetation (the rushes and other plants emerging from the water). With a projected drop in water levels, how might this wetland change?

Alternative Energy

From the same vantage at Baie du Dore, you can observe the Bruce Nuclear Power Development (BNPD). What might be some of the benefits of nuclear energy as far as climate change is concerned? What are the drawbacks of nuclear energy?

Stop 4 - Huron Winds, wind farm (beside the Bruce Information Centre)

Huron Winds has been developed to supplement the Bruce grid with “green” energy. This site has been determined to be one of the best locations in Ontario for tapping in to wind energy.

The Information Centre has interactive displays on the BNPD’s nuclear energy program, as well as wind power. Videos on alternative energy can be pre-arranged for viewing in the Centre’s theatre.

Contact for Huron Winds, and for education programs at the Information Centre - Catherine Davidson (519) 361-2673 extension

7033

5-15

Student Activities

Field Trip - Field Trip -

5-17

LOCATION: The Goderich waterfront and harbour, and some alternative energy sites in the area. ESTIMATED TIME: ½ day Overview On this trip, students will visit the waterfront area and the harbour facility at Goderich, and also see examples of alternative energy. The Goderich waterfront and harbour area is an example of a built environment where project-ed water level drops due to climate change would have a big impact. Beaches would be positively impacted as the lower water levels uncover more beach area. The water intake located along the waterfront may have to be extended into deeper water, which would be costly. The harbour, one of the busiest ports on the Great Lakes, may be impacted in a number of ways. Ships might have to carry significantly less cargo to navigate the shallower depths throughout the Seaway system. Lower levels would also expose some of the timber cribbing that make up the supporting struc-ture of the harbour wharves, to timber rot and decay. DESCRIPTION: Stop 1 - St. Christopher’s Beach

Take West Street, off the Square in Goderich, down to the waterfront and around to the Water Treatment Plant located on the west side of the roadway. The Town’s water intake is located directly west of the Water Treatment Plant.


Stop 2 - Goderich Harbour

Standing along the harbour wharves, students will have a good vantage of the port facilities. Salt and grain are principle commodities that are shipped from Goderich. Recap how much of an impact the projected drop in water levels would have on the ability to ship goods in the Great Lakes under the climate change scenarios.

A) Dredging the harbour to deepen the port would require blasting into bedrock. Looking around the harbour, what impacts could arise from blasting?

B) Depending on current water levels, you may be able to see the timber supports under the concrete wharves. Once exposed to air the wood becomes subject to dry-rot. Under the climate change projections, what implications does this have for the harbour?

C) Looking at the harbour, imagine how much it would cost the Town of Goderich to repair the harbour. Stop 3 - Alternative energy sources

Port Albert wind turbine - Highway 21 just north of Port Albert (behind Thompson Feed Mills)

Local contractors who may have information on installed household systems:

Sol-Wind Enerco, Goderich Airport Road - 524-8703

Geo-Teck ground source heat pumps (geothermal) 524-4199

Student Activities

Field Trip - the Pinery embayment

LOCATION:

Port Franks / Pinery Provincial Park ESTIMATED TIME: Full day OVERVIEW: Climate change has occurred in the past and evidence of past climates near the shoreline re-mains. This area of the Lake Huron shoreline was covered by water during the Lake Algonquin stage of post glacial times. This embayment stretched inland toward the Village of Thedford and east toward Parkhill. During this time period some 10,000 years ago, considerable sand deposi-tion occurred forming a baymouth bar (from north to south) across the embayment. This cut off the lake water supply to the embayment and the area eventually formed into 3 inland lakes; Lake Burwell, George and Smith. Once settlers arrived, these inland lakes were locally known as the Thedford Marsh and were a haven for waterfowl and hunters alike. The migration of the Tundra Swans each year remain the only present day indication of this once lush, aquatic habitat area. An extensive system of drainage and market gardening now dominates the land use in the area. However, the topography and other more subtle indicators remain to illustrate the natural history of the area. DESCRIPTION: The sites are all accessible by paved road and can be visited in 4 hours making this an ideal day trip. Depending on the travel time required to reach the area, outside acitivities from the ed kit can be incorporated to provide a variety of stimulating experiences to supplement the tour and complete the schedule of the day.

Field Trip - the Pinery embayment

5-19

Student Activities

FIELD TRIP LOCATIONS: Stop 1 - Lookout Trail, Pinery Provincial Park

Specific location is 500 metres from the park gate - a short 500 m hike along the trail to a lookout (not wheelchair accessible) provides a scenic view over the Thedford Marsh to the east.

This vantage point provides a view of the location that was once covered with the water of Lakes Burwell, George and Smith. These lands have now been drained and market gardening has taken over the former marsh lands. Challenge students to see if they can identify the drainage channels that criss-cross the area including the largest, The Ausable Cut. This site is ideal to view the Tundra Swans during their migration north in March each year. Also evident from this vantage point is the remnant forest that the Pinery is located within. This forest forms a component of the Huron Fringe Forest which has been cleared and fragmented since European settlement.

NOTE: as this trail is within the provincial park, arrangements

will need to be made with park staff for full payment of park fees

will be necessary for the class to access the park. Stop 2 - Port Franks dune (behind McPherson’s Restaurant)

Specific location is on Port Franks Road, 500 m from the intersection with Hwy #21.

This location provides a visual representation of the quantity of sand that was transported along the shoreline from Goderich and farther north and subsequently moved inland by wind due to dune processes. This dune which is over 60 metres high, is managed by Lambton County to provide an area for hikers to traverse the face of the dune as well as fenced areas at

5-20

Student Activities

either side where dune grass replanting. Note the location around the east face (leeward side) of the dune in relation to the restaurant and adjacent buildings. Dune stabalization (grass planting and pedestrian fencing) was implemented to slow the dune from “moving” in this direction and affecting the local businesses.

Stop 3 - Town of Bosanquet water tower

Specific location is on Port Franks Road, 500 m south from the Hwy #21 intersection.

From this vantage point looking north, students will be able to see the change in topography from a location on the southern “shore” of the embayment. The road follows the high ground and can be travelled for an interesting side trip, another 8 to 10 km east along Sitter Road and Kennedy Line. These roads also follow the high ridge that forms the southern shoreline of the embayment.

Stop 4 - Old Bridge over the Ausable River Cut Specific location is on River Road, 1 km north of Bog Line

This location is where Ontario’s largest municipal drain was constructed to divert water from the Ausable River to the Lake Huron shoreline at Port Franks. This was done to assist in draining Lakes Burwell and George and to reduce flooding in the flat landscape near Grand Bend.

Students can discuss the advantages / disadvantages to agriculture and farmland draining versus leaving the lands for aquatic habitat / marsh lands.

5-21

Student Activities

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Stop 5 - Village of Grand Bend harbour Specific location is at the intersection of River Road and Alberta Streets

This location illustrates where the natural drainage formerly flowed before drainage alterations occurred. The “bend” that Grand Bend derives its name was located at this location where the Ausable River attempted to break through the sand dunes along the Lake Huron shore. Due to this barrier along the shore, the river flowed south through the Pinery Provincial Park to eventually outlet into Lake Huron at Port Franks. This route was interrupted by human intervention in the 1890’s when the Ausable River Cut was dug (see Location # 4) and the Grand Bend harbour was dug out to the lake. This man-made harbour now is a major recreational boating destination for residents and tourists.

5-22

Student Activities


Nuclear PowerNuclear PowerThe Bruce Nuclear Power Development (BNPD), on

the shores of Lake Huron, is the largest civilian nu

clear complex in North America.

The BNPD is a set of nuclear fission reactors. Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atominto two or more parts. When such an occurrence takes place, a very large amount ofenergy is released. This can occur very quickly as in an atomic bomb, or in a morecontrolled manner allowing the energy to be captured for useful purposes. Only a fewnaturally occurring substances are easily fissionable. These include uranium-235 andplutonium-239, two isotopes of uranium and plutonium.

The set of activities required for producing nuclear power, from the mining andprocessing of uranium to its use in reactors and final disposal, is known as the nuclearfuel cycle.

spent fuel is a very hot and highly radioactive waste, which must be removed from areactor and disposed. Some of the radioactive waste produced by fission reactors willremain highly radioactive for thousands of years. At the present time, there is noagreed upon method of permanently disposing such wastes, and they are piling up intemporary holding tanks. Plans are underway to bury these wastes deep undergroundin rock caverns; but to date no such facilities have been approved.

Electricity generated by nuclear power results in almost none of the greenhouse andacid gas emissions associated with fossil fuel fired power plants. For this reason, sup-porters of nuclear power have called for a widespread increase in the number of nu-clear plants worldwide in order to combat climate change and acid rain. However,nuclear power is becoming increasingly expensive. The recently completed powerplant at Darlington, Ontario, cost over $13 billion.

1. As an alternative to fossil fuels, which producegreenhouse gases, what benefits might nuclear energypresent?

2. What disadvantages does nuclear energy present?

1. As an alternative to fossil fuels, which produce greenhouse gases, what benefitsmight nuclear energy present?

Bruce Nuclear Power DevelopmentBruce Nuclear Power DevelopmentBruce Nuclear Power DevelopmentBruce Nuclear Power DevelopmentBruce Nuclear Power Development


Wind EnergyWind EnergyHumans have harnessed the energy of the wind for over2000 years. The first windmills were built in Persia andconverted wind energy into mechanical power. Until theindustrial revolution, windmills were used extensively toprovide power for many purposes such as pumping

water and grinding grain. Wind was second only to wood as a source of energy. Asrecently as the early 1900s, thousands of multi-bladed windmills were used on farmsthroughout Ontario and North America for pumping water. Many of these are stillstanding today, although few are actively used. The extension of transmission gridsinto rural areas and cheap electricity prices resulted in the replacement of windpumps with electrically powered water pumps.

Winds are caused by differential heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. The wind isindirect form of solar energy, and is therefore “renewable”, that is, it is always beingreplenished by the sun. Every location on the planet experiences wind, but the abso-lute amount of wind in any one area is highly variable. the areas with the highestaverage wind speed in Ontario are around the shores of the Great Lakes, and nearSudbury. Wind speed is also very dependant upon elevation above ground level. Thisis why most wind turbines are situated on the top of tall towers.

Next to the Bruce Information Centre, just east of the BNPD, a wind farm has beendeveloped in 2002 in a joint project by Ontario Power Generation and British EnergyInc. Energy produced by the wind farm is tied into the existing power grid and of-fered to customers as a ‘green energy’ alternative.

One of the benefits of wind generated electricity is that it avoids most of the tradi-tional environmental impacts associated with electricity generation. Wind power hasnone of the greenhouse gas and acid gas emissions which result from the combustionof fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, the traditional sources of electricalpower. Similarly, wind power obviously does not result in the risks of radioactive expo-sure associated with nuclear power plants.


Although use of the wind for generating electricity would help reduce the problems ofglobal warming and acid rain, no source of energy is totally without environmentalimpacts. The main environmental concerns surrounding the use of wind energy areimpacts on land use, noise, effects on wildlife and disruption of radio transmissions.Since the available wind resource is so spread out, large areas of land are required toprovide significant amounts of electricity. Wind turbines can however be placed onareas used for grazing of animals, or land of marginal value.

1. What are some of the benefits associated with windenergy?

2. What might be some of the drawbacks?

3. What are the advantages of the wind farm location at theBruce Information Centre location?

WindWindWindWindWindTTTTTurbinesurbinesurbinesurbinesurbines


PassiveSolar EnergyPassiveSolar Energy

Many different techniques can be used to convert sunlightinto useful forms of energy. Active and passive solar energy

technologies are generally used for space conditioning (heating and cooling), whilesolar electric technologies such as photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity.Although the distinction between active and passive solar is blurry, the use of integralbuilding components to capture the sun’s energy is considered passive solar. Activesolar technologies are generally add-on features which utilize mechanical means todistribute captured solar energy. An example of active solar energy is a solar hot waterheater, while passive solar features may be as simple as south facing windows.

Passive solar building features can be used to heat and cool buildings, as well as pro-vide light. The best time to incorporate passive solar technologies in a building isduring the initial design. Passive solar features can often be included in new buildingswithout significantly adding to construction costs, while at the same time providingenergy savings of up to 40%. Designing the buildings we live and work in, to capturethe ambient energy of the sun through passive solar features, is one of the least expen-sive and most environmentally friendly methods of providing for our energy needs.

Each year, an enormous amount of solar energy reaches the earth’s atmosphere. Muchof this is reflected back into space by clouds before it reaches the planet’s surface.Ninety-nine percent of the sunlight which does reach the ground is converted intoheat (the other 1% is captured by plants through photosynthesis) and radiated backinto space. If only a small fraction of this energy could be captured, the world’s energydemands could be met. Even in cold climates like Canada, the amount of useful solarenergy reaching the ground in the winter is greater than the daily heating require-ments of a well insulated house.

The capture of solar energy by passive solartechnologies has almost no negative impacton the environment. Passive solar energy gives off no air or water emissions and there-


fore does not contribute to any of the environmental problems such as acid rain andglobal warming, which are associated with other source of energy. The sun is also avirtually inexhaustible source of energy which is “renewable” and will never becomedepleted like fossil fuels.

Fitting buildings with solar panels is occurring gradually in the Lake Huron region. Itis sometimes done in combination with wind or geothermal energy sources.

1. What are some of the advantge of using solar power?

2. What might be some disadvantages?

Solar PanelsSolar PanelsSolar PanelsSolar PanelsSolar Panels

Overheads

Glossary &Bibliography

GLOSSARY

A

Abatement is the reduction or elimination of the degree or intensity of emissions i.e. pollution.

Abiotic Resources are the resources which are considered abiotic and therefore not renewable. Zinc ore and crude oil are examples of abiotic resources.

Acceptable Daily Intake is the highest daily amount of a substance that may be consumed over a life-time without adverse effects.

Acid Deposition is a comprehensive term for the various ways acidic compounds precipitate from the atmosphere and deposit onto surfaces. It can include: wet deposition by means of acid rain, fog, and snow; and dry deposition of acidic particles (aerosols).

Acid Rain is rain mixed mainly with nitric and sulphuric acid, that arise from emissions released during the burning of fossil fuels.

Acute Exposure is one or a series of short-term exposures generally lasting less than 24 hours.

Adaptability refers to the degree to which adjustments are possible in practices, processes, or struc-tures of systems to projected or actual changes of climate. Adaptation can be spontaneous or planned, and be carried out in response to or in anticipation of changes in conditions.

Aerobic composting is a method of composting organic waste using bacteria that need oxygen. This requires that the waste be exposed to air either by turning or by forcing air through pipes that pass through the material.

Aerosols are particles of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended in air from a few minutes to many months depending on the particle size and weight.

Air is a mixture of gases containing about 78 percent nitrogen; 21 percent oxygen; less than 1 percent of carbon dioxide argon, and other gases; and varying amounts of water vapor.

Air Monitoring is the sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the atmosphere.

Air Pollution is the degradation of air quality resulting from unwanted chemicals or other materials occurring in the air.

Climate Change GlossaryGlossary

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GLOSSARY

Air Pollutants are amounts of foreign and/or natural substances occurring in the atmosphere that may result in adverse effects to humans, animals, vegetation, and/or materials.

Air Quality Standard (AQS) is the prescribed level of a pollutant in the outside air that should not be exceeded during a specific time period to protect public health.

Alternative energy is energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas, solar, hydroelectric, wind).

Alternative Fuel are fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner and help to meet mobile and stationary emission standards. These fuels may be used in place of less clean fuels for powering motor vehicles.

Ambient Air is the air occurring at a particular time and place outside of structures. Often used interchangeably with outdoor air.

Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS) are health and welfare-based standards for outdoor air which identify the maximum acceptable average concentrations of air pollutants during a specified period of time.

Ammonia is a pungent colourless gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is very soluble in water and can easily be condensed into a liquid by cold and pressure. Ammonia reacts with NOx to form ammonium nitrate.

Atmosphere is the gaseous mass or envelope of air surrounding the Earth. From ground-level up, the atmosphere is further subdivided into the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and the thermosphere.

Aquaculture, or pisceculture is the breeding or rearing of freshwater fish in captivity, fish farming. Aquaculture has been a growing industry along the shores of Georgian Bay and other parts of the Great Lakes.

B Bathymetry is the topography of the lake bottom.

Binding targets refers to environmental standards that are to be met in the future.

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GLOSSARY

Biodegradable material are any organic materials that can be broken down by microorganisms into sim-pler, more stable compounds. Most organic waste such as foods, paper, etc are biodegradable.

Biogenic Source are biological sources such as plants and animals that emit air pollutants such as vola-tile organic compounds Examples of biogenic sources include animal management operations, and oak and pine tree forests.

Biomass is the living materials (wood, vegetation, etc.) grown or produced expressly for use as fuel.

Biomass burning is the burning of organic matter for energy production, forest clearing and agricul-tural purposes. Carbon dioxide is a bi-product of biomass burning

Biomass fuels is wood and forest residues, animal manure and waste, grains, crops and aquatic plants are some common biomass fuels.

Biome is a climatic region characterised by its dominant vegetation.

Bioreserve are the areas with rich ecosystems and species diversity that are reserved for conservation.

Biota is the flora and fauna of an area.

Biotic are the resources which are considered biotic and therefore renewable. The rainforests and tigers are examples of biotic resources.

BOD is the biochemical oxygen demand.

C

Calorie Metric thermal unit is a measure of heat energy; the amount needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree

Carbon cycle is the process of removal and uptake of carbon on a global scale. This involves compo-nents in food chains, in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, in the hydrosphere and in the geo-sphere. The major movement of carbon results from photosynthesis and from respiration. See also sink and source.

G-3

GLOSSARY

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that occurs naturally in the Earth’s atmosphere.

Significant quantities are also emitted into the air by fossil fuel combustion and deforestation. It is a greenhouse gas of major concern in the study of global warming. It is estimated that the amount in the air is increasing by 0.27% annually.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. CO interferes with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen to the body’s tissues and results in numerous adverse health effects. Over 80% of the CO emitted in urban areas is contributed by motor vehicles. CO is a criteria air pollutant.

Carbon sequestration generally refers to capturing carbon — in a carbon sink, such as the oceans, or a terrestrial sink such as forests or soils — so as to keep the carbon out of the atmosphere.

Carbon sink is a pool (reservoir) that absorbs or takes up released carbon from another part of the carbon cycle. For example, if the net exchange between the biosphere and the atmosphere is toward the atmosphere, the biosphere is the source, and the atmosphere is the sink.

Carnivore are the flesh eating species.

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms that can use a given area of habitat without degrading the habitat and without causing social stresses that result in the population being reduced.

Catalyst is a substance that can increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction between the other chemical species without being consumed in the process.

Catalytic converter is a motor vehicle pollution control device designed to reduce emissions such as oxides of nitrogen hydrocarbons carbon monoxide. Catalytic converters have been required equipment on all new motor vehicles sold in India.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) is a synthetically produced compound containing varying amounts of chlorine, fluorine and carbon. Used in industrial processes, refrigeration and as a propellant for gases and sprays. In the atmosphere they are responsible for the depletion of ozone and can destroy as many as 10,000 molecules of ozone in their long lifetime. Their use is now currently restricted under the Montreal Protocol.

Chronic health effect is a health effect that occurs over a relatively long period of time (e.g., months or years).

Climate is the prevalent long term weather conditions in a particular area.

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GLOSSARY

Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine and wind velocity and phe-nomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms.

Climate change can be caused by an increase in the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases which inhibit the transmission of some of the sun’s energy from the earth’s surface to outer space. These gases include carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and other chemicals. The increased concentrations of greenhouse gases result in part from hu-man activity — deforestation; the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline, oil, coal and natural gas; and the release of CFCs from refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.

Climate model is a quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land

surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively simple to quite comprehensive.

Climate modeling is the simulation of the climate using computer-based models.

Coastal Ecosystem is an ecosystem which is found specifically within the coast or shoreline region. COD is the chemical oxygen demand.

Combustion is the act or instance of burning some type of fuel such as gasoline to produce energy. Combustion is typically the process that powers automobile engines and power plant generators.

Community is a group of organisms living in a common environment and interdependent.

Compost is the material resulting from composting. This natural process of decomposition of organic waste yields manure or compost which is very rich in nutrients. Compost, also called humus, is a soil conditioner and a very good fertilizer.

Concentration is the measure of the atmospheric content of a gas, defined in terms of the proportion of the total volume that it accounts for. Greenhouse gases are trace gases in the atmosphere and are usually measured in parts per million by volume (ppmv), parts per billion by volume (ppbv) or parts per trillion (million million) by volume (pptv).

Conservation is the planning and management of resources to promote their long term stewardship and continuity and enhance their quality, value and diversity. It is the use of less energy, either by us-ing more efficient technologies or by changing wasteful attitudes and behaviour.

G-5

GLOSSARY

DDeforestation is the practice or process that results in the long-term change in land-use to non-forest

uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are lost.

Depletion is the result of the extraction of abiotic resources (non-renewable) from the environment or the extraction of biotic resources faster than they can be renewed.

Diversity is the variety of species in an area. For example, a community has a high degree of diversity if it contains many species of equal abundance.

Dunes are ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually composed of sand.

E

Ecology is the study of the interrelationships between and among organisms and environment.

Ecosystem is the complex system of plant, animal, fungal, and microorganism communities and their associated non-living environment interacting as an ecological unit. Ecosystems have no fixed boundaries; instead their parameters are set to the scientific, management, or policy question being examined. Depending upon the purpose of analysis, a single lake, a watershed, or an entire region could be considered an ecosystem.

Efficiency is the ration of desired work-type output to the necessary energy input, in any given energy transformation devide. An efficient LIGHT bulb for example uses most of the input electrical energy to produce light, not heat. An efficient HEAT bulb uses most of its input to produce heat, not light.

El Niño is a climatic phenomenon occurring every 5 to 7 years during Christmas (El Niño means Christ child) in the surface oceans of the SE Pacific. The phenomenon involves seasonal chang-es in the direction of Pacific winds and abnormally warm surface ocean temperatures. The changes normally only effect the Pacific region, but major events can disrupt weather patterns over much of the globe. The relationship between these events and global weather patterns are poorly understood and are currently the subject of much research.

Emission is the release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.

G-5

GLOSSARY

Emission factor is the relationship between the amount of pollution produced and the amount of raw material processed or burned. For mobile sources, the relationship between the amount of pol-lution produced and the number of vehicle miles traveled. By using the emission factor of a pollutant and specific data regarding quantities of materials used by a given source, it is possible to compute emissions for the source. This approach is used in preparing an emissions inventory.

Endangered species are the plant and animal species in danger of extinction.

Endemic species are the species which are native, restricted or peculiar to an area.

Energy-efficient is electrical lighting devices which produce the same amount of light (lumens) using less electrical energy than incandescent electric light bulbs. Such devices are usually of the fluo-rescent type, which produce little heat, and may have reflectors to concentrate or direct the light ouput.

Energy efficiency is the amount of fuel needed to sustain a particular level of production or consump-tion, in an industrial or domestic enterprise. Energy efficiency measures are designed to reduce the amount of fuel consumed, either through greater insulation, less waste, or improved me-chanical efficiencies, without losing any of the value of the product or process. Improving en-ergy efficiency is a technological means to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases without increas-ing production costs.

Energy sources are: fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas); nuclear (fission and fusion); renewables (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydro).

Enhanced greenhouse effect is the concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, meth-ane, and nitrous oxide, CFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3, and other photochemically important gases caused by human activity influence on the climate.

Environment is the surroundings in which we all function, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelations. This definition extends the view from an anthro-pocentric focus to the broader ecosystem.

Environmental effect is any direct or indirect impingement of activities, products and services of an organization upon the environment, whether adverse or beneficial. An environmental effect is the consequence of an environmental intervention in an environmental system.

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GLOSSARY

Environmental impact is any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organization’s or individual’s activities, products or services.

Estuary comprises a river mouth entering a Great Lake, and the downstream end of the river that is directly influenced by lake levels. The lake will periodically flush the lower end of the river, particularly during times of high lake levels and/or storm events. This influences the water chemistry of that portion of the river.

Ethanol is Ethyl-alcohol, a volatile alcohol containing two carbon groups. For fuel use, ethanol is produced by fermentation of corn or other plant products.

Evaporative emissions are the emissions from evaporating gasoline, which can occur during vehicle refueling, vehicle operation, and even when the vehicle is parked. Evaporative emissions can account for two-thirds of the hydrocarbon emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles on hot sum-mer days.

Evapotranspiration is the loss of water from the soil by evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing in the soil, which rises with air temperature.

Exposure is the concentration of the pollutant in the air multiplied by the population exposed to that concentration over a specified time period.

FFauna is the total animal life in an area.

Flora is the total plant life in an area.

Fluorescent light is a device which uses the glow discharge of an electrified gas for the illuminating element rather than an electrically heated glowing conductive filament.

Fly ash are air-borne solid particles that result from the burning of coal and other solid fuel.

Food chain is a sequence of organisms through which energy is transferred from its ultimate source in a green plant; the predator-prey pathway in which an organism eats the next link below and is eaten by the link above.

Food web is a group of interconnecting food chains.

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GLOSSARY

Fossil fuel is any hydrocarbon deposit that can be burned for heat or power such as coal, oil or natu-ral gas. Fossil fuels are formed from the decomposition of ancient animal and plant remains. A major concern is that they emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when burnt, a major contributor to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

or

Fossil fuels are the fuels formed eons ago from decayed plants and animals. Oil, coal and natural gas are such fuels.

or

Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are so-called because they are the remains of ancient plant and animal life.

Fuel is a material which is consumed, giving up its molecularly stored energy which is then used for other purposes. e.g. to do work (run a machine).

Fuel efficiency is the amount of work obtained for the amount of fuel consumed. In cars, an efficient fuel allows more miles per gallon of gas than an inefficient fuel.

Fuel cell is an electrochemical cell, which captures the electrical energy of a chemical reaction between fuels such as liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen and converts it directly and continuously into the energy of a direct electrical current.

Fumes are solid particles under 1 micron in diameter formed as vapors condense, or as chemical reac-tions take place.

Furnace is combustion chamber; an enclosed structure in which fuel is burned to heat air or material.

G

Garbage is the waste that is generated whether in the household, commercial areas, industries, etc.

Geothermal is pertaining to heat energy extracted from reservoirs in the earth’s interior, as is the use of geysers, molten rock and steam spouts.

G-8

GLOSSARY

Geothermal energy is the heat generated by natural processes within the earth. Chief energy resources are hot dry rock, magma (molten rock), hydrothermal (water/steam from geysers and fissures) and geo-pressure (water satured with methane under tremendous pressure at great depths).

Global warming is an increase in the temperature of the Earth’s troposphere. Global warming has occurred in the past as a result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted by computer models to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases.

Greenhouse effect is the progressive, gradual warming of the earth’s atmospheric temperature, caused by the insulating effect of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases that have proportionately in-creased in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect disturbs the way the Earth’s climate maintains the balance between incoming and outgoing energy by allowing short-wave radiation from the sun to penetrate through to warm the earth, but preventing the resulting long-wave radiation from escap-ing back into the atmosphere. The heat energy is then trapped by the atmosphere, creating a situa-tion similar to that which occurs in a car with its windows rolled up.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) include the common gases of carbon dioxide and water vapor, but also rarer gases such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) whose properties relate to the transmission or reflection of different types of radiation. The increase in such gases in the atmosphere, which contributes to global warming, is a result of the burning of fossil fuels, the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere, and deforestation.

H

Habitat is the natural area in which a species or organism is found.

Haze (Hazy) is a phenomenon that results in reduced visibility due to the scattering of light caused by aero-sols. Haze is caused in large part by man-made air pollutants.

Herbivore is an animal that eats plants or parts of plants.

Hydro is that which is produced by or derived from water or the movement of water, as in hydroelectricity.

Hydrocarbons are compounds containing various combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They may be emitted into the air by natural sources (e.g., trees) and as a result of fossil and vegetative fuel combustion, fuel volatilization, and solvent use. Hydrocarbons are a major contributor to smog.

Hydrologic cycle is the process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal transport of vapour, condensation, precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans. It is a major factor in determining

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GLOSSARY

climate through its influence on surface vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil mois-ture. The hydrologic cycle is responsible for 25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes’ heat trans-port from the equatorial to polar regions.

I

Ice core is a cylindrical section of ice removed from a glacier or an ice sheet in order to study climate patterns of the past. By performing chemical analyses on the air trapped in the ice, scientists can estimate the percentage of carbon dioxide and other trace gases in the atmosphere at that time.

Inorganic waste is waste consisting of materials other than plant or animal matter, such as sand, glass, or any other synthetics.

Insolation is the solar radiant energy received by the earth.

K

Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement struck by 159 nations attending the Third Conference of Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (held in December of 1997 in Kyoto Japan) to reduce worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases. If rati-fied and put into force, individual countries have committed to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a specified amount.

L Lead is a gray-white metal that is soft, malleable, ductile, and resistant to corrosion. Sources of lead

resulting in concentrations in the air include industrial sources and crustal weathering of soils followed by fugitive dust emissions. Health effects from exposure to lead include brain and kidney damage and learning disabilities. Lead is the only substance that is currently listed as both a criteria air pollutant and a toxic air contaminant.

M

Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas, consisting of four molecules of hydrogen and one of carbon. It is produced by anaerobically decomposing solid waste at landfills, paddy fields, etc.

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GLOSSARY

Migration is the regular movements of animals, often between breeding places and winter feeding grounds.

Mudflats are area of mud that do not support any vegetation and are often covered by water.

NNatural resources include renewable (forest, water, soil, wildlife, etc) and nonrenewable (oil, coal, iron

ore etc.) resources that are natural assets.

Natural sources are the non-manmade emission sources, including biological and geological sources, wildfires, and windblown dust.

Nearshore is an indefinite zone extending from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone. This is

the area where wave energy has a profound influence on the lakebed. This is in contrast to the Offshore, where waves do not impact the lakebed.

Nitrogen oxides (Oxides of Nitrogen, Nox) is a general term pertaining to compounds of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide and other oxides of nitrogen. Nitrogen oxides are typically created dur-ing combustion, combustion processes, and are major contributors to smog formation and acid deposition. NO

2 is a criteria air pollutant and may result in numerous adverse health effects.

They are produced in the emissions of vehicle exhausts and from power stations.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas, consisting of two molecules of nitrogen and one of oxygen.

Nuclear electric power is electricity generated by an electric power plant whose turbines are driven by steam generated in a reactor by heat from the fissioning of nuclear fuel.

O

Organic Compounds are a large group of chemical compounds containing mainly carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. All living organisms are made up of organic compounds.

Organic waste is the material that is more directly derived from plant and animal sources, which can generally be decomposed by microorganisms.

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GLOSSARY

Organisms are living thing, animal or plant, that is capable of carrying out life processes. Oxidant is a substance that brings about oxidation in other substances.

Oxidizing agents (oxidants) contain atoms that have suffered electron loss. In oxidizing other substanc-es, these atoms gain electrons. Ozone, which is a primary component of smog is an example of an oxidant.

Oxidation is the chemical reaction of a substance with oxygen or a reaction in which the atoms in an element lose electrons and its valence is correspondingly increased.

Ozone (O3) consists of three atoms of oxygen bonded together in contrast to normal atmospheric oxy-gen which consists of two atoms of oxygen. Ozone is formed in the atmosphere and is extremely reactive and thus has a short lifetime. In the stratosphere ozone is both an effective greenhouse gas (absorber of infra-red radiation) and a filter for solar ultra-violet radiation. Ozone in the troposphere can be dangerous since it is toxic to human beings and living matter. Elevated levels of ozone in the troposphere exist in some areas, especially large cities as a result of photochemi-cal reactions of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, released from vehicle emissions and power stations.

Ozone depletion is the reduction in the stratospheric ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone shields the Earth from ultraviolet radiation. The breakdown of certain chlorine and/or bromine-containing com-pounds that catalytically destroy ozone molecules in the stratosphere can cause a reduction in the ozone layer.

Ozone layer is the ozone in the stratosphere which is very diffuse, Although it occupies a region many kilometres in thickness, it is conventionally described as a layer to aid understanding.

P Paleoclimatology is the study of past climates, throughout geological history, and the causes of the vari-

ations among them

Particulate matter (PM) is any material, except pure water, that exists in the solid or liquid state in the atmosphere. The size of particulate matter can vary from coarse, wind-blown dust particles to fine particle combustion products.

Percolation is the movement of water downwards and radially through the subsurface soil layers, usually continuing downward to the ground water.

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GLOSSARY

Petrochemicals are chemicals obtained by refining (i.e., distilling) crude oil. They are used as raw ma-terials in the manufacture of most industrial chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, and many other products

Photosynthesis is a complex process that takes place in living green plant cells. Radiant energy from the sun is used to combine carbon dioxide (CO

2) and water (H

2O) to produce oxygen (O

2) and

simple nutrient molecules, such as glucose (C6HI

2O

6)

Pollution is the residual discharges of emissions to the air or water following application of emission control devices.

Population is a group of closely related and interbreeding organisms.

Precipitation is any or all form of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere and reach the earth’s surface. It includes drizzle, rain, snow and hail.

Predator is a animal that feeds on other animals.

Prey is an animal that is eaten by another animal.

Propellant is a gas with a high vapor pressure used to force formulations out of aerosol spray cans. Among the gases used are butanes, propanes and nitrogen ozone hydrocarbons nitrogen oxides, and other chemically reactive compounds which, under certain conditions of weather and sun-light, may result in a murky brown haze that causes adverse health effects. The primary source of smog in California is motor vehicle.

Protected area is any area of land that has legal measures limiting human use of the plants and animals within that area; it includes national parks, game reserves, biosphere reserves, etc.

R

Range is the portion of the earth in which a given species is found.

Recharge is the process by which water is added to a reservoir or zone of saturation, often by runoff or percolation from the soil surface.

Recycling is the process of transforming materials (mainly waste) into raw materials for manufacturing new products.

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GLOSSARY

Renewable energy is the energy resource that does not use exhaustible fuels. It is the energy from sources that cannot be used up: sunshine, water flow, wind and vegetation and geothermal energy, as well as some combustible materials, such as landfill gas, biomass, and municipal solid waste.

Resources are the materials found in the environment that can be extracted from the environment in an economic process. There are abiotic resources (non-renewable) and biotic resources (renew-able).

Runoff is that part of precipitation, snow or ice melt or irrigation water that flows from the land to the streams or other water surfaces.

Reuse is when we can use a product more than once in its original form.

S

Sink is a reservoir that uptakes a chemical element or compound from another part of its cycle. For example, soil and trees tend to act as natural sinks for carbon.

Smoke is a form of air pollution consisting primarily of particulate matter (i.e., particles released by combustion. Other components of smoke include gaseous air pollutants such as hydrocarbons oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide. Sources of smoke may include fossil fuel combus-tion, agricultural burning, and other combustion processes.

Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic minerals (i.e., mostly clay, silt, and sand), decaying organic mat-ter, water, air, and living organisms.

Soil carbon is a major component of the terrestrial biosphere pool in the carbon cycle. The amount of carbon in the soil is a function of the historical vegetative cover and productivity, which in turn is dependent in part upon climatic variables.

Solar energy is the direct radiant energy from the sun. It also includes indirect forms of energy such as wind, falling or flowing water (hydropower), ocean thermal gradients, and biomass, which are produced when direct solar energy interact with the earth.

Solar Radiation is the energy from the Sun. Also referred to as short-wave radiation. Of importance to the climate system, solar radiation includes ultraviolet radiation, visible radiation, and infrared radiation.

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GLOSSARY

Source is any process or activity that releases a greenhouse gas, an aerosol, or a precursor of a green-house gas into the atmosphere.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a strong smelling, colourless gas that is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels. Power plants, which may use coal or oil high in sulfur content, can be major sources of SO2. SO2 and other sulfur oxides contribute to the problem of acid deposition. SO2is a criteria air pollutant.

Surface water is all water naturally open to the atmosphere.

Sustainable development implies economic growth together with the protection of environmental quality, each reinforcing the other. The essence of this form of development is a stable relation-ship between human activities and the natural world, which does not diminish the prospects for future generations to enjoy a quality of life at least as good as our own.

Swamp is an area that is saturated with water for much of the time but in which soil surface is not deeply submerged.

Symbiosis is the living together in more or less close association of two dissimilar organisms, in which one or both derive benefit from the relationship.

T

Terrestrial is that which is of, or related to the land.

Turbidity is the cloudiness of a liquid caused by suspended matter.

V Vapour is the gaseous phase of liquids or solids at atmospheric temperature and pressure.

Vertebrate is any of a major group of animals (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals) with a segmented spinal column (backbone).

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are the carbon-containing compounds that evaporate into the air (with a few exceptions). VOCs contribute to the formation of smog and/or may themselves be toxic. VOCs often have an odor, and some examples include gasoline, alcohol, and the solvents used in paints.

G-16

GLOSSARY

W

Water Vapour is the most abundant greenhouse gas; it is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form. Water vapour is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. While humans are not significantly increasing its concentration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapour feedback. In addition to its role as a natural greenhouse gas, water vapour plays an important role in regulat-ing the temperature of the planet because clouds form when excess water vapour in the atmos-phere condenses to form ice and water droplets and precipitation

Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate is the average of weather over time and space. A simple way of remembering the difference is that climate is what you expect (e.g. cold winters) and ‘weather’ is what you get (e.g. a blizzard).

Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks due to natural process.

Wetland is temporarily or permanently inundated terrestrial systems which border aquatic systems. It also includes the shallow systems such as estuaries, swamps, flood plains and coastal lakes.

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Bibliography

Anderson, J.C., I. Craine, A.W. Diamond, and R. Hansell, 1997. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Unmanaged Ecosystems, Biodiversity and Wildlife, Canada Country Study, Chapter 2, pp. 122-188.

Brklacich, M., C. Bryant, B. Veenhof, and A. Beauchsne, 1997. Implications of Global Climatic Change on Canadian Agriculture, Canada Country Study, Chapter 4, pp. 220-256.

Caton, R., and S. Constable, March, 2000. Clearing the Air, The David Suzuki Foundation, Vancouver, B.C.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. Health Information for the International Traveller 2001- 2002. Atlanta: US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.

Chapman, L.J. and Putnam, D.F. 1984. The Physiography of Southern Ontario; Ontario Geo-logical Survey, Special Volume 2, 270 p.

De Loe, R. and R. Kreutzwiser, 2000. Climate Variability, Climate Change and Water Re-source Management in the Great Lakes, in Climate Change 45: 163-179. Kluwer Academic Publishers,

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Fortner, R.W., 1995. Great Lakes Instructional Materials for the Changing Earth System, pro-duced by the Ohio Sea Grant Education Program, The Ohio State University. 195 p.

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Bibliography

Fortner, R.W., and V.J. Mayer, 1993. Activities for the Changing Earth System, The Ohio State University.

Fortner, R.W., 1991. Global Change in the Great Lakes Scenarios, (Portfolio), Ohio Sea Grant, The Ohio State University.

Gedzelman, Stanley, 1980. The science and wonders of the atmosphere, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Toronto, Ontario, 535p.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2000. Land Use, Land Use Change and For-estry, IPCC.

Last, J., K. Trouton, and D. Pengelly, October, 1998. Taking Our Breath Away, for the David Suzuki Foundation.

Lavender, B. and J.V. Smith, G. Koshida and L.D. Mortsch, 1998. Bi-national Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Basin Climate Change and Hydrologic Scenarios Report. Canada Country Study. Environment Canada.

MacRae, R., June 2000. How will your farm cope with a Changing Climate?, in Rural Voice.

Miller, H. and S. Sheaffer, Editors, 1995. Great Lakes Instructional

Material for the Changing Earth System, Ohio Sea Grant Publication, Ohio State University, Columbus Ohio, 195p.

Mortsch, L.D., S. Quon, L. Craig, B. Mills and B. Wrenn, eds., 1997. Adapting to Climate Change and Variability in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Basin, Proceedings of a Bi-national Symposium. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. May 13-15.

Mussell, D., et al, 1999. Climate Change Awareness and Action, multimedia education kit. Pembina Institute for Appropriate Development.

Peach, G. 1997. Shoreline Management Plan, prepared for the Saugeen Valley Conservation Authority, Hanover, Ontario,

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Bibliography

Raab, C.M. and J. Sokolow, 1997. Global Warming: Understanding the Forecast, American Museum of Natural History and the Environmental Defense Fund, 94 p.

Saporta, R., J.R. Malcolm, and D.R. Martell, 1997. The Impact of Climate Change on Cana-dian Forests, Canada Country Study, Chapter 6, pp. 320-382.

Schwartz, R., 2000. : A GIS Approach to Modelling Climate Change Impacts on the Lake Huron Shoreline unpublished Master’s Thesis. Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Canada,

U.S. Global Change Research Program, October, 2000. Preparing for a Changing Climate: the potential consequences of climate variability and change, a Summary by the Great Lakes Re-gional Assessment Group.

Woodwell, G., Winter 1986-87. Forests and Climate: Surprises in Store, in Oceans Magazine, Vol. 29, No. 4,

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