Coping Styles and Personality
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Transcript of Coping Styles and Personality
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THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENPERSONALITY,
COPINGSTYLESANDSTRESS,ANXIETYAND
DEPRESSION
Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfilmentoftherequirementsforthe
Degree
ofMasterofScienceinPsychology
intheUniversityofCanterbury
byHaleyvanBerkel
UniversityofCanterbury
2009
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Acknowledgements
Thisthesiswouldnothavebeencompletedwithoutthedirection,supportandlovefromanumber
ofdifferentpeople.
IwouldfirstlyliketoacknowledgemyLordandSaviourJesusChrist.Hehasrescuedmefrommy
sinandgivenmeeternallife.WithoutHimeverythingismeaningless,achasingafterthewind.
IwouldliketothankmyprimarysupervisorDr.JanetCarter.Thankyouforyourguideddirection
andyourcommitmenttomakingthisthesisexcellent.Iwouldalsoliketothankmyco-supervisor
Dr.KumariFernando.ThankyouforcontinuallyencouragingmewhenIwasoverwhelmed,and
providingmewithpositivefeedbackaswellasconstructivecriticism.Thankyoutobothofyoufor
takingonthesupervisoryroleandmakingmeapriorityinyourworkinglives.
ThankyoualsotoJohannahBetmanandFelicityDalyforallyourhelpwithcomputersoftwareand
statisticalanalyses.Yourgivingofprecioustimewasgreatlyappreciated.
IwouldalsoliketoacknowledgeandthankmymotherKathy,whohasnotonlybeenmymother
forthepast25yearsbutalsomyteacher,myadvisorandmyfriend.Thankyouformakingityour
lifesworktoshapemeandmakemethepersonIamtoday.Iwouldalsoliketoacknowledgemy
latefatherNicholas,whoIknowwouldbesoproudofme,andwhosehardworkanddetermination
Ihaveinherited.
LastlyIwouldliketoacknowledgeandthankmyfiancBruce.Thankyouforyourcontinuedlove
andsupportthroughthegoodtimesandthehardtimes.Throughoutthisperiodyouhavehelpedme
keepthingsinperspective.YouaremyRock,Icanthinkofnobetterpersontowalkthislifewith.
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TableofContents
LISTOFTABLES.................................................................................................................... iv
LISTOFFIGURES.................................................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................
1
1.INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 2
1.1Coping........................................................................................................................................ 21.1.1CopingStyles........................................................................................................................ 3
1.2CopingStyleandPsychologicalDistress................................................................................. 31.2.1Overview............................................................................................................................... 31.2.2AvoidantCopingandPsychologicalDistress.................................................................. 41.2.3Problem-FocusedCopingandPsychologicalDistress.................................................... 61.2.4Emotion-FocusedCopingandPsychologicalDistress.................................................... 91.2.5Summary.............................................................................................................................. 10
1.3Personality................................................................................................................................ 111.3.1PersonalityTraitsandtheirAssociationswithStress,AnxietyandDepression............ 121.3.2Cloninger'sPsychobiologicalModelofPersonality........................................................ 131.4PersonalityandPsychologicalDistress................................................................................... 141.4.1HarmAvoidance,Self-DirectednessandPsychologicalDistress................................... 141.4.2RewardDependenceandPsychologicalDistress..................................................... 191.4.3Summary.............................................................................................................................. 20
1.5PersonalityandCopingStyle................................................................................................... 211.5.1Overview............................................................................................................................... 211.5.2ReviewofPersonalityandCopingStyle........................................................................... 211.5.3ReviewofCloninger'sPsychobiologicalModelandCopingStyles............................... 221.5.4Summary............................................................................................................................. 24
1.6CurrentStudy.......................................................................................................................... 25
2.METHOD................................................................................................................................ 27
2.1Participants............................................................................................................................... 272.2Procedure.................................................................................................................................. 272.3EthicalApproval....................................................................................................................... 282.4Measures................................................................................................................................... 282.4.1TheTemperamentCharacterInventoryRevised(TCI-R;Cloningeretal.,1994)............... 28
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2.4.2TheCopingOrientationofProblemExperienceInventory(TheCOPE;Carveretal.,1989)...................................................................................................................................
342.4.3TheDepressionAnxietyStressScale(DASS;S.H.Lovibond&P.F.Lovibond,
1995)...................................................................................................................................
36
2.5StatisticalAnalyses................................................................................................................... 382.5.1CheckingtheDataforNormality......................................................................................... 38
3.RESULTS................................................................................................................................ 41
3.1DescriptiveInformation........................................................................................................... 413.2ExaminationofData................................................................................................................ 433.3RelationshipbetweenCopingandStress,AnxietyandDepressionVariables....................... 443.3.1CopingStyles(Problem-Focused,Emotion-Focused,Avoidant)andPsychological
Distress...............................................................................................................................
44
3.4IndividualCopingStylesandPsychologialDistress............................................................... 453.4.1PostHocAnalysisofProblem-FocusedCopingStylesandDepressionScores.................. 453.4.2PosthocAnalysisofAvoidantCopingStylesandStress,AnxietyandDepressionScores..................................................................................................................................
46
3.5RelationshipbetweenPersonalityandStress,AnxietyandDepressionVariables................ 473.5.1AssociationsbetweenPersonality(HarmAvoidance,RewardDependence,Self
Directedness)andPsychologicalDistress.................................................................................
47
3.6RelationshipbetweenPersonalityandCopingStyles............................................................. 473.6.1AssociationsbetweenPersonalityTraitsandCopingStyles................................................ 47
3.7TheContributionofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingtoStress,AnxietyandDepression...............................................................................................................................
483.7.1TheContributionofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingtoStress............................... 483.7.2TheContributionofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingtoAnxiety............................. 503.7.3TheContributionofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingtoDepressive
Symptoms............................................................................................................................
51
4.DISCUSSION............................................................................................................................ 55
4.1ComparisonwithPreviousResearch....................................................................................... 554.1.1AvoidantCopingandDistress.............................................................................................. 554.1.2Problem-FocusedCopingandDistress............................................................................... 564.1.3Emotion-FocusedCopingandDistress................................................................................ 584.1.4HarmAvoidanceandDistress.............................................................................................. 604.1.5Self-DirectednessandDistress............................................................................................. 614.1.6RewardDependenceandDistress........................................................................................ 624.1.7PersonalityandCoping........................................................................................................ 624.1.8TheContributionofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingtoPsychological
Distress...............................................................................................................................
644.2StrengthsandLimitations........................................................................................................ 654.3ImplicationsandFutureResearch.......................................................................................... 68
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4.4Conclusion................................................................................................................................ 74
REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................................
75
APPENDIX......................................................................................................................................................
82
AppendixA:RecruitmentDocumentationDescriptionofStudyforWebsite,PosterAdvertisement,InformationSheet,ParticipantContact
Details,ConsentForm,DebriefForm,EthicsApproval...............................................................
83AppendixB:MaterialsusedintheCurrentStudyDemographicInformation,IndexofQuestionnaires,TemperamentCharacterInventoryRevised,
TheCopingOrientationofProblemExperience,TheDepressionAnxietyStressScale.................
92
AppendixC:Tables........................................................................................................................ 119
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LISTOFTABLES
Table1.DescriptionoftheTCI-RSubscales.................................................................................... 32Table2.TheCOPESubscalesasusedintheCurrentStudy............................................................ 35
Table3.ExampleofItemsintheDASS............................................................................................. 37Table4.Kolmogorov-SmirnovTestingofDataNormalityStress,AnxietyandDepressiveSymptoms(N=201)...........................................................................................................
39Table5.Means,StandardDeviationsandRangesFoundforPersonality,CopingStylesand
PsychologicalDistress(N=201).......................................................................................
42Table6.ComparisonofDescriptiveStatisticsforStress,AnxietyandDepressionLevelswithPastStudies(UniversityandGeneralPopulation)............................................................
42Table7.ComparisonofHarmAvoidance,RewardDependenceandSelf-DirectednessScoresAcrossPastStudies(GeneralPopulation)........................................................................
43Table8.ComparisonofCopingStyleScoreswithPastStudies(UniversityandGeneral
Population).........................................................................................................................
43Table9.PercentageofParticipantsClassifiedasMild,Moderate,SevereLevelsofStress,
AnxietyandDepressiveSymptoms)....................................................................................
44Table10.Association(PearsonsCorrelation)betweenPersonality,CopingStylesandStress,
AnxietyandDepression(N=201).....................................................................................
45Table11.Association(PearsonsCorrelation)betweenAvoidantCopingsubscalesandStress,
AnxietyandDepressionVariables(N=201).....................................................................
46
Table12.AssociationsbetweenPersonalityTraits(HarmAvoidance,RewardDependence,Self-DirectednessandCopingStyles(Problem-Focused,Emotion-Focused,Avoidant)(N=201)...........................................................................................................................
48Table13.MultipleRegressionExaminingtheEffectofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCoping
onStress...........................................................................................................................
49Table14.MultipleRegressionExaminingtheEffectofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCoping
onAnxiety........................................................................................................................
51Table15.MultipleRegressionExaminingtheEffectofHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCoping
onDepressiveSymptoms.................................................................................................
52Table16.TableshowingtheMeansandStandardDeviationsforHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopingasPsychologicalDistressIncreases....................................................
54
LISTOFFIGURES
Figure1.TheInteractionbetweenHarmAvoidanceandAvoidantCopinginPredictingDepressiveSymptoms................................................................................................
53
.
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Abstract
Ourpersonalityandthewaywecopewithstressaretwofactorsthatareimportantinthe
developmentofpsychologicaldistress.Thecurrentstudyexploredtherelationship
betweenpersonality,copingstylesandpsychologicaldistressin201studentsfromthe
UniversityofCanterbury.ParticipantscompletedtheTemperamentCharacterInventory-
Revised(TCI-R;Cloningeretal.,1994),theDepressionAnxietyStressScale(DASS;S.H.
Lovibond&P.F.Lovibond,1995)andtheCopingOrientationofProblemExperience
(COPE;Carver,Scheier,Weintraub,1989).Thestudyshowedthatparticipantswithhigh
harmavoidanceandlowself-directednessreportedincreasedstress,anxietyand
depression,whilelowharmavoidanceandhighself-directednessappearedtobea
protectivefactoragainstthedevelopmentofdistress.Avoidantcopingwasshowntobethe
mostmaladaptivecopingstyleasitwasassociatedwithincreasedstress,anxietyand
depression,whileproblem-focusedcopingappearedtoreducedepressivesymptoms.
Strongassociationswerealsofoundbetweenpersonalityandcopingstyles,asindividuals
withhighrewarddependenceweremoreinclinedtoengageinemotion-focusedcoping,
whilehighself-directedindividualsengagedinmoreproblem-focusedcoping.Highharm
avoidancewasassociatedwithavoidantcoping,resultingingreaterdistressthaneither
predictoralone.Thecurrentstudysuggeststhatourpersonalityandthecopingstyleswe
employmayinfluencewhetherweexperiencestress,anxietyanddepressivesymptoms.
Furthermore,theassociationbetweenpersonalityandcopingstylessuggeststhat
individualswithmaladaptivepersonalities(e.g.highharmavoidance)areatagreaterrisk
forexperiencingpsychologicaldistressastheyaremorelikelytouseamaladaptivecoping
stylesuchasavoidantcoping.
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1.Introduction
Theprimaryaiminthisthesisistoexaminetheassociationbetweencertainpersonality
traits,copingstylesandpsychologicaldistress.Psychologicaldistresscanbe
conceptualisedinavarietyofways.Forthepurposeofthisstudyitwillbedefinedas
symptomsofstress,anxietyanddepression.Inthissectionthepreviousresearchregarding
thecontributionofcertainpersonalitystylesandcopingtopsychologicaldistresswillbe
discussed.Inaddition,thisresearchwilloutlinepreviousresearchthathasshownthereis
alsoanassociationbetweencertainpersonalitiesandcopingstyles.Itisarguedthata
maladaptivepersonalityandamaladaptivecopingstylepredictincreasedpsychological
distress,relativetoeachpredictoralone.Thegoalofthisstudyistoprovidegreater
understandingoftheetiologyandmaintenanceofstress,anxietyanddepression.
Consequentlyindividualsmaybeidentifiedthatare'atrisk'forexperiencingpsychological
distress.
1.1Coping
Copingisaprocessthatweasindividualsemployeveryday.Weengageincopingwhen
wefeelunderstressorwanttomanageataxingsituation.Theprocessofcopinginvolves
twocomponents,appraisalandcoping(Lazarus,1966).Appraisalistheactofperceivinga
stressorandanalysingone'sownabilitytodealwiththestressor.Appraisalcanbemadein
threedifferentconditions:whenwehaveexperiencedastressor,whenweanticipatea
stressorandwhenweexperienceachanceformasteryorgain(Lazarus,1966).Oncewe
appraiseastressfulsituationwemustdecidehowwewillrespondorcopewiththe
stressor,eitherchoosingtomasterit,reduceitortolerateit.Thecopingstyleweengagein
isultimatelydeterminedbywhetherwebelievewehavetheresourcestoresolvethe
stressor(Lazarus,1966).
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1.1.1CopingStyles
Thereappeartobethreemaincopingstylesthatpeopleemploywhenattemptingtoresolve
orremoveastressor:problem-focusedcoping,emotion-focusedcopingandavoidant
coping.Problem-focusedcopinginvolvesalteringormanagingtheproblemthatiscausing
thestressandishighlyactionfocused.Individualsengaginginproblem-focusedcoping
focustheirattentionongatheringtherequiredresources(i.e.skills,toolsandknowledge)
necessarytodealwiththestressor.Thisinvolvesanumberofstrategiessuchasgathering
information,resolvingconflict,planningandmakingdecisions(Lazarus&Folkman,
1984).Emotion-focusedcopingcantakearangeofformssuchasseekingsocialsupport,
acceptanceandventingofemotionsetc(Carveretal.,1989).Althoughemotion-focused
copingstylesarequitevariedtheyallseektolessenthenegativeemotionsassociatedwith
thestressor,thusemotion-focusedcopingisaction-orientated(Admiraal,Korthagen,&
Wubbels,2000;Folkman&Lazarus,1980).Thethirdmaincopingstyleisavoidant
coping.Avoidantcopingcanbedescribedascognitiveandbehaviouraleffortsdirected
towardsminimising,denyingorignoringdealingwithastressfulsituation(Holahan,
Holahan,Moos,Brennan,&Schutte,2005).Althoughsomeresearchersgroupavoidant
copingwithemotion-focusedcopingthestylesareconceptuallydistinct.Avoidantcoping
isfocusedonignoringastressorandisthereforepassive,whereasemotion-focusedcoping
isactive(Admiraaletal.,2000,Holahanetal.,2005).
1.2CopingStyleandPsychologicalDistress
1.2.1Overview
Althoughmanyfactorsareinvolvedinthedevelopmentofpsychologicaldistress,coping
styleshavebeenshowntobeasignificantcontributor.Problem-focusedcopingappearsto
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bethemostadaptivecopingstyleasitisassociatedwithreducedpsychologicaldistress.
Alternatively,avoidantcopingappearsthemostmaladaptiveasitisassociatedwith
increaseddistress.(Ben-Zur,1999;Bouteyre,Maurel,&Bernaud,2007;Carver,Scheier,
&Weintraub,1989;Crockettetal.,2007;Folkman,1997;Knibb&Horton,2008;
Penland,Masten,Zelhart,Fournet,&Callahan,2000;Sherbourne,Hays,&Wells,1995;
Wijndaeleetal.,2007).Theresultsregardingemotion-focusedcopingaremorecomplexas
thiscopingstylehasbeenassociatedwithbothincreasedanddecreasedlevelsof
psychologicaldistress(NetworkofRelationshipsInventory;Ben-Zur,1999;Billings&
Moos,1984;Bouteyre,Maurel,&Bernaud,2007;Brown&Harris,1978b;Brown,
Svrakic,Przybeck,&Cloninger,1992;Carver,Scheier,&Weintraub,1989;Crockettet
al.,2007;Knibb&Horton,2008;Penland,Masten,Zelhart,Fournet,&Callahan,2000;
Wijndaeleetal.,2007).Thissectionwillanalysepreviousresearchtodemonstratethe
relationshipbetweencopingstylesandpsychologicaldistress.Particularfocuswillbe
placedonuniversitystudentsasthisistheareaofinterestforthepresentresearch.
1.2.2AvoidantCopingandPsychologicalDistress
Avoidantcopinghasbeenshowntobeassociatedwithgreaterdistressthanothercoping
styles.Ingeneral,clinicallydepressedparticipantsexperiencelessimprovementand
greaterdysfunctionwhentheyengageinavoidantcoping(Billings&Moos,1984).
Holahanetal.(2005)showedthatavoidantcopingispositivelyassociatedwithdepressive
symptomsinatenyearlongitudinalstudy.Theirstudyexaminedthecopingstyles,life
stressorsanddepressivesymptomsof1,211participantsoveratenyearperiod.
Participantsweremeasuredforbaselinedepressionlevelsattheinitialtestingperiod,four
yearslaterandtenyearslater.Holahanetal.foundthatindividualsthatengagedin
avoidantcopingatbaselineweremorelikelytoexperiencechronicandacutestressors
whenmeasuredfouryearslaterandtoexhibitdepressivesymptomstenyearslater.
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AlthoughHolahanetalsresearchisonlycorrelationalitdoessuggestthatavoidantcoping
mayfailtoremovestressorsandasaconsequencedepressivesymptomsmayincrease.An
importantelementofHolahanetalsstudyisthatdepressivesymptomswerecontrolledfor
atthebeginningofthestudy,thussuggestingthattheincreasesinlifestressorsand
depressionmayhavebeeninfluencedbyavoidantcoping.
Avoidantcopinghasalsobeenassociatedwithincreasedpsychologicaldistressinnon
clinicalpopulationssuchasthegeneralpopulation(Wijndaeleetal.,2007)anduniversity
samples.Penlandetal.(2000)foundintheiruniversitystudythatparticipantsexperienced
greaterdepressivesymptomswhentheyengagedinanavoidantcopingstylesuchas
wishfulthinking.Crockettetals(2007)studyalsorevealedstrongpositiveassociations
betweenavoidantcopingandpsychologicaldistress.Participantswereshowntohave
increasedsymptomsofanxietyanddepressionwhentheyengagedinavoidantcoping,as
opposedtoparticipantsthatengagedinproblem-focusedcoping.
Thepositiveassociationshownbetweenavoidantcopingandstress,anxietyanddepression
mayoccurbecauseavoidantcopingfailstoremoveminorstressors(Holahanetal.,2005).
Asstressorsareallowedtofesterandgrowtheycanbecomemorestressful,resultinginan
individualexperiencingincreasedanxietyanddepression.Anegativecyclecanthen
developwheredepressedindividualsmaybemorelikelytoappraisetheirabilitytodeal
withstressorsaslowandbemorepessimisticaboutfutureoutcomes(Abramson,
Seligman,&Teasdale,1978).Thisnegativethinkingmayleadthemtoengageinmore
passivecopingstylessuchasavoidantcopingandthusthenegativecycleiscontinued.
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1.2.3Problem-FocusedCopingandPsychologicalDistress
Problem-focusedcopingisthemostadaptivecopingstyleasitappearstoreduce
symptomsofstress,anxietyanddepression.Anumberofdifferentpopulationshave
demonstratedthatproblem-focusedcopingisassociatedwithreduceddistress.Wijndaele
etal.(2007)recentlyshowedthatproblem-focusedcopingisthemosteffectiveatreducing
psychologicaldistressinthegeneralpopulation.Theirstudyanalysedthecopingstylesand
psychologicaldistresslevelsof2,616Belgianadults.Wijndaeleetal.foundthat
participantsthatengagedinproblem-focusedcopinghadreducedsymptomsofstress,
anxietyanddepression,comparedtoparticipantsthatengagedinothercopingstyles.
Althoughasignificantassociationwasshownbetweenproblem-focusedcopingand
psychologicaldistressitisimportanttonotethatWijndaeleetalsstudyhadalow
responserate(28%),whichmayhaveaffectedthegeneralityofthestudy.
Problem-focusedcopingisalsoassociatedwithreduceddistressinthegaypopulation.
Problem-focusedcopingisanadaptivecopingstyletouseinuncontrollablesituations,
suchasterminalillness,asitprovidesindividualswithasenseofcontrol.Folkman(1997)
foundinastudyof314mencaringforadyingpartnerthatparticipantsexperiencedan
increaseinmoodoncetheyengagedinproblem-focusedcoping.Inaddition,Folkman
showedthatparticipantsweremoreinclinedtoengageinproblem-focusedcopingcloserto
theirpartnersdeathastheyneededtofeelanincreasedsenseofcontrol.Folkmansstudy
suggeststhatproblem-focusedcopingisnegativelyassociatedwithpsychologicaldistress
asitempowersindividualsandallowsthemtosetandachievesmallgoalsinsituations
wheretheyhavelittlecontrol.AlthoughFolkmansfindingsprovidesupportforthe
negativeassociationsbetweenproblem-focusedcopingandpsychologicaldistressone
cannotgeneraliseherfindingstothewholepopulation.Furthermore,itisestimatedthat
only30%-40%ofgaymenbecometheprimarycaregiverfortheirillpartner(Harry&
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Devall,1978)thushersamplemayhavepersonalityqualitiesorotherfactorsthat
distinguishthemfromthegaypopulation.
Problem-focusedcopingisassociatedwithreduceddistressinclinicalpatients(Billings&
Moos,1984;Cronkite,Moos,Twohey,Cohen,&Swindle,1998)withthestrongest
reductioninsymptomsshownbyseverelydepressedindividuals(Sherbourne,Hays,&
Wells,1995).Sherbourneetal.(1995)foundthatdepressedparticipantsshowedgreater
improvementwhentheyengagedinproblem-focusedcopingcomparedtoavoidantcoping.
Theirstudymeasuredthecopingstylesanddepressivesymptomsof604depressed
individualsattwopointsintimes:12monthspostbaselineand24monthspostbaseline.
Interestingly,thegreatestimprovementwasdisplayedinseverelydepressedparticipants,
suggestingthatproblem-focusedcopingmaybethemosteffectivecopingstylefor
severelydepressedindividuals.ItisimportanttonoteafewlimitationsinSherbourneet
alsstudy.Sherbourneetal.hadarelativelylowresponseratetotheirstudywhichcould
haveledittobecomebiasedinsomeway.Furthermore,onlyonebaselineself-report
questionnairewasusedtomeasureanumberofdifferentfactors,suchassupport,stress,
copingstyleandlifestylefactors.Thestudycouldbeimprovedbyusingaspecialised
measureofcoping,suchastheWaysofCopingQuestionnaire(Folkman&Lazarus,1988)
ortheCOPE(Carveretal.,1989).
Studentshavelowerlevelsofstress,anxietyanddepressionwhentheyengageinproblem-
focusedcopingcomparedtoothercopingstyles.Penlandetal.(2000)foundthat
participantswhoengagedinproblem-focusedcopingexperiencedagreaterdecreasein
depressivesymptomscomparedtoparticipantswhoengagedinothercopingstyles.
Crockettetal.(2007)alsofoundproblem-focusedcopingtobethemostadaptivecoping
styleemployedbyuniversitystudents.Crockettandcolleaguesexaminedtheassociations
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betweenproblem-focusedcopingandstress,anxietyanddepressionin148Mexican
Americancollegestudents.Theirstudymeasuredparticipantslevelofsocialsupport
(NetworkofRelationshipsInventory;Furman&Buhrmester,1992)copingstyles,(COPE;
Carveretal.,1989),stress(TheSocial,Attitudinal,FamilialandEnvironmental
AcculturativeStressScale;Mena,Padilla,&Maldonado,1987),anxiety(BeckAnxiety
Inventory;Beck&Steer,1993)anddepressivesymptoms(TheCenterforEpidemiological
StudiesDepressionScale;Radloff,1977).Theirfindingsshowedthatproblem-focused
copingwasassociatedwithreduceddepressivesymptoms.Anadditionalstudyby
Bouteyreetal.(2007)furtherdemonstratesthenegativeassociationbetweenproblem-
focusedcopingandpsychologicaldistressinuniversitystudents.Bouteyreetal.were
interestedtoexamineboththeprevalenceofdepressivesymptomsinFrenchstudentsand
theroleofcopingstylesinrelationtodepressivesymptoms.Theirstudyshowedthat41%
ofthe233studentstheymeasuredexhibiteddepressivesymptoms,however,participants
thatengagedinproblem-focusedcopingwerelesslikelytoexhibitdepressivesymptoms.
Problem-focusedcopingappearstobeeffectivesimplybecauseitremovesdailystressors.
Althoughdailystressorsareonlysmalltheyhavebeenassociatedwithloweredmoodin
universitystudents(Wolf,Elston,&Kissling,1989).Perhapsmoresignificantly,daily
stressorscandevelopintomajorstresses,thusincreasingthepotentialforincreasedstress,
anxietyanddepression(Holahanetal.,2005).Theremovalofthesestressorstherefore
decreasesthelikelihoodofexperiencingdistress.Inaddition,problem-focusedcopingmay
benegativelyassociatedwithpsychologicaldistressasitrequiresindividualstosetand
accomplishgoals.Asaconsequenceindividualsareprovidedwithasenseofmasteryand
control,thusreducingtheiranxietyandstress(Folkman,1997).
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1.2.4Emotion-FocusedCopingandPsychologicalDistress
Emotion-focusedcopingincorporatesanumberofdiversecopingstylesthathavebeen
showntobebothadaptiveandmaladaptive(Billings&Moos,1984;Penland,2000;
Wijndaeleetal.,2007;Crockett,2007;Bouteyre,2007).Ingeneral,thecopingstrategies
thatfocusonnegativeemotionsandthoughtsappeartoincreasepsychologicaldistress
(e.g.ventingofemotionsandrumination),whereascopingstrategiesthatregulateemotion
(e.g.seekingsocialsupport,affectregulationandacceptance)appeartoreducedistress.
Themixedfindingsregardingemotion-focusedcopinghasbeenclearlydemonstratedin
BillingsandMooss(1984)clinicalstudy.Theirstudyanalysedtherelationshipbetween
copingstylesanddepressivesymptomsin424menandwomenenteringtreatmentfor
depression.Depressedpatientsexperiencedlessseveresymptomswhentheyengagedin
affect-regulation.However,participantsthatusedthecopingstyleventingofemotions
experiencedgreaterdysfunction.
Themixedfindingsinregardstoemotion-focusedcopingarealsodemonstratedin
universitysamples.Bouteyreetal.(2007)showedapositiveassociationbetweenventing
ofemotionsanddepressivesymptomsin233firstyearpsychologystudents.Incontrast
however,Penlandetal.(2000)foundventingofemotionswasanadaptivecopingstrategy
asparticipantsexperienceddecreaseddepressivesymptomswhentheyexpressedtheir
distressingemotions.Theinconsistencyoftheseresultsdemonstratesthatitisdifficultto
ascertaintherelationshipbetweenventingofemotionsandpsychologicaldistress.
Anemotion-focusedcopingstrategythathasconsistentlybeenshowntobenegatively
associatedwithpsychologicaldistressisseekingsocialsupport.Wijndaeleetal.(2007)
exploredtherelationshipbetweenemotion-focusedcopingandpsychologicaldistressin
theirgeneralpopulationstudyandfoundthatindividualshadloweranxietyanddepressive
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symptomswhentheyregularlyreceivedsocialsupport.Seekingsocialsupportisalso
negativelyassociatedwithstress,anxietyanddepressioninuniversitystudents.Crockettet
al.(2007)foundthatseekingsocialsupportwasaneffectivecopingstrategyforstudents
experiencinghighlevelsofstress,asstudentsreportedfeweranxietyanddepressive
symptomswhentheyreceivedsocialsupport,asopposedtostudentswhodidnotreceive
socialsupport.Thenegativeassociationbetweenseekingsocialsupportandpsychological
distresshasfurtherbeensupportedbyPenlandetal.(2000)andBouteyreetal.(2007).
Emotion-focusedcopingappearstovaryinitseffectivenessasitincorporatesanumberof
diversecopingstyles.Copingstylesthatregulateemotionareeffectiveastheyprevent
peoplefromdwellingontheirnegativeemotionsandensuretheytakeproactivestepsto
resolvetheirnegativeemotions(Carveretal.,1989).Forexample,seekingsocialsupport
iseffectiveasitencouragesstudentstoseekadvicefromothersregardingsuitablecoping
strategiesinwhichtoengage(Bouteyreetal.,2007).Anotheradaptivecopingstyle,
acceptance,appearstobeeffectiveasitrequiresindividualstotakeproactivestepsto
acceptadistressingsituation,ratherthancontinuetoexperiencenegativeemotions(Carver
etal.,1989).Conversely,emotion-focusedstrategiesthatfocusonnegativeemotionsare
maladaptiveastheyrequireindividualstofocusontheirnegativeemotionsratherthan
removethem(Billings&Moos,1984).Copingstylessuchasventingofemotionsand
ruminationaregenerallyshowntobemaladaptiveastheydonotremovethenegative
emotionsbutinfactexacerbatethemandprolongexistingfeelingsofdistress(Windle&
Windle,1996).
1.2.5Summary
Insummary,researchhasshowncopingstylesareassociatedwithpsychologicaldistressin
anumberofdifferentpopulations.Problem-focusedcopingisnegativelyassociatedwith
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stress,anxietyanddepressivesymptomswhileavoidantcopingispositivelyassociated
withstress,anxietyanddepression.Theresearchsurroundingemotion-focusedcopinghas
producedmixedfindings,withsomestudiesshowingittobeassociatedwithincreased
distressandothersdecreaseddistress.Thisappearstooccurbecauseemotion-focused
copingencompassesabroadrangeofcopingstrategies,eachwithvaryingeffectiveness.
1.3Personality
Personalitytraitsappeartoplayaninfluentialroleinthedevelopmentofpsychological
distress.Personalitiesthataremorenegativearetraditionallyassociatedwithgreaterdistress,
whilemoreoutgoingandpositivepersonalitiesgenerallyexperiencepositivepsychological
health(Duggan,Sham,Lee,Minne,&Murray,1995;Magnus,Diener,Fujita,&Payot,1993;
Suls,Green,&Hillis,1998;Vollrath&Torgersen,2000).Themajorityofresearchthathas
examinedtherelationshipbetweenpersonalityanddistresshasfocusedontheBigFive
personalitytraits.Thisresearchhasshowntherearesignificantassociationsbetween
psychologicaldistressandthepersonalitytraitsneuroticism,extraversionand
conscientiousness.Morerecently,greaterattentionhasfocusedonthegeneticmake-upof
personalitywhichledtothedevelopmentofCloningerspsychobiologicalmodel(Cloninger,
Svrakic,&Przybeck,1993).Cloningersmodelpostulatesthatpersonalitydevelopmentis
influencedbybothbiologicalandpsychologicalprocesses.Strongassociationshavebeen
foundbetweenCloningerspersonalitytraitsandpsychologicaldistresswhichsuggeststhat
certainpersonalitiesmaybegeneticallypredisposedtoexperiencedistress.Thissectionwill
brieflyanalysethegeneralfindingsregardingpersonalityandpsychologicaldistressandwill
thenexaminetheassociationsshownbetweenCloningerspersonalitymodeland
psychologicaldistress.
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1.3.1PersonalityTraitsandtheirAssociationswithStress,AnxietyandDepression
Thepersonalitytraitsneuroticism,extraversionandconscientiousnesshavebeenlinked
withhighandlowpsychologicaldistressinanumberofdifferentpopulations.Individuals
highinneuroticism(characterisedbynegativeemotionalstatesandpredisposition)arethe
mostvulnerabletoexperiencingincreaseddistress.Dugganetal.(1995)foundthat
participantswithafamilyhistoryofdepressionweremorevulnerabletodeveloping
depressivesymptomswhentheyhadhighlevelsofneuroticism.Individualswithhigh
neuroticismmaybemorevulnerabletoexperiencingdistressastheyrespondmore
negativelytodailystressorsandreportexperiencingmorestressfulevents.Sulsetal.,
(1998)demonstratedthisfindingintheirstudyofcommunityparticipants.Participants
completedtheNEOPersonalityInventory(NEO-PI;Costa&McCrae,1985)ataninitial
appointmentandthencompleteddiaryentriesoveraneight-dayperiod.Sulsetal.found
thatallparticipantsexperiencedaloweringofmoodwhentheyencounteredastressor.
However,individualswithhighneuroticismreactedmorenegativelytothestressorsand
weremoresusceptibletotherecurrenceofthesameproblems.Inaddition,neurotic
personsreportedexperiencingmorestressfulevents.
Thepersonalitytraitsneuroticism,extraversionandconscientiousnessarealsoassociated
withpsychologicaldistressinuniversitystudents.Asindividualswithhighextraversion
andconscientiousnessaremoresociable,positiveandgoal-orientatedtheyarelesslikelyto
becomeasdistressedashighlyneuroticindividuals.Vollrath(2000)showedthatstudents
withmoreadaptivepersonalitiessuchashighextraversionandconscientiousnesswereless
affectedbydailystress.Hemeasuredthepersonalityandstresslevelsof119university
studentsthreemonthsaftertheybeganuniversityandthenthreeyearslater.Thestudy
findingsshowedthatextraversionandconscientiousnesswerenegativelycorrelatedwith
dailystresswhileneuroticismwaspositivelycorrelatedwithstress.
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1.3.2Cloninger'sPsychobiologicalModelofPersonality
Althoughpreviousresearchhasshownassociationsbetweencertainpersonalitytraitsand
psychologicaldistress,fewpersonalitymodelshavefocusedonthegeneticcomponentsof
personality.Cloningerspsychologicalmodelofpersonalityisamoreusefulmodeltouse
whenstudyingtherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandpsychologicaldistressasithas
shownthatcertainpersonalitiesappeartocontainageneticvulnerabilitytodistress
(Cloningeretal.,1993).Cloningerproposedthatpersonalitycontainstwocomponents;
temperamentandcharacter.Temperamentisregardedasthebiologicalaspectof
personalityasitisgeneticallyinheritedanddevelopsearlyinlife.Processessuchas
memory,habitformation,emotionalresponseandinformationprocessingareall
influencedbytemperament(Cloningeretal.,1993).Characterdevelopmentontheother
handisacontinuousprocessthatisinfluencedbyourlifeexperience.Inessencethe
characteraspectofpersonalityisrelatedtodifferentaspectsoftheself,i.e.whoweare,
whywearehere(Cloningeretal.,1993).Theinclusionofbothtemperamentandcharacter
isusefulasitensuresCloninger'smodelismeasuringbothstableandchangingaspectsof
personality.
Cloningertheorisedthattemperamentandcharacterinteracttoproduceouroverall
personality.Hebelievedtheretobefourmainpersonalitytemperaments;noveltyseeking,
harmavoidance,rewarddependenceandpersistenceandthreecharacterdimensions;self-
directedness,cooperativenessandself-transcendence.Thisstudywillfocusonharm
avoidance,rewarddependenceandself-directednessastheyhavebeenshowntobe
associatedwithpsychologicaldistress.Harmavoidancedescribestheinhibitionor
cessationofbehaviour.Individualshighinharmavoidancearedescribedasapprehensive,
shy,pessimisticandpronetofatiguewhilethoselowinharmavoidancetendtobe
carefree,relaxed,courageous,composedandoptimisticeveninsituationsthatworryother
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people.Rewarddependenceontheotherhanddescribesthemaintenanceandcontinuation
ofbehaviourthatisrewarded,especiallysocially.Individualshighinrewarddependence
aredescribedaslovingandwarm,dependentandsociablewhilethoselowinreward
dependencearemoredetached,non-conforming,cynicalandexhibitlowpersistence.Self-
directednessreferstoanindividual'sabilitytodirectandguidetheirbehaviourtowardsa
specifiedgoal.Individualshighinself-directednessaredescribedasself-determined,able
tomeetdesiredgoals,andacceptresponsibilityfortheiractionswhileindividualslowin
self-directednessstruggletosetandachievegoals,failtotakeresponsibilityfortheir
actionsandoftenhavedysfunctionalattitudesandalowerself-esteem(Cloningeretal.,
1993).
1.4PersonalityandPsychologicalDistress
1.4.1HarmAvoidance,Self-DirectednessandPsychologicalDistress
Highharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessappeartobethemostmaladaptiveof
Cloningerspersonalitytraitsastheyareassociatedwithincreasedpsychologicaldistress.
Theseassociationsarefoundregardlessofage,genderandeducation(Jylh&Isomets,
2006).Furthermore,individualswithhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessare
morelikelytoseektheadviceofamentalhealthprofessionalandtohavealifetimemental
illness(Jylh&Isomets,2006).JylhandIsomets(2006)showedthereweresignificant
associationsbetweenpersonalityandpsychologicaldistressintheirFinnishgeneral
populationstudy.Participantswererandomlydrawnandmailedself-reportquestionnaires
thatmeasuredpersonality(TheTemperamentCharacterInventoryRevised;Cloningeret
al.1994),depressivesymptoms(BeckDepressionInventory;Becketal.,1979)and
anxiety(BeckAnxietyInventory;Beck,Epstein,Brown,&Steer,1988).Theirresults
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showedtherewasastrongrelationshipbetweenpersonality,anxietyanddepressive
symptoms,withhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessassociatedwithincreased
anxietyanddepressivesymptoms.Thefindingthatharmavoidanceandself-directedness
wereassociatedwithanxietyisalsosignificantasfewstudieshaveusedtheTCI-Rto
examinetherelationshipbetweenpersonalityandanxietyinthegeneralpopulation.
Strongassociationsbetweenhighharmavoidance,lowself-directednessandpsychological
distresshavealsobeenfoundinclinicalpopulations.Richter,PolakandEisemann(2003)
foundthatdepressedindividualshadhigherharmavoidanceandlowerself-directedness
levelsthanparticipantsfromtheGermanpopulation.Theirresultsledthemtoconclude
thathighself-directednessandlowharmavoidanceareprobablyfactorsofresilience
againstthedevelopmentofdepressivesymptoms.Onemethodologicalflawinthisstudy
howeverwasthatlittlesocio-demographicinformationwasprovidedaboutthetwo
participantgroupswiththeexceptionofthecontrolgrouphavingasignificantlowermean
agetothatofthedepressedgroup.Thisdifferenceinmeanagebringsintoquestionthe
validityofthecontrolgroup.Inordertoevaluatewhetherthecontrolgroupwasavalid
controlgroup,moreinformationregardingeducation,maritalstatusetcshouldhavebeen
provided.
Harmavoidancelevelsappeartoberelatedtotheseverityofpsychologicaldistressand
oftendecreasefollowingtreatment.Hansenneetal.(1998)showedthatdepressed
individualshadhigherlevelsofharmavoidancethanacontrolgroupandthathigherharm
avoidancelevelswereassociatedwithmoreseveredepressivesymptom.Brown(1992)
showedthatharmavoidancelevelsdecreasedfollowingtreatment.Theirstudyexamined
theharmavoidancelevelsof50patientsreceivingtreatmentforanxietyanddepression.
Brownetal.foundthatpatientsthatreceivedtreatmentfortheiranxietysymptoms
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experiencedareductioninharmavoidancelevels.Asharmavoidancelevelsarerelatively
stableamongstthegeneralpopulationthissuggestsharmavoidanceplaysaroleinthe
developmentofanxiety.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthissamplewasnon-random
andtherewasnocontrolgroupusedinthestudy,therefore,theresultsshouldbe
interpretedwithcaution.
Universitystudentswithhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessarealsomore
vulnerabletopsychologicaldistress.Laidlawetal.(2005)foundthatuniversitystudents
experiencedgreaterpsychologicaldistresswhentheyhadhighlevelsofharmavoidanceor
lowlevelsofself-directedness.Theirstudymeasuredthepersonality(TCI;Cloninger,et
al.,1993),stress(PSS;Cohen,1988)anxiety(STAI;Spielberger,Gorsuch,&Lushene,
1970)anddepressivesymptoms(POMS;McNair,Lorr,&Droppleman,1971)of80third
yearmedicalstudents.Thesemeasuresshowedthatstudentswithlowself-directedness
(morethanonestandarddeviationbelowthemean)hadhigherlevelsofharmavoidance
andreportedhigherlevelsofstress,anxietyanddepressioncomparedtostudentswhose
personalityfellinthenormalrange(Laidlawetal.,2005).Studentswithlowlevelsofself-
directednesswerealsofoundtohavelowerlevelsofrewarddependence,althoughthis
effectwasnotsignificant.Svrakic,PrzybeckandCloninger(1992)alsofoundhighharm
avoidancetobeassociatedwithincreaseddepressivesymptomsinuniversitystudents.
Svrakicetalsstudycontained86universitystudentswhowererequiredtofilloutthe
TridimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire(TPQ;Cloninger,1987a)andtodescribetheir
mood(assessedbytheProfileofMoodStatesbipolarform;Lorr&McNair,1988)over
thepastweek.Svrakicetalsfindingsrevealedthathighharmavoidancewasstrongly
associatedwithdepressivemoodsymptoms.Althoughthesamplesizeforthestudyis
relativelysmall,themeanscoresfoundfortheTPQandPOMS-biareconsistentwith
previouscollegeandgeneralpopulationstudies,thussuggestingtheresultsarereliable.
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Themajorityofresearchsurroundinghighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednesshas
beenconductedinEuropeanandAmericanpopulations.However,highharmavoidance
andlowself-directednesshavealsobeenshowntobemaladaptivepersonalitytraitsin
Asianpopulations.ArecentstudybyMatsudairaandKitamura(2006)showedthat
personalityisassociatedwithpsychologicaldistressinJapanesestudents.Fivehundred
andforty-onestudentswererequiredtofillouttheJapaneseversionofthe125-short
TemperamentCharacterInventory(TCI;Cloningeretal.,1993)andtheJapaneseversion
oftheHospitalAnxietyandDepressionScale(HAD;Zigmond&Snaith,1983).
MatsudairaandKitamurasfindingsshowedthathighharmavoidancepredictedincreased
anxietywhilelowself-directnesswasshowntoindependentlypredictbothanxietyand
depression.ThisresultreplicatesanearlierfindingbyNaito,KijimaandKitamura(2000)
thatshowedhighharmavoidancewasassociatedwithdepressivesymptomsoverathree
monthperiod.Naitoetal.(2000)measuredthepersonalityanddepressionlevelsof167
undergraduateJapanesestudentsattimeoneandthenre-measuredparticipantsdepressive
symptomsthreemonthslater.Naitoetalsresultsfoundthatpersonalitypredicted
depressivesymptomsovertime,withhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directedness
associatedwithincreaseddepressivesymptoms.
Highharmavoidancehasalsobeenshowntoincreaseonesvulnerabilitytodeveloping
posttraumaticstressdisorder(PTSD).Gil(2005b)foundthatpersonalityplayedarolein
thedevelopmentofPTSDinIsraelistudents.Shemeasuredthepersonalityof185students
twoweeksbeforetheywitnessedabombexplosiononauniversitybusandsixmonths
laterassessedtheproportionofstudentsthathaddevelopedPTSTD.Gilsfindingsshowed
thatparticipantsthatdevelopedPTSDhadhigherlevelsofharmavoidancecomparedto
participantsthatdidnotdevelopPTSD.Onelimitationofthestudyisthatnoinformation
wasgatheredonstudentspreviousexposuretostressfulevents(whichhavebeenshownto
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beariskfactorfordevelopingPTSD).Itispossible,therefore,thatpreviousexposuremay
haveinfluencedthedevelopmentofPTSDratherthanhighharmavoidance.Richmanand
Frueh(1997)alsodemonstratedthatharmavoidanceplaysaroleinthedevelopmentof
PTSD.Theyexaminedthepersonalityof53warveteranswithPTSDandfoundthat
participantswithPTSDhadhigherlevelsofharmavoidancethanparticipantswithout
PTSD.
Individualswithhighharmavoidancemaybemorevulnerabletopsychologicaldistressas
theyarecharacterisedbyanticipatoryworry,fearofuncertainty,shynessandfatigability
(Balletal.,2002).Researchsuggeststhathighharmavoidantindividualsarecharacterised
bythesenegativequalitiesastheyoftenhavelowerlevelsoftheneurochemicalserotonin
andaremorelikelytoexperienceabiasintheirBehaviouralInhibitionSystem(BIS).Low
serotoninhasgenerallybeenshowntobeassociatedwithlowmood(Peirson,etal.,1999)
whileabiasintheBIScanleadhighharmavoidantindividualstoperceivestimuliasbeing
morenegativeandthreateningthanotherpersonalitytraits(Peirsonetal.,1999).This
increasedpropensitytoworryandfeartheunknownmaybeoneexplanationwhyhigh
harmavoidantindividualsexperienceincreasedstress,anxietyanddepression.
Individualswithlowself-directednessmaybemorevulnerabletopsychologicaldistressas
theystruggletosetandachievegoalsandexperiencedeficienciesinpersonal,social,
cognitiveandspiritualdevelopment(Matsudaira&Kitamura,2006).Poorcognitive
developmentinparticular,hasbeenshowntobeavulnerabilityfactorforthedevelopment
ofpsychologicaldistress.Forexample,someresearchersclaimlowself-esteemisamore
importantcomponentofdepressionthanothercognitivevariables(Pyszczynski&
Greenberg,1987).Inaddition,poorproblem-solvingskillscouldbeassociatedwith
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increaseddistressasitmayleadlowself-directedindividualstoobtainlesssuccessinlife
andincreasetheirpropensitytoengageinmoremaladaptivecopingstyles.
1.4.2RewardDependenceandPsychologicalDistress
Whileresearchindicateshighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessaremaladaptive
personalitytraits,therelationshipbetweenrewarddependenceandpsychologicaldistress
hasyieldedmoreinconsistentresults.Manystudiesfailtofindanyrelationshipbetween
lowrewarddependenceandpsychologicaldistress.Itdoesappearhowever,theremaybea
subtlerelationshipbetweenlowrewarddependenceandstress,anxietyanddepression.
Starcevicetal.(1996)foundthatpatientswithgeneralisedanxietydisorder(GAD)had
lowerlevelsofrewarddependencethanthegeneralpopulation,suggestingthatreward
dependencemaybeassociatedwithanxietyinsomeform.BothNaitoetal.(2000)and
MatsudairaandKitamura(2006)alsofoundthatstudentswithlowrewarddependence
weremorelikelytohaveincreaseddepressivesymptoms.Rewarddependencehasalso
beenshowntobenegativelyassociatedwithposttraumaticstressdisorder.Richmanand
Freuh(1997)foundintheirstudyofwarveteransthatparticipantswithPTSDhadlower
levelsofrewarddependencethanparticipantswithoutPTSD.
Individualswithlowrewarddependencemaybemorevulnerabletoexperiencing
psychologicaldistressastheyarecharacterisedbylowlevelsofattachment,sentimentality
anddependenceandarelessinclinedtopersevereandobtainsuccess(Ball,Smolin,&
Shekhar,2002;Brownetal.,1992).Cloningeretal.(1993)hypothesisedthatindividuals
withlowrewarddependenceexhibitbehaviorthatislessinfluencedbysocialrewardas
theyaremoreinclinedtohavelowlevelsoftheneurotransmitternorepinephrine(a
chemicalthatinfluencesbehaviourmaintenancethroughrewardornon-punishment).The
failuretoengageinsociallyacceptedbehaviours,e.g.seekoutfriendshipsorpersevereand
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achievesuccessmayleadindividualswithlowrewarddependencetoexperienceincreased
distress.
Althoughthisstudyhasfocusedonhowpersonalityisassociatedwithpsychological
distress,itisimportanttonotethatpersonalitycanalsoworkasaprotectivefactoragainst
thedevelopmentofdistress.Individualswithlowharmavoidancearelesslikelytobecome
stressedoranxiousastheyhaveatendencytobeoptimisticandunconcernedinsituations
thattypicallyworrypeople.Additionally,individualswithhighself-directednessareless
likelytoexperiencepsychologicaldistressastheyarecharacterisedbyhighself-esteem
andastrongpurposeinlife(Cloningeretal.,1993).Someresearchersevenclaimthathigh
rewarddependenceisoneofthestrongestprotectivefactorsagainstpsychologicaldistress
(Farmeretal.,2003;Jylh&Isomets,2006).Asindividualswithhighrewarddependence
aremorewarmandsociable,theyaremorelikelytohavegoodsocialsupportand
consequentlylesspsychologicaldistress.
1.4.3Summary
Insummary,researchhasshownthatpersonalitymaygeneticallypredisposeindividualsto
experiencegreaterpsychologicaldistress.Itsuggeststhatindividualswithhighharm
avoidanceandlowself-directednessaremorevulnerabletoexperiencingincreasedstress,
anxietyanddepression.Researchalsosuggeststheremaybeanassociationbetweenlow
rewarddependenceandincreasedpsychologicaldistress.However,theseassociationsare
moresubtlethanthosefoundforhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directedness.
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1.5PersonalityandCopingStyle
1.5.1Overview
Althoughalargeamountofliteraturehasanalysedtheassociationsbetweenpersonality
andpsychologicaldistressandcopingstylesandpsychologicaldistress,lessattentionhas
beenfocusedontheassociationsbetweenpersonalityandcopingstylesthemselves.This
sectionwillreviewthefewstudiesthathaveexaminedtherelationshipbetweenpersonality
andcopingstyles.Duetoalackofresearch,themajorityofstudiesrevieweddonot
measurepersonalityusingCloningerspsychobiologicalmodel.
1.5.2ReviewofPersonalityandCopingStyles
Lazaruscognitive-phenomenologicaltheoryofpsychologicaldistresssuggeststhatour
personalitymayinfluencethetypeofcopingstyleweengagein(Lazarus,1966).Asseen
earlier,copingcontainstwoprocesses:theappraisalofthesituation,andthesubsequent
employmentofanappropriatecopingstyle(Lazarus&Folkman,1984;Vollrath&
Torgersen,2000).Lazarussuggeststhatourpersonalityinfluencestheappraisalprocess
andconsequentlythecopingstylewechoose.Individualswithoptimisticandpositive
personalitiesaremorelikelytoappraiseastressfulsituationmorepositivelyand
consequentlyengageinapro-activecopingstyle(Balletal.,2002).Incontrast,more
pessimisticorfearfulindividualsaremorelikelytoappraiseastressfulsituationas
negativeandunderestimatetheirabilitytodealwiththestressor.Thisleadsthemtochoose
amorepassivecopingstyle(Balletal.,2002).Therefore,stressisnotcausedsolelybythe
situationorbypersonalitycharacteristics,butbytheinteractionbetweenthetwo
(Montgomery&Rupp,2005).
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Mosheretal.(2006)showedthatparticipantswithoptimisticpersonalitiesweremore
likelytoengageinanadaptivecopingstyleandconsequentlyexperiencereduceddistress.
Theymeasuredthepersonality(LifeOrientationTest;Scheier&Carver,1985)andcoping
styles(COPE;Carveretal.,1989)of136AfricanAmericanuniversitystudents.Mosheret
alsresultsshowedthatstudentswithhighlevelsofoptimismweremorelikelytoengage
inproblem-focusedcopingandexperiencedecreaseddepressivesymptoms.Mosheretals
findingsreplicatedanearlierstudybyAspinwallandTaylor(1992)whichfoundgreater
optimisminuniversitystudentswasassociatedwithproblem-focusedcopingandbetter
adjustmenttocollegeatthethree-monthfollow-up.Carveretal.,(1989)alsoexploredthe
relationshipbetweenpersonalityandcopingstylesin978undergraduatestudents.Carver
etal.foundthatstudentswithhighlevelsofnegativityandlowlevelsofoptimismwere
morelikelytoengageinavoidantcoping,whilestudentswithhighlevelsofoptimismwere
morelikelytoengageinproblem-focusedandemotion-focusedcoping.
1.5.3ReviewofCloninger'sPsychobiologicalModelandCopingStyles
Aswellasbeingmorevulnerabletoincreasedpsychologicaldistress,individualswithhigh
harmavoidanceandlowself-directednessarealsomoreinclinedtoengagedin
maladaptivecopingstylessuchasavoidantcopingorrumination.Balletal.(2002)
recentlycomparedthepersonalitiesofclinicallydepressedandanxiousparticipantswitha
setofcontrolstoassesswhetherpersonalitywasassociatedwithmaladaptivecoping
styles.Theirfindingsshowedthatclinicallyanxiousanddepressedparticipantshadhigher
levelsofharmavoidanceandlowerself-directednessthanthecontrolgroupandweremore
likelytouseavoidantcopingratherthanproblem-focusedcoping.Universitystudentswith
highharmavoidancearealsomorelikelytoengageinmaladaptivecopingstyles.Krebs,
WeyersandJanke(1998)foundstrongassociationsbetweenpersonalityandcopingstyles
inaGermanuniversitystudy.Theymeasuredthepersonalityandcopingstylesof200
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Germanstudentsandfoundthatstudentswithhighharmavoidanceengagedinmore
maladaptivecopingstylessuchasavoidantcoping(e.g.escape)andemotion-focused
coping(e.g.rumination).Highharmavoidancewasalsoshowntobenegativelyassociated
withmoreadaptivecopingstylessuchasproblem-focusedcoping.
Lazaruscognitive-phenomenologicaltheoryofpsychologicaldistresssuggeststhat
individualswithmaladaptivepersonalitytraitsmaybemoreinclinedtoengageinavoidant
copingastheyarecharacterisedbyhigherlevelsofpessimismandlowself-esteem
(Cloningeretal.,1993).Thishighpessimismandlowself-esteemmayleadthemto
appraisestressfulsituationsandtheirabilitytosuccessfullyresolvestressorsmore
negatively,thuscausingthemtochooseapassivecopingstrategy.Inaddition,itispossible
thatlowself-directedindividualsmayengageinapassivecopingstylesuchasavoidant
copingastheystrugglewithmotivationandgoal-setting.Thisrelationshipbetweenhigh
harmavoidance,lowself-directednessandavoidantcopingcouldpossiblydevelopintoa
negativecycle.Forexample,individualswithmoremaladaptivepersonalitiesmaybeless
likelytosuccessfullyresolvestressorsduetotheirincreasedpropensitytoengagein
maladaptivecopingstyles.Asaconsequence,theymayexperiencegreaterdistresswhich
inturncouldencouragethemtocontinuetoappraisestressorsandtheircopingresources
negatively.
Whilelowharmavoidanceandhighself-directednessappeartobeassociatedwithmore
maladaptivecopingstyles,highlevelsofrewarddependenceandself-directednessare
generallyassociatedwithmoreadaptivecopingstylessuchasemotion-focusedcopingand
problem-focusedcoping.Kreb,WeyersandJanke(1998)foundthatuniversitystudents
withhighrewarddependenceweremorelikelytoseeksocialsupportandlesslikelyto
engageincopingstylesthatwerenotsociallyrewarded.Balletal.(2002)alsofounda
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strongpositiveassociationbetweenrewarddependenceandemotion-focusedcopingin
theirclinicalstudy.Inaddition,theirresultsshowedtherewasarelationshipbetweenhigh
self-directednessandcoping,asindividualswithhighself-directednessengagedinmore
problem-focusedcopingstyles.
Individualswithhighrewarddependenceandself-directednessmayengageinactive
copingstrategiesastheyaremoreinclinedtoappraisestressorsandtheirabilitytoresolve
stressorsmorepositively.Asindividualswithrewarddependencetendtoengagein
behaviourthatissociallyrewarded,thismayleadthemtoengageinemotion-focused
copingstrategiessuchasseekingsocialsupport.Individualswithhighself-directedness
mayalsobemoreinclinedtoengageinproblem-focusedcopingastheyareadeptat
problem-solvingandcognitiveappraisal.Consequently,theyarealsobetterableto
commandtheirownbehaviorandtoaccommodatetodifferentsituationsinordertosetand
achievegoals
1.5.4Summary
Thefindingthatpersonalitymaybeassociatedwithcopingstylessuggeststhatindividuals
withhighharmavoidanceandlowself-directednessmayhaveagreaterriskof
experiencingdistressastheyarealsomorelikelytoengageinavoidantcoping.Asthe
studyofpersonalityandcopingstylesisarelativelynewareaofresearch,nostudiesasyet
haveexaminedwhetherhavingbothamaladaptivepersonalityandmaladaptivecoping
stylepredictsgreaterpsychologicaldistresscomparedtoeitherpredictoralone.Thisisan
importantareatostudy,especiallyaspastresearchsuggeststhatpersonalityandcoping
stylesareassociatedwithoneanother.
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1.6CurrentStudy
Thisstudyaimstoexaminethecontributionofpersonalityandcopingstylesto
psychologicaldistress.Todatefewresearchershaveanalysedtheassociationof
personality,copingstyleandstress,anxietyanddepressioninonestudy.Anattemptwill
bemadetoreplicatepreviousassociationsbetweenpersonality,copingstylesand
psychologicaldistressthathavebeenshownacrossdifferentstudiesinanumberof
differentpopulations.Thecurrentresearchwillalsoundertaketoanalysearelatively
unexploredareaofpsychologybyexaminingtherelationshipbetweenCloninger's
psychobiologicalmodelofpersonalityandcopingstyles.Inaddition,thisstudywill
expandonpreviousstudiesbyexaminingwhethertheassociationsfoundbetween
personalityandcopingstylesareassociatedwithincreasedstress,anxietyanddepressive
symptoms.Onthebasisofpreviousresearchthisstudycontainsfourhypotheses:
1. Anassociationwillbefoundbetweencopingstylesandstress,anxietyand
depression(psychologicaldistress).Inparticular;(a)Avoidantcopingstyleswillbe
positivelyassociatedwithstress,anxietyanddepressivesymptoms;(b)Problem-focused
copingwillbenegativelyassociatedwithsymptomsofstress,anxietyanddepressive
symptoms;and(c)Emotion-focusedcopingwillbenegativelyassociatedwithsymptoms
ofstress,anxietyanddepressivesymptoms.
2. Anassociationwillbefoundbetweensomedimensionsofpersonalityandstress,
anxietyanddepression(psychologicaldistress).Specifically;(a)Harmavoidancewillbe
positivelyassociatedwithstress,anxietyanddepression;(b)Self-directednesswillbe
negativelyassociatedwithstress,anxietyanddepression;and(c)Rewarddependencewill
benegativelyassociatedwithstress,anxietyanddepression.
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3. Arelationshipwillbefoundbetweendimensionsofpersonalityandcopingstyles;
(a)Harmavoidancewillbepositivelyassociatedwithavoidantcopingandself-
directednesswillbenegativelyassociatedwithavoidantcoping;(b)Rewarddependence
willbepositivelyassociatedwithemotion-focusedcoping;and(c)Self-directednesswill
bepositivelyassociatedwithproblem-focusedcopingscores.
4. Personalityandcopingstyleswillhaveanadditiveeffectinexplaining
psychologicaldistress.Morespecifically;(a)Increasesinharmavoidanceandavoidant
copingwillresultingreaterincreasesinstress,anxietyanddepressionthanthedegreeof
distressassociatedwitheachpredictoralone.
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2.Method
2.1Participants
Theparticipantsinthisstudywere53(26%)maleand148(74%)femalevolunteersfromthe
UniversityofCanterbury,NewZealand.Themeanandmedianageswere21.5(SD=6.39)
and19yearsrespectively.Seventypercentoftheparticipantswerefirstyearpsychology
studentswhoreceivedpartialcoursecreditforparticipating.Theremainingparticipantsreplied
toaposteradvertisementaroundtheuniversityandreceiveda$10voucherfortheirtime.The
participantscompletedonaverageameanof1.73(SD=0.94)yearsofstudy.Themajorityof
theparticipantswereNewZealandEuropean(73.6%)and91%wereunmarried.
2.2Procedure
Thestudywasadvertisedthroughthestudentpsychologywebsiteandviapostersthroughout
theuniversity.Participantsmadecontactwiththeresearcherthroughthestudentparticipant
poolorviaphoneoremail.Theresearcherthenarrangedasuitabletimefortheparticipantsto
comeandfilloutaquestionnairebooklet.Upontheirarrival,participantswereprovidedwitha
one-pageinformationsheetthatdescribedthestudy(seeAppendixA).Studentswereassured
theirinformationwasconfidentialandanonymous,andtheyhadtherighttodisengage
themselvesfromthestudyatanytimewithoutpenalty.Interestedparticipantsthencompleted
aconsentform(seeAppendixA).
ThequestionnairebookletgiventostudentscontainedtheTemperamentCharacterInventory-
Revised(TCI-R;Cloninger,1994),theDepressionAnxietyStressScale(DASS;S.H.
Lovibond&P.F.Lovibond,1995)andtheCopingOrientationofProblemExperience(COPE;
Carver,Scheier,Weintraub,1989)(SeeAppendixB).
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Completionofthequestionnairestookonaverage60minutes.Onceparticipantshad
completedthequestionnairebooklettheywereverballydebriefedaboutthenatureofthestudy
andweregivenawrittendebriefingsheet(seeAppendixA).Thissheetstatedthemain
purposeofthestudyandprovidedabriefbackgroundaboutpersonalityandcopingstylesand
theirassociationwithstress,anxietyanddepression.Thedebriefingsheetalsocontainedthe
numberofahealthprofessionalattheUniversityofCanterbury.Furthermore,participants
wereprovidedwiththeresearcherscontactdetailsshouldtheyhaveanymorequestionsabout
thestudy.Firstyearpsychologystudentscompletedashortassignment,requiredbythe
DepartmentofPsychology,togaincoursecredit,whereasotherparticipantsreceiveda$10
voucherfortheirtime(seeAppendixA).
2.3EthicalApproval
ThestudywasapprovedbytheUniversityofCanterburyEthicsCommittee(seeAppendixA).
2.4Measures
2.4.1TheTemperamentCharacterInventoryRevised(TCI-R;Cloningeretal.,1994)
TheTCI-RistherevisedversionoftheTemperamentCharacterInventory(TCI;Cloningeret
al.,1994)whichwasdevelopedbasedontheTridimensionalPersonalityQuestionnaire(TPQ;
Cloninger,1987a).Itisa240itemself-reportquestionnairewithafive-pointtrue/falsescale
(seeAppendixB).TheTCI-Rinstructsparticipantstoreadovereachitemstatementcarefully
andcirclethenumberthatdescribesthewaytheyusuallyorgenerallyactorfeel,notthe
waytheyarefeelingatthepresenttime.
TheTCI-RwasdevelopedtomeasurepersonalitybasedonCloningerspsychobiological
model.Thismodelpostulatesthatpersonalityismadeupofbothtemperamentandcharacter.
Temperamentisbelievedtobegeneticallydeterminedandlinkedtoneurochemicalsystems.It
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isdefinedasbehaviouralsystemsofautomaticemotionalresponsestoexperiences(Richteret
al.,2003).ThetemperamenttraitssetoutinCloningerspsychobiologicalmodelarenovelty
seeking,harmavoidance,rewarddependenceandpersistence.
Noveltyseekingreflectsthebehaviouralactivationsystemandindividualdifferencesinthe
activationofbehavior(Richteretal.,2003).Individualswhoarehighinnoveltyseekingare
regardedasthrill-seekersandaredescribedasimpulsive,exploratory,quick-temperedand
disorderly,whilethoselowonthisdimensiontendtobereflective,stoical,slow-temperedand
orderly.Thenoveltyseekingdimensioncontainsfoursubscales(seeTable1):Exploratory
Excitability(10items),Impulsiveness(9items),Extravagance(9items)andDisorderliness(7
items).
Harmavoidancereflectsthebehaviouralinhibitionsystemandindividualresponsedifferences
topunishmentandnegativestimuli(Richteretal.,2003).Individualshighinharmavoidance
aresensitivetosignalsofadversestimuliandthusinhibittheirbehaviourtoavoidpunishment,
novelty(potentialdisappointment)andnon-reward(Brownetal.,1992).Individualswhoscore
highlyontheharmavoidancedimensionintheTCI-Raredescribedasapprehensive,shy,
pessimisticandpronetofatigue,whilethoselowonthisdimensiontendtobeoptimistic,
carefree,outgoingandenergetic.Theharmavoidancedimensioncontainsfoursubscales(see
Table1):AnticipatoryWorry(11items),FearofUncertainty(7items),Shyness(7items),and
FatigabilityandAsthenia(8items).
Rewarddependencereflectsthebehaviouralmaintenancesystemandindividualresponsesto
themaintenanceofpreviouslyrewardedbehaviourwithoutcurrentreinforcement(Richteret
al.,2003).Individualshighinrewarddependencearehighlysensitivetosignalsofreward,
especiallysocialrewardandmaintainandresistextinctionofbehaviourthatwaspreviously
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associatedwithrewardsorrelieffrompunishment.Theyarehighlysociable,easilyconformto
peerpressureandhaveahighneedforintimacy(Brownetal,1992).Individualswhoscore
highlyontherewarddependencedimensionintheTCI-Raredescribedastendered-hearted,
lovingandwarmandsensitivetolossandrejection.Thoselowonthisdimensiontendtobe
cold,practical,enjoytimealoneandsociallyinsensitive.Therewarddependencedimension
containsfoursubscales(seeTable1):Sentimentality(8items),Openness(10items),
Attachment(6items),andDependence(6items).
Persistencereflectsindividualdifferencesinpersistenceofbehaviourdespiteinconsistent
reinforcement(Richteretal.,2003).PersistencewasnotoriginallymeasuredintheTPQ,
Cloningersfirstpersonalitymeasure.However,factoranalysisrevealedtheTPQwas
measuringfourdimensionsratherthanthree.Thisledtothedevelopmentofpersistenceasa
temperamentdimension(Peirson&Heuchert,2001).Individualswhoscorehighlyonthe
persistencedimensionintheTCI-Raredescribedasindustrious,hardworking,persistentand
stabledespitefrustrationandfatigue.Individualswithlowpersistencetendtobeinactive,
unreliableanderratic.Thepersistencedimensioncontainsfoursubscales(seeTable1):
Eagerness(9items),WorkHardened(8items),Ambitious(10items)andPerfectionist(8
items
Characterisregardedasbeingmoreenvironmentallyinfluencedandreferstoindividualsself-
concepts,goalsandvalues.ThecharacterdimensionssetoutinCloningerspsychobiological
modelareself-directedness,cooperativenessandself-transcendence.Theyreflecthowan
individualviewsthemselves,othersandnatureingeneral.Thecharacterdimensionself-
directednessistheabilityofanindividualtocontrol,regulateandadapthis/herbehaviourto
meetsetgoalsandvalues(Hansenne,Delhez,&Cloninger,2005).Individualswhoscore
highlyontheself-directednessdimensionintheTCI-Raredescribedasresponsible,
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purposefulandresourceful.Theyarehighlyself-motivatedandabletotakeresponsibilityfor
theiractions.Individualswithlowself-directednesshavedifficultyacceptingresponsibility,
settingandmeetingmeaningfulgoals,acceptinglimitationsandself-discipline.Theself-
directednessdimensioncontainsfivesubscales(seeTable1):Responsibility(8items),
Purposefulness(6items),Resourcefulness(5items),Self-acceptance(10items)and
Enlightenedsecondnature(11items).
Cooperativenessreferstotheextenttowhichanindividualconsidershimself/herselftobea
partofsocietyasawhole(Richteretal.,2003)andtheextenttowhichhe/sheidentifiesand
acceptsotherpeople(Hansenneetal.,2005).Individualswhoscorehighlyonthe
cooperativenessdimensionaredescribedassociallytolerant,empathetic,helpfuland
compassionate.Individualswithlowcooperativenessaredescribedassociallyintolerant,
disinterestedinotherpeople,unhelpfulandrevengeful.Thecooperativenessdimension
containsfivesubscales(seeTable1):SocialAcceptance(8items),Empathy(5items),
Helpfulness(8items),Compassion(7items)andPure-HeartedConscience(8items).
Self-transcendencereflectsthespiritualityofanindividualandtheiridentificationwiththe
onenessofnatureandsociety(Hansenneetal.,2005).Italsoincludesconsciousnessand
moralmaturity(Richteretal.,2003).Individualswhoscorehighlyontheself-transcendence
dimensionintheTCI-Raredescribedasfeelingconnectedtotheuniverse,viewingthe
universeasone,self-forgetful,withasenseofspiritualunity.Individualswithlowself-
transcendencearedescribedasindividualistic,self-awareandrational.Theself-transcendence
dimensioncontainsthreesubscales(seeTable1):Self-forgetful(10items),Transpersonal
Identification(8items)andSpiritualAcceptance(8items).
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Table1
DescriptionoftheTCI-RSubscales
TCI-RSubscales DescriptionofeachSubscale
NoveltySeeking(NS) ExploratoryExcitabilityvs.StoicRigidity(10items)
Impulsivenessvs.Reflection(9items)
Extravagancevs.Reserve(9items)
Disorderlinessvs.Regimentation(7items)
NSTOTAL=N1+N2+N3+N4(35items)
HarmAvoidance(HA) AnticipatoryWorryvs.UninhibitedOptimism(11items)
FearofUncertaintyvs.Confidence(7items)
ShynesswithStrangersvs.Gregariousness(7items)
FatigabilityandAstheniavs.Vigour(8items)
HATOTAL=HA1+HA2+HA3+HA4(33items)
RewardDependence(RD) Sentimentalityvs.Insensitiveness(8items)
OpennesstoWarmCommunicationvs.Aloofness(10items)
Attachmentvs.Detachment(6items)
Dependencevs.Independence(6items)
RDTOTAL=RD1+RD2+RD3+RD4(30items)
Persistence(P) EagernessofEffortvs.Laziness(items)
WorkHardenedvs.Spoiled(8items)
Ambitiousvs.Underachieving(10items)
Perfectionistvs.Pragmatist(8items)
PTOTAL=P1+P2+P3+P4(35items)
Self-Directedness(SD) Responsibilityvs.Blaming(8items)
Purposefulnessvs.LackofGoalDirection(6items)
Resourcefulness(5items)
Self-Acceptancevs.Self-Striving(10items)
EnlightenedSecondNature(11items)
SDTOTAL=SD1+SD2+SD3+SD4(40items)
Cooperativeness(C) SocialAcceptancevs.SocialIntolerance(8items)
Empathyvs.SocialDisinterest(5items)
Helpfulnessvs.Unhelpfulness(8items)
Compassionvs.Revengefulness(7items)
Pure-HeartedConsciencevs.Self-ServingAdvantage(8items)
CTOTAL=C1+C2+C3+C4+C5(36items)
Self-Transcendence(ST) Self-Forgetfulvs.Self-ConsciousExperience(10items)
TranspersonalIdentificationvs.Self-differentiation(8items)
SpiritualAcceptancevs.RationalMaterialism(8items)
STTOTAL=ST1+ST2+ST3(26items)
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TheTCI-Rwaschosenasthepersonalitymeasureinthisstudyasitmeasuresbothpersonality
temperamentandcharacter,thusprovidingaholisticmeasureofpersonality.Itwasalso
chosenasresearchhasshowntheTCI-Rmeasuresindividualdifferencesinvulnerabilitiesto
Axis1disorderssuchasmajordepressivedisordersandanxietydisorders(Hansenneetal.,
2005).ThereisalsoshownastrongrelationshipbetweenCloningerspsychobiologicalmodel
andpsychologicaldistress(Jhlha&Isometsa,2006;Peirson&Heuchert,2001).Inparticular,
harmavoidancehasbeenpositivelyassociatedwithdistress,whileself-directednessand
rewarddependenceisnegativelyassociatedwithdistress.Asanumberofpreviousstudies
haveusedtheTCI-Rtomeasuretheassociationbetweenpersonalityanddistress,thissuggests
itisanappropriatepersonalitymeasuretouseinthecurrentstudy.
TheTCI-Rwasalsochosenasthepersonalitymeasurebecauseratherthanfocusingon
personalitydisorders,thefocusisonpersonalitydimensions.Thusitisanappropriate
personalitymeasuretouseonanon-clinicalsampleasinthisstudy.Anareaofinterestto
investigateiswhetheruniversitystudentswillshowsimilarassociationsbetweenpersonality
andpsychologicaldistressasthoseshownbyclinicalandgeneralpopulations.
TheTCI-Rhasgoodreliabilityandvalidityinclinicalorpopulationsamples(Fossatietal.,
2007).FewerstudieshaveusedtheTCI-Rinnon-clinicalsamples,however,atleastonestudy
hasfoundthattheTCI-Rhasgoodreliabilityandvalidityinanundergraduatesamplewith
acceptabletestretestcorrelations(r=.81to.94)(Hansenneetal.,2005).TheTCI(whichhas
beenshowntohavesimilarpsychometricpropertiestotheTCI-R)showedgoodreliabilityina
universitysample,withCronbachsalphasof0.60to0.85forthetemperamentdimensionsand
0.82to0.87forthecharacterdimensions(Sung,Kim,Yang,Abrams,&Lyoo,2002).Test
retestcorrelationswerealsoacceptablerangingfrom0.52to0.72forthetemperament
dimensionsand0.52to0.71forthecharacterdimensions(Sungetal.,2002).TheTCI-Ralso
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hasaValidityScalethatcontainsfiveitems(Items36,101,120,132and209).Thisisto
ensureparticipantsarereadingtheitemquestionsandaccuratelyrecordingtheiranswer.
2.4.2TheCopingOrientationofProblemExperienceInventory(TheCOPE;Carveretal.,
1989)
TheCOPEwasdevelopedtomeasureindividualstylesofcoping(Carveretal.,1989).Itisa
52-itemself-reportquestionnairewithafour-pointLikertscale(1Iusuallydontdothis,2
Iusuallydothisalittlebit,3Iusuallydothisamediumamount,4Iusuallydothisalot).
TheCOPEmeasures13individualcopingstyles/subscalesthatcanbegroupedintothree
meta-strategies:problem-focusedcoping,emotionalcopingandlessuseful/avoidantcoping.It
instructsparticipantstoindicatewhattheynormallydoandfeelwhentheyexperiencestressful
events.
Problem-focusedcopingcanbedescribedasproblem-solvingordoingsomethingtoalterthe
sourceofthestress,whileemotion-focusedcopingcanbedescribedasreducingormanaging
theemotionaldistressthatisassociatedwiththestressor.Lessuseful/avoidantcopingcanbe
describedasstrivingtoignoreornotdealingwithastressor.
AlthoughthereareavarietyofalternativecopingstylesthisthesisusesCarversoriginalscale
andonlydiffersinlabelingdenialasanavoidantcopingstyleasopposedtopartofthe
emotion-focusedcopingmeta-strategyasCarveroriginallydid.Thisdecisionwasmadeas
recentresearchhasdemonstrateddenialisconceptuallydistinctfromemotion-focusedcoping
(Ben-Zur,1999;Holahanetal.,2005).Consequently,bothproblem-focusedandemotion-
focusedcopingmeta-strategieswithintheCOPEcontainfivesubscaleswhiletheavoidant
copingmeta-strategycontainsthree(seeTable2).
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Table2
TheCOPESubscalesasusedintheCurrentStudy
Meta-Strategy CopingStyle/Subscale Description
Problem-FocusedCoping
ActiveCoping Theprocessoftakingactivestepstoremoveorcircumventastressororreduceitsnegativeeffects.
Planning Involvescomingupwithactionstrategies,thinkingaboutwhatstepstotakeandhowbesttohandletheproblem.
SuppressionofCompetingActivities
Involvesputtingotherprojectsasideandtryingnottobecomedistractedsoonecaneffectivelydealwiththestressor.
RestraintCoping Involveswaitinguntilanappropriateopportunitytoactpresentsitself,holdingoneselfbackandnotactingprematurely.
SeekingSocialSupportforInstrumentalReasons
Involvesseekingadvice,assistanceorinformation.
Emotion-FocusedCoping
SeekingSocialSupportforEmotionalReasons
Involvesgettingmoralsupport,sympathyorunderstanding.
PositiveReinterpretationandGrowth
Construingastressfultransactioninpositiveterms.
Acceptance Acceptingtherealityofastressfulsituation.
FocusofandVentingofEmotions
Thetendencytofocusonwhateverdistressoneisexperiencingandtoventilatethosefeelings.
TurningtoReligion Usingreligiontohelpcopewiththestressor.
AvoidantCoping Denial Refusaltoaccepttherealityofastressfulsituation.
BehaviourDisengagement Reducingone'sefforttodealwiththestressor,orgivinguptheattempttoattaingoalswithwhichthestressorisinterfering.
MentalDisengagement Attemptingtodistractonesselffromthinkingaboutthebehaviouraldimensionorgoalwithwhichthestressorisinterfering.
TheCOPEwaschosenasthecopingmeasureforthisstudyasithasaclearfocusintheitems
andwasdevelopedthroughatheoreticalapproach.Itwasalsodesirableasitassessarangeof
specificcopingstrategieswhichcanbegroupedunderthethreemaincopingmeta-strategies
(problem-focused,emotion-focusedandavoidant)thatareofinterest.
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TheCOPEhasgoodreliability(=.45-.60)andtestre-testscores(r=.45-.86)overan
eightweekperiodinauniversitysample(Carveretal.,1989).Correlationsbetweenquestions
weresatisfactory.TheCOPEshowedgoodconvergentvaliditywiththeCopeStrategy
Indicator(CSI;Tobin,Holroyd,&Reynolds,1984)andtheWaysofCopingRevised(WOC-
R;Folkman&Lazarus,1988)(r=.55-.89)andastrongdivergentvalidity.
2.4.3TheDepressionAnxietyStressScale(DASS;S.H.Lovibond&P.F.Lovibond,1995)
TheDASSisa42-itemself-reportquestionnairewhichcontainsthreescales:stress,anxiety
anddepression(S.H.Lovibond&P.F.Lovibond,1995).Participantsareaskedtoreadover
itemstatementsandindicatehowmucheachstatementappliedtothemoverthepastweek(0
didnotapplytomeatall,1appliedtometosomedegree,orsomeofthetime,2applied
tometoaconsiderabledegree,oragoodpartofthetime,3appliedtomeverymuch,or
mostofthetime).Thedepressionsubscalecontainsitemsthatmeasuresymptomsgenerally
associatedwithdsyphoricmood(e.g.sadnessorworthlessness)(seeTable3).Theanxiety
subscalecontainsitemsthatarerelatedtosymptomsofphysicalarousal,panicattacksandfear
(e.g.tremblingorfaintness).Thestresssubscalecontainsitemsthatmeasuresymptomssuch
astensionirritabilityandthetendencytoover-react(Antony,Bieling,Cox,Enns,&Swinson,
1998).
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Table3
ExampleofItemsintheDASS
Scale ConstructsAssessed ItemExamples
DepressionScale
dysphoria,hopelessness,devaluationoflife,self-deprecation,lackofinterestandinvolvement,anhedonia,andinertia.
Icanseenothingtobehopefulabout.
AnxietyScale autonomicarousal,skeletalmuscleeffects,situationalanxietyandsubjectiveexperienceofanxiousaffect
IfeltIwasclosetopanic.
StressScale difficultyrelaxing,nervousarousal,beingeasilyupset/agitated,irritable/over-reactiveandimpatient
Ifoundmyselfgettingupsetbyquitetrivialthings.
TheDASSisadimensionalmeasureofsymptomsofstress,anxietyanddepressionandwas
developedonnon-clinicalsamples.Itisoftenusedasameasureofpsychologicaldistressfor
universitysamples,suchasthecurrentsample(Adlaf,Gliksman,Demers,&Newton-Taylor,
2001;P.F.Lovibond&S.H.Lovibond,1995;Wong,Cheung,Chan,Ma,&Tang,2006).The
DASSwasalsochosenasitisanefficientandcomprehensivemeasureofnotonlydepression
butalsoanxietyandstress.
TheDASShasgoodinternalreliability(depressionscale=0.91,anxietyscale=.81,stress
scale=.89)inauniversitysample(P.F.Lovibond&S.H.Lovibond,1995).Strong
correlationswerealsofoundbetweenscaleswithdepression-anxietyr=.42,anxiety-stressr
=.46anddepression-stressr=.39.TheDASSdepressionscaleishighlycorrelatedwiththe
BeckDepressionInventory(r=.74)(BDI;Becketal.,196)whiletheDASSanxietyscaleand
theBAIwerecorrelatedr=0.81(Beck&Steer,1993).Thelowercorrelationbetweenthe
DASSdepressionscaleandtheBDImaybeduetotheBDIcontainingitemsthatarenot
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exclusivelyrelatedtodepression(e.g.weightloss,irritability,lossoflibido)(P.F.Lovibond&
S.H.Lovibond,1995).
PrincipalcomponentsfactoranalysisoftheDASSonauniversitysamplerevealedthat,in
general,mostitemsloadmoderatelytohighlyonproposedownfactor,depressionsubscale(r
=.36-.80),anxietysubscale(r=.20-.64)stresssubscale(r=40-.76).TheDASSaccurately
discriminatesbetweenthethreenegativeemotionalsyndromesalthoughthesesyndromesare
stillmoderatelytohighlycorrelatedwithoneanother(P.F.Lovibond&S.H.Lovibond,
1995).
2.5StatisticalAnalyses
DataanalyseswerecarriedoutusingtheSPSSstatisticalsoftwareprogram(version15.0)
(SPSS,2006).Thedatawasexaminedforaccuracyofinputandoutliersandtwo
questionnairebookletswereexcludedfromthestudyduetoviolationsintheTCI-R
validityscale.Inordertolookatassociationsbetweenthevariables,Pearsonsand
Spearmanscorrelationswereobtained.Inordertolookatthecontributionofpersonality
(TCI-R)andcoping(COPE)topredictingstress,anxietyanddepression,aseriesof
multipleregressionswereundertaken.
2.5.1CheckingtheDataforNormality
Normalityofthedataandconditionsforanalyseswerecheckedvisuallywithhistograms
andstatisticallywithKolmogorov-Smirnovtestfornormality(seeTable4).Histogramsof
theCOPEshowedbothproblem-focusedcopingandemotion-focusedwerenormally
distributedwhileavoidantcopingwasslightlypositivelyskewed.HistogramsoftheTCI-R
showedbothharmavoidanceandself-directednessappearednormallydistributedwhile
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rewarddependencewasslightlynegativelyskewed.HistogramsoftheDASSshowedall
threescaleswerepositivelyskewed.
TheKolmogorov-Smirnovtestfornormalityshowedthatthevariablesemotion-focused
coping,avoidantcoping,stress,anxietyanddepressiondeviatedsignificantlyfroma
normaldistribution.TraditionallyDASSresultsareoftenpositively-skewed(Antonyetal.,
1998;Crawford&Henry,2003;P.F.Lovibond&S.H.Lovibond,1995).Aseriesof
transformationswereattemptedtonormalisethedata(includinglog,squarerootand
inverse).Emotion-focusedcoping,anxietyanddepressionscorescouldnotbetransformed
tofollowanormaldistribution.Thustheuntransformeddatawasusedinallanalysesand
wherepossible,verifiedwithnon-parametrictests(refertoAppendixCtoseeatable
containingallthetransformationsundertaken).
Table4
Kolmogorov-SmirnovTestingofDataNormality
Notes:*p
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coping).Acorrelationmatrixwasproducedtocheckformulticollinearitybetweenthe
variables.ThisshowedthatharmavoidanceandharmavoidanceXavoidantcopingdidnot
correlater=.09,buttherewasasignificantassociationbetweenharmavoidanceX
avoidantcopingandavoidantcopingr=0.23.Althoughthisraisedthepossibilityof
multicollinearity,furtheranalysesrevealedthatallthreeregressionshadtolerancescores
higherthan0.10,andVarianceInflationFactor(VIF)scoresbelow10showingtherewas
noproblemwithmulticollinearity.Furtheranalysesalsoshowedthreecasesexceededthe
Mahalanobisdistancescut-offscore(13.82),howeverthiswasnotofconcernforasample
sizeof201(Pallant,2007).Caseswithusualresidualvalueswerelastlyexaminedto
determinewhethertheyhadasignificanteffectonthedata.Theseanalysesshowedthat
althougheachregressionhadafewoutlierstheywerenotsignificantlyaffectingthedata,
astheCooksDistancescoreforeachregressionwaslessthanone.
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3.Results
3.1DescriptiveInformationDescriptivestatisticsforpersonality(harmavoidance,rewarddependence,self-
directedness),copingstyles(problem-focusedcoping,emotion-focusedcoping,avoidant
coping)andpsychologicaldistress(stress,anxiety,depression)variablesareshownin
Table5andcomparedtoothersamplesinTables6,7and8.Themeansforpsychological
distressweresimilartopreviousuniversitystudies(P.F.Lovibond&S.H.Lovibond,
1995)buthigherthanthosefoundforthegeneralpopulation(Antonyetal.,1998;
Crawford&Henry,2003)(seeTable6).Themeansforpersonalitywereunabletobe
comparedwithpreviousuniversitystudiesasnostudieswerefoundthatadministeredthe
TCI-Rtouniversitystudents.However,themeansfoundweresimilartothosefoundfor
thegeneralpopulation(Hansenneetal.,2005;Jylh&Isomets,2006)(seeTable7).In
addition,themeansforcopingstylesweresimilartoapreviousuniversitysample(Carver
etal.,1989)andthosefoundforthegeneralpopulation(Ingledew,Hardy,Cooper,&
Jemal,1996)(seeTable8).
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Table5
Means,StandardDeviationsandRangesFoundforPersonality,CopingStylesand
PsychologicalDistress(N=201)
Mean(SD) PossibleRange
ObtainedRange
CopingStyles
ProblemFocused 10.30(1.83)
416
4.614.6
EmotionFocused 10.47(1.75) 416 6.615.2
Avoidant 7.28(1.78) 416 413
Personality HarmAvoidance 92.41(18.86) 33165 51150
RewardDependence 106.67(14.72) 30150 66139
Self-Directedness 135.64(18.46) 40200 83181
SymptomsofDistress
Stress 11.38(8.47) 042 040Anxiety 6.44(6.67) 042 035
Depression 7.92(9.02) 042 039
Table6
ComparisonofDescriptiveStatisticsforStress,AnxietyandDepressionLevelswithPast
Studies(UniversityandGeneralPopulation)
Study Sample PsychologicalDistress
StressMean(SD)
AnxietyMean(SD)
DepressionMean(SD)
CurrentStudy
University
11.38(8.47)
6.44(6.67)
7.92(9.02)Lovibond&Lovibond,(1995) University 10.54(6.94) 5.23(4.83) 7.19(6.54)Crawford&Henry,(2003) GeneralPopulation 9.27(8.04) 5.55(7.08) 3.56(5.39)Antonyetal.,(1998) GeneralPopulation 4.12(3.81) 1.43(1.86) 2.18(2.83)
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Table7
ComparisonofHarmAvoidance,RewardDependenceandSelf-DirectednessScores
AcrossPastStudies(GeneralPopulation)
StudySample Personality
HarmAvoidanceMean(SD)
RewardDependenceMean(SD)
Self-Directedness
Mean(SD)
CurrentStudy
GeneralPopulation
92.41(18.86)
106.67(14.72)
135.64(18.46)Hansenneetal.,(2005)
GeneralPopulation 94.00(18.2) 101.7(13.4) 140.1(17.4)
Jylh&Isomets,(2006)
GeneralPopulation 89.2(19.8) 102.3(14.9) 146.8(18.1)
Table8
ComparisonofCopingStyleScoreswithPastStudies(UniversityandGeneralPopulation)
StudySample CopingStyles
Problem-FocusedCopingMean(SD)
Emotion-FocusedCopingMean(SD)
AvoidantCopingMean(SD)
CurrentStudy
University
10.30(1.83)
10.47(1.75)
7.28(1.78)Carveretal.,(1989) University 11.23(2.55) 10.85(3.12) 7.28(2.3)Ingledewetal.,(1996) GeneralPopulation 10.74(2.6) 9.94(3.2) 7.57(2.5)
3.2ExaminationofDataParticipantswerecategorisedintofivecategoriesbasedonDASSscores(Normal,Mild,
Moderate,SevereandExtremelySevere)usingLovibondandLovibonds(1995)cut-off
scores(seeTable9).Thenormalcategorycorrespondstothe0-78thpercentile,themild
categorytothe78.1-87thpercentile,themoderatecategorytothe87.1-95thpercentile,the
severecategorytothe95.1-98thpercentileandtheextremelyseverepercentiletothe98.1
100thpercentile.Table9showsthat19.4-29.4%ofparticipantsstudiedwere
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experiencingsomedegreeofpsychologicaldistresswitharound3-4%experiencingsevere
toextremelyseveresymptomsofpsychologicaldistress(seeTable9).
Table9
PercentageofParticipantsClassifiedasMild,Moderate,SevereLevelsofStress,Anxiety
andDepressiveSymptoms(N=201)
PercentageineachDASScategory
Range Normal(0-781)
Mild(78-87)
Moderate(87-95)
Severe(95-98)
ExtremelySevere
(98-100)
Totalsample(N=Numberof
participantsineach
category)
Stress 0-42 80.6%(162) 8.5%(17) 6.9%(14) 3%(6) 1%(2)
Anxiety 0-42 79.6%(160) 8%(16) 9.4%(19) 2%(4) 1%(2)
Depression 0-42 70.6%(142) 11.5%(23) 14.4%(29) 1.5%(3) 2%(4)
1LovibondandLovibonds(1995)percentilecut-offscorrespondingtoeachDASScategory.
3.3RelationshipbetweenCopingandStress,Anxietyand
DepressionVariables
3.3.1CopingStyles(Problem-Focused,Emotion-Focused,Avoidant)andPsychological
Distress
Avoidantcopingwasfoundtobepositivelyassociatedwithdepressivesymptomsr=.44,
followedbyanxietyr=.40andstressr=.35confirminghypothesis1a(seeTable10).
BasedonCohens(1988)guidelines,thesizeofthecorrelati