THEORIES AND MAJOR CRITISM

Objective Of Theory Of Normative Ethics

• As a guidance in order to make decision and judgments of action.

• To determine what we and other people ought to do.

THEORIES AND VALUE SYSTEMS

Theory of personality

virtue

Theory of social

morality

Deontological theory (non

consequentialist)Theory of

teleological ethics (consequentialist)

Egoism Utilitarianism Principle of Duty

Principle of Existentialism

Consequentialist Or (Teleological) theory

Introduction:• Comes from Greek word, ‘telos’ meaning ‘goal’.

• Consequentialist theory is based on or concerned with consequences.

• It states that whether a value is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ depends on the final result of an action.

• General assumption: the value is ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ depending on the consequences of an action.

• Divided into 1. egoism 2. utilitarianism

1. Egoism:• Def: a theory which considers a value as good if it

benefits the individual himself, and bad or cruel if it harms or causes him to suffer a loss.

• Egoism divided into 2:

1. Ethical egoism.

2. Psychological egoism.

Ethical Egoism Psychological Egoism

1. Philosophical- normative, prescriptive theory.

Descriptive or scientific theory having to do with egoism.

2. Prescribes how they ought to act.

A descriptive theory which states how people act.

3. E.E says that all men ought to be (or have the right to be) selfish.

P.E considers that all men are selfish.

4. It has 3 forms1. Individual ethical egoism (IEE) :everyone

ought to act in my self-interest.

2. Personal ethical egoism (PEE): I ought to act in my own self-interest but make no claims about what anyone else ought to do.

3. Universal ethical egoism (UEE): everyone should always act in his/ her own self interest regardless of the interests of others unless their interest also serve his/ hers.

It has 2 forms :i) The strong form : maintains that

people always act in their own self interest – they are psychologically constructed to do so.

ii) The weak form : maintains that people often but not always act in their self-interest.

2. Utilitarianism The principle architect were: • Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill

(1806-1873).• Def: a theory state that actions are right if they are

useful or for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people.

• Utilitarianism requires us to choose an action that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

• Divided into :1. Act utilitarianism2. Rule utilitarianism

Nonconsequentialist( Deontological) Theory

Introduction• Derived from Greek word ‘deon’ which means ‘duty’. • The judgment of the morality is not based on the

consequences.• The theory is that when we follow the obligation, we

are moral and we fail to follow the obligation, we are behaving immorally.

• Divided into 2:1. Principle of existentialism 2. Principle of duty

Principle of Existentialism

• The principle of existentialism maintains that good or bad values stem from free choices of individual.

• For example: donating to a charity is a good value if it is done as a result of one’s choice. It becomes a bad value if that act is forced.

• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French existentialist philosopher, believes that ‘existence precedes essence’ mean “what we have become”. Or subjectivity must be the starting point.

Jean Paul Sartre and Principle of Existentialism

• Man does not have a god.

• Man was created without any function or aims.

• Man exist before his function was determined.

• What man become will depend on the choice he makes.They totally responsible with what they want to do and

become.Nothing in my life determine what I want to become

(my essence)• i.e.: I want to be judge, I alone will strive to achieve that goal

Cont…..Sartre maintains that since there is no God, anything

is permissible, there is no punishment from God, no religious values and no objective values prepared by man to follow.

The values followed by men are subjective, individualistic and subject to certain situation.

He conclude that, moral values are subjective, changing and not permanent or universal.

Man’s consciousness allows him to choose an action freely but the choice will not be permanent.

Principle of Duty

1. Act Nonconsenquentialist

• Decisions of morality does not come from consequences.

• However, it is based on the “intuitionism”.

• What is right and wrong in any particular situation is based upon what people feel (intuit) is right or wrong, therefore it is highly individualistic theory.

2. Slogan Of The Act Nonconsequentialist

1. If it feel good-do it.

2. Do your own thing.

These theories seem to stress that morality in thought, language and deed is not based upon reason.

2. Rule Nonconsequantialist Theories• Major assumption : is there are or can be rules

that are the only basis for morality,• And the consequences do not matter.• Following the rules which are right moral

commands that is moral.

1. Divine command theory2. Kant’s duty ethics.3. Ross’s prima facie duties.

1. Divine Command Theory.

• Morality is based upon something ‘higher’, the existences of an all good being or beings who are supernatural.

• They communicate with human beings what they should and should not do in a moral sense.

• In order to be moral, one should follow the commands and prohibition of the supernatural without concerning with the consequences, self interest or anything else.

Criticism Of The Divine Command Theory

• The theory does not provide a rational foundation for the existence of a supernatural being and therefore not for morality either.

• How could we prove that this being was morally trustworthy?

• How are we interpreting this supernatural correctly, when we accept them?

2. Kant’s Duty Ethics

• Was formulate by Immanuel Kant ( 1724-1804)

• Its contains several ethical principles.

a. The Good Will

b. Establishing Morality By Reasoning Alone

c. The Categorical Imperative

d. The Practical Imperative

e. Duty Rather Than Inclination

a. The Good Will

• Kant believed that nothing was good in itself except a GOOD WILL.

• “WILL”- ability to act in accordance with rules, laws or interest or consequences.

• E.g: intelligent, wit, and other talent of mind.• Intelligence, for instance, is not good when used by an evil person.

• A good will is not good because of what it performs or effect, but it is good in itself. ( intelligent itself is good)

b. Establishing Morality By Reasoning Alone

• Kant believed that it is possible by reasoning alone to set up valid absolute moral rules.

• Not referring to any supernatural being or by empirical evidence.

• Using logical reasoning like indisputable truths in mathematics and logic.

• Example:1. 2 +2 = 4

2. “No circles are squares”

3. “ All triangles are three side”

Requirement for an absolute moral truth according to Kant.

1. Logically consistent- It cannot be self contradictory.

Example: “ A circle are square” BUT “ No circle are square”

2. The truth must be universal - must be able to apply to everything without exception, not just to some and perhaps even most thing.

-triangles may be different sizes and shape but they are by definition indisputably and universally three sided.

c. The Categorical Imperative

• An act is immoral if the rule that would authorize it cannot be made into a rule for all human being to follow.In order to make decision one must ask first:

• * what is rule? * can it be universal rule?– Example:A lazy person is thinking “ why should I work hard in order to

live ?– Rule : “ I shall never work but steal what I need from other human

beings”– To universalize the rule: “ no human beings should ever work, but they

should steal what they need from each other”.

• According to Kant, stealing is immoral because it cannot be applied to all human beings.

d. The Practical Imperative

• No human being should be thought of or used merely as a means (resources) for someone else’s end.

• Each human being is a unique end in him/herself.

• Fairness and equal treatment as necessary attributes of any moral system.

• Example: HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION:Kant opposed the idea of using human beings for experimental purpose for the “good of humanity”( use them as mean to reach someone else’s end)

e. Duty Rather Than Inclination (preference)

• One should obey absolute rules out of a sense of duty.

• (duty must be the motive of everything)

• E.g : It is our duty to take care of our parents, not because inclination or we like to do so.

Criticism of Kant’s duty ethics

• Some rule would become inconsistent when universalized.

• Kant’s never show us how to resolve conflicts between duties or rule that are equally absolute.

• E.g (killing and lying)

• You are not allow to lie to other people, but in some cases people tend to like for other people pleasure.

3. ROSS’S PRIMA FACIE DUTIESSIR William David Ross ( 1877-1940)

•Agreed with Kant, that morality should not based on consequences.

•Disagree- in absolutism idea in Kant’s theory.

•Consequences do not make an action right or wrong but he believed that it is necessary to consider consequences when we are making our moral choice.

•Refer to certain prime facie duties unless serious circumstances/ reasons tell us to do otherwise.

Prima Facie Duties

• Prima facie- at first glance - on the surface of things.

• Prima facie duties: duties that all human beings must obey in a general way unless there are serious reasons why they should not.

7 duties according to Ross

1. Fidelity : telling the truth, keeping actual promises.2. Reparation : Making up for the twist we have done to

other.3. Gratitude: recognizing what others have done for us.4. Justice : preventing the improper distribution of good

and bad.5. Beneficence: helping to improve the condition of

others in the areas of virtue, intelligence and happiness.

6. Self improvement: the obligation to improve our own virtue, intelligence and happiness.

7. Non injury: not injuring others people.

2 principles (when our duties create conflict)

1. Always do the act that is in accord with the stronger prima facie duty.

2. Always do the act which has the greatest degree of prima facie rightness over wrongness.

Criticism of Deontological Theories

• Can we really avoid consequences when we set up our moral judgment?

• Can we exclude consequences from our moral judgment? Situation and duties?

SOCIAL MORALITY

THEORY

SOCIAL MORALITY THEORY

• Also known as traditional and conventional morality.

• Used to explain the concepts of ethics in society.

Normative values and societal regulations become

1. A measure or criterion to determine whether certain situation is good or bad acceptable or unacceptable

2. As a controller of the society.

3. To form a norm or standard in social life.

4. Protector of the society welfare rather than individual interest.

Social Morality And Religious Aspects

• Social morality system also can be found in religious aspects.

• Hindus are required to observe the moral regulations stated in ancient writings like the Ramayana and the Upahanishads.

• Christian : governed by commands and prohibition that set out in The Ten Commandment. No adulteries, no stealing.

• Muslims practice a disciplined life observing the moral and ethical teachings of the Koran and the Hadis.

Function Of Social Morality Theory

1) Moral standards system in society identifies situation, and strengthen system of behavior that bring benefit to self and other people.

i.e.: Proper moral standard Improper moral standard

Cooperation freedom

justice

society

Interest of all people emerge

Selfishinjustice

society

Benefit towardIndividual only not society

2) Moral standards serve to resolve conflict in society by giving justification that are acceptable to the public.

i.e.: Built factory individual interest

cause pollution

public annoyed

Prove the benefit towards publicAchieved public agreement

prudential claim

(interest of individual)

Moral claim(outside individualInterest)

Criteria Of Social Morality Theory

Conclusion :

• Social morality theory has certain function in society, for example it was used to protect society.

• However there are also disadvantages, which is it will make the society dependent society.

PERSONALITY VIRTUE THEORY

THEORY OF PERSONALITY VIRTUE

• Basic personality questions

1.What should I do?

2.What kind of person should I be?

3.Why should I act in this way and not that?

Character development

( virtuous or vicious person)

Biological make up

Psychological characteristic

Moral growth(influence by)

+

What is your personality???

Basic view about personality virtues

• “as a result of this kind of person, this kind of action arises”

Meaning that:

• The character or nature formed in the process of moral development contains the individual behavior.

• Individual is not born with the ability to understand and apply moral standards.

Personality virtues according to M.G Velasquez:

• Individual is not born with the ability to understand and apply morals standards.

• They will be able to understand and apply moral standards by develops it through maturity.

• His ability to deal with moral issues is formed as he

grows physically.

Personality virtues according Aristotle:

• Our personality virtues or morally good habit is built through training and repeated practice.

• Moral ability is taught to us by our families or society

• The development of these virtuous qualities require time and effort.

• Once acquired they develop easily and naturally

Individual’s Physical Growth And Development In Formation Of Personality in gradual stage

1. During childhood, we only told what is correct and what is wrong.

–We will obey advice without thinking in order to avoid punishment

– Childhood obedience to moral standards is based on self-interest obey without thinking.

2. When wee reach adolescence, the moral standards become internalized.

Begin to understand

3. When we become mature and rational adults

We begin to evaluate moral standards and their consequences rationally

Individual’s personality virtues can be summarized as follow;

1.Personality virtue was acquired through the teach-learning process or training

2.Personality virtues are habits.

3.Personality virtues are operational.

( help determine how to behave and act in certain way)

4. Personality virtues are good, they differ from bad habits and vice.