199

1784Rhode Island passesplan to end slavery

May 1787Delegates meet to reviseArticles of Confederation

September 1787Delegates sign draftof Constitution

September 1786Daniel Shays leadsrebellion

Main IdeaThe new Constitution corrected theweaknesses of government under theArticles of Confederation.

Key Termsdepression, manumission, propor-tional, compromise

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow. In the boxes, describe the roleeach individual played in creating thenew plan of government.

Read to Learn• how the Constitutional Convention

broke the deadlock over the formthe new government would take.

• how the delegates answered thequestion of representation.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions Nationalleaders worked to produce a newconstitution for the United States.

Convention and Compromise

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

By 1786 many Americans observed that the Confederation was not working. GeorgeWashington himself agreed that the United States was really “thirteen Sovereigntiespulling against each other.”

In the spring of 1787, Washington joined delegates from Virginia and 11 other stateswho gathered in Philadelphia to address this problem. Rhode Island decided not to par-ticipate. The delegates came “for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articlesof Confederation.”

Economic DepressionThe call to revise the Articles of Confederation came while the young nation

faced difficult problems. Many Americans believed that the Confederation gov-ernment was too weak to deal with these challenges.

After the Revolutionary War ended, the United States went through adepression, a period when economic activity slowed and unemployment

George Washington

Role

Edmund Randolph

James Madison

Roger Sherman

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1783 ✦1785 ✦1787 ✦1789

increased. Southern plantations had been dam-aged during the war, and rice exports droppedsharply. Trade also fell off when the Britishclosed the profitable West Indies (Caribbean)market to American merchants. What littlemoney there was went to pay foreign debts, anda serious currency shortage resulted.

Difficult Times for FarmersAmerican farmers suffered because they

could not sell their goods. They had problemspaying the requests for money that the stateslevied to meet Revolutionary War debts. As aresult state officials seized farmers’ lands to paytheir debts and threw many farmers into jail.Grumblings of protest soon grew into revolt.

Shays’s RebellionResentment grew especially strong in Massa-

chusetts. Farmers viewed the new governmentas just another form of tyranny. They wanted thegovernment to issue paper money and makenew policies to relieve debtors. In a letter to stateofficials, some farmers proclaimed:

“Surely your honours are not strangers to thedistresses [problems] of the people but . . .know that many of our good inhabitants arenow confined in [jail] for debt and taxes.”

In 1786 angry farmers lashed out. Led by DanielShays, a former Continental Army captain, theyforced courts in western Massachusetts to closeso judges could not confiscate farmers’ lands.

In January 1787 Shays led more than 1,000farmers toward the federal arsenal in Spring-field, Massachusetts, for arms and ammuni-tion. The state militia ordered the advancingfarmers to halt, then fired over their heads. Thefarmers did not stop, and the militia firedagain, killing four rebels. Shays and his follow-ers scattered, and the uprising was over.

Shays’s Rebellion frightened many Ameri-cans. They worried that the government couldnot control unrest and prevent violence. Onhearing of the rebellion, George Washingtonwondered whether “mankind, when left tothemselves, are unfit for their own govern-ment.” Thomas Jefferson, minister to France atthe time, had a different view. “A little rebellion,now and then,” he wrote, “is a good thing.”

The Issue of SlaveryThe Revolutionary War brought attention to

the contradiction between the American battlefor liberty and the practice of slavery. Between1776 and 1786, 11 states—all except South Car-olina and Georgia—outlawed or heavily taxedthe importation of enslaved people.

Although slavery was not a major source oflabor in the North, it existed and was legal in allthe Northern states. Many individuals andgroups began to work to end the institution ofslavery. In 1774 Quakers in Pennsylvania organ-ized the first American antislavery society. Six

200 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Only through donations was Massachusettsable to raise a militia to defeat Shays. Whydid Shays’s Rebellion frighten manyAmericans?

History

years later Pennsylvania passed a law that pro-vided for the gradual freeing of enslaved people.

Between 1783 and 1804, Connecticut, RhodeIsland, New York, and New Jersey passed lawsthat gradually ended slavery. Still, free AfricanAmericans faced discrimination. They werebarred from many public places. Few states gavefree African Americans the right to vote. The chil-dren of most free blacks had to attend separateschools. Free African Americans established theirown institutions—churches, schools, andmutual-aid societies—to seek opportunity.

The states south of Pennsylvania clung to theinstitution of slavery. The plantation system ofthe South had been built on slavery, and manySoutherners feared that their economy couldnot survive without it. Nonetheless, an increas-ing number of slaveholders began freeing the enslaved people that they held after the war. Virginia passed a law that encouragedmanumission, the freeing of individualenslaved persons, and the state’s population offree African Americans grew.

The abolition of slavery in the North dividedthe new country on the critical issue of whetherpeople should be allowed to hold other humanbeings in bondage. This division came at the timewhen many American leaders had decided thatthe Articles of Confederation needed strengthen-ing. In the summer of 1787, when state represen-tatives assembled to plan a new government,they compromised on this issue. It would takeyears of debate, bloodshed, and ultimately a warto settle the slavery question.

Explaining Why didSouthern states support slavery?

A Call for ChangeThe American Revolution had

led to a union of 13 states, but it hadnot yet created a nation. Some lead-ers were satisfied with a system ofindependent state governmentsthat resembled the old colonialgovernments. Others saw a

strong national government as the solution toAmerica’s problems. They demanded a reformof the Articles of Confederation.

Two Americans active in the movement forchange were James Madison, a Virginia planter,and Alexander Hamilton, a New York lawyer. InSeptember 1786, Hamilton proposed calling aconvention in Philadelphia to discuss trade issues.He also suggested that this convention considerwhat possible changes were needed to make

“the Constitution of the Federal Governmentadequate to the exigencies [needs] of theUnion.”

At first George Washington was not enthusi-astic about the movement to revise the Articlesof Confederation. When he heard the news ofShays’s Rebellion, Washington changed hismind. After Washington agreed to attend thePhiladelphia convention, the meeting took ongreater significance.

Evaluating Why did Madison andHamilton call for a convention in 1787?

201

Philadelphia preachers RichardAllen (left) and Absalom Jones(right) founded the Free AfricanSociety and later set up the first African American churches.What challenges did freeAfrican Americans face?

History

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The Constitutional ConventionThe Philadelphia meeting began in May 1787

and continued through one of the hottest sum-mers on record. The 55 delegates includedplanters, merchants, lawyers, physicians, gener-als, governors, and a college president. Three ofthe delegates were under 30 years of age, andone, Benjamin Franklin, was over 80. Many werewell educated. At a time when only one whiteman in 1,000 went to college, 26 of the delegateshad college degrees. Native Americans, AfricanAmericans, and women were not consideredpart of the political process, so none attended.

Several men stood out as leaders. The pres-ence of George Washington and BenjaminFranklin ensured that many people would trustthe Convention’s work. Two Philadelphians alsoplayed key roles. James Wilson often readFranklin’s speeches and did important work onthe details of the Constitution. GouverneurMorris, a powerful speaker and writer, wrotethe final draft of the Constitution.

From Virginia came Edmund Randolph andJames Madison. Both were keen supporters of astrong national government. Madison’s carefulnotes are the major source of information aboutthe Convention’s work. Madison is often called

the Father of the Constitution because he wasthe author of the basic plan of government thatthe Convention adopted.

OrganizationThe Convention began by unanimously

choosing George Washington to preside over themeetings. It also decided that each state wouldhave one vote on all questions. A simple major-ity vote of those states present would make deci-sions. No meetings could be held unlessdelegates from at least seven of the 13 stateswere present. The delegates decided to closetheir doors to the public and keep the sessionssecret. This was a key decision because it madeit possible for the delegates to talk freely.

The Virginia PlanAfter the rules were adopted, the Convention

opened with a surprise. It came from the Vir-ginia delegation. Edmund Randolph proposed

America’s Architecture

Independence Hall The Pennsylvania State House,later known as Independence Hall, was the site of thesigning of the Declaration of Independence and of theConstitutional Convention. Independence Hall wasrestored in 1950 and is now maintained as a museum.Why do you think this site was used for many important events?

203CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

that the delegates create a strong national government instead of revising the Articles of Confederation. He introduced the VirginiaPlan, which was largely the work of JamesMadison. The plan called for a two-house legislature, a chief executive chosen by the leg-islature, and a court system. The members ofthe lower house of the legislature would beelected by the people. The members of theupper house would be chosen by the lowerhouse. In both houses the number of represen-tatives would be proportional, or correspon-ding in size, to the population of each state.This would give Virginia many more delegates than Delaware, the state with thesmallest population.

Delegates from Delaware, New Jersey, andother small states immediately objected to theplan. They preferred the Confederation systemin which all states were represented equally.

Delegates unhappy with the Virginia Plan ral-lied around William Paterson of New Jersey. OnJune 15 he presented an alternative plan thatrevised the Articles of Confederation, which wasall the convention was empowered to do.

The New Jersey PlanThe New Jersey Plan kept the Confederation’s

one-house legislature, with one vote for eachstate. Congress, however, could set taxes andregulate trade—powers it did not have under theArticles. Congress would elect a weak executivebranch consisting of more than one person.

Paterson argued that the Convention shouldnot deprive the smaller states of the equalitythey had under the Articles. Thus, his plan wasdesigned simply to amend the Articles.

Explaining Why did some dele-gates criticize the Virginia Plan?

Compromise Wins OutThe convention delegates had to decide

whether they were simply revising the Articlesof Confederation or writing a constitution for anew national government. On June 19 the statesvoted to work toward a national governmentbased on the Virginia Plan, but they still had toresolve the thorny issue of representation thatdivided the large and small states.

James Madison, only36 at the time of the Con-stitutional Convention,was the best prepared ofthe delegates. In themonths before the con-vention, he had made adetailed study of govern-ment. He read hundredsof books on history, poli-tics, and economics. Healso corresponded withThomas Jefferson.

Madison looked forways to build a strong butfair system of government.He knew that republicswere considered weakerthan monarchies becausekings or queens could use their authority to actquickly and decisively.Who would provide thesame leadership in arepublic? At the sametime, Madison was con-

cerned about protectingthe people from misuse ofpower. As he searched forsolutions, Madisonworked out a new planthat included a system ofbalances among differentfunctions of government.The delegates adoptedmany of Madison’s ideasin what would becomethe United States Consti-tution.

Discussion and DisagreementAs the convention delegates struggled to deal

with difficult questions, tempers and tempera-tures grew hotter. How were the members ofCongress to be elected? How would state repre-sentation be determined in the upper and lowerhouses? Were enslaved people to be counted aspart of the population on which representationwas based?

CitizenshipThe Great Compromise

Under Franklin’s leadership, the conventionappointed a “grand committee” to try to resolvetheir disagreements. Roger Sherman of Con-necticut suggested what came to be known asthe Great Compromise. A compromise is anagreement between two or more sides in whicheach side gives up some of what it wants.

Sherman proposed a two-house legislature. Inthe lower house—the House of Representa-tives—the number of seats for each state wouldvary according to the state’s population. In theupper house—the Senate—each state wouldhave two members.

The Three-Fifths CompromiseAnother major compromise by the delegates

dealt with counting enslaved people. Southernstates wanted to include the enslaved in theirpopulation counts to gain delegates in theHouse of Representatives. Northern statesobjected to this idea because enslaved peoplewere legally considered property. Some dele-gates from Northern states argued that theenslaved, as property, should be counted forthe purpose of taxation but not representation.However, neither side considered givingenslaved people the right to vote.

The committee’s solution, known as theThree-Fifths Compromise, was to count eachenslaved person as three-fifths of a free personfor both taxation and representation. In otherwords, every five enslaved persons would equalthree free persons. On July 12 the conventiondelegates voted to approve the Three-FifthsCompromise. Four days later, they agreed thateach state should elect two senators.

204 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union7 A More Perfect Union

Delegates to the Constitutional Conventionmet in this room at Independence Hall. Howmany states had to ratify the Constitu-tion before it went into effect?

History

Slave TradeThe convention needed to resolve another dif-

ficult issue that divided the Northern and South-ern states. Having banned the slave trade withintheir borders, Northern states wanted to prohibitit throughout the nation. Southern states consid-ered slavery and the slave trade essential to theireconomies. To keep the Southern states in thenation, Northerners agreed that the Congresscould not interfere with the slave trade until1808. Beginning that year Congress could limitthe slave trade if it chose to.

Bill of RightsGeorge Mason of Virginia proposed a bill of

rights to be included in the Constitution. Somedelegates worried that without the protection of abill of rights the new national government mightabuse its power. However, most of the delegatesbelieved that the Constitution, with its carefullydefined listing of government powers, providedadequate protection of individual rights. Mason’sproposal was defeated.

Approving the ConstitutionThe committees finished their work on the

Constitution in late summer. On September 17,1787, the delegates assembled in the Philadelphia

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms that follow

to write a newspaper article about themain events of the ConstitutionalConvention: depression, manumis-sion, proportional, compromise.

2. Reviewing Facts Explain whatcaused Shays’s Rebellion. What wasone effect?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions How did

the Great Compromise satisfy boththe small and the large states on thequestion of representation?

Critical Thinking4. Summarizing Information You are

asked to write a 30-second newsbroadcast to announce the agree-ment made in the Great Compro-mise. What would you include in the broadcast?

5. Analyzing Information Re-createthe diagram below and identify argu-ments for and against ratifying theConstitution.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Examine the

images that appear on pages 202and 204. What do they show? Whereare they located? Why are theseplaces important in the nation’s history?

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union 205

Government Create a politicalcartoon that illustrates the view ofeither the Northern states or theSouthern states on how enslavedpeople should be counted for representation.

State House to sign thedocument. Franklincalled for approval:

“ I consent to thisConstitution because I expect no better, andbecause I am not sure,that it is not the best.”

Three delegates refused to sign—Elbridge Gerryof Massachusetts, and Edmund Randolph andGeorge Mason of Virginia. Gerry and Masonwould not sign without a bill of rights. Randolphcalled for a second constitutional convention.

The Confederation Congress then sent theapproved draft of the Constitution to the statesfor consideration. To amend the Articles of Con-federation had required unanimous approval ofthe states. Getting a unanimous vote had provedslow and frustrating. Therefore, the delegatesagreed to change the approval process for theConstitution. When 9 of the 13 states hadapproved, the new government of the UnitedStates would come into existence. ; (See pages

232–253 for the entire text of the Constitution.)

Analyzing Who refused to sign theConstitution? Explain why.

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit and click on Chapter 7—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on the Con-stitutional Convention.

tarvol1.glencoe.com

Ratification

Arguments for Arguments against

Study CentralTMTo review this section, go to

and click on Study CentralTM.tarvol1.glencoe.com

207

1689English Bill of Rightsestablished

1690Locke publishes Two Treatises of Civil Government

1748Montesquieu writes The Spirit of Laws

1787Constitutional Conventionmeets in Philadelphia

Main IdeaThe United States system of govern-ment rests on the Constitution.

Key TermsEnlightenment, federalism, article,legislative branch, executive branch,Electoral College, judicial branch,checks and balances, ratify, Federal-ist, Antifederalist, amendment

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information Re-createthe diagram below. In the boxesexplain how the system of checks andbalances works.

Read to Learn• about the roots of the Constitution.• how the Constitution limits the

power of government.

Section ThemeCivic Rights and ResponsibilitiesThe Constitution outlines the respon-sibilities and the limits of the threebranches of the national government.

A New Plan of Government

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

As Benjamin Franklin was leaving the last session of the Constitutional Convention,a woman asked, “What kind of government have you given us, Dr. Franklin? A republicor a monarchy?” Franklin answered, “A republic, Madam, if you can keep it.” Franklin’sresponse indicated that a republic—a system of government in which the people electrepresentatives to exercise power for them—requires citizens to take an active role.

Roots of the ConstitutionAfter four long and difficult months, Franklin and the other delegates had

produced a new constitution. The document provided the framework for astrong central government for the United States.

Although a uniquely American document, the Constitution has roots in manyother civilizations. The delegates had studied and discussed the history of polit-ical development at length—starting with ancient Greece—so that their newgovernment could avoid the mistakes of the past.

Washington’s chair, Constitutional Convention

Has check or Examplebalance over:

President

CongressSupremeCourt

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦1680 ✦1720 ✦1760 ✦1800

Many ideas embedded in the Constitutioncame from the study of European political institu-tions and political writers. British ideas and insti-tutions particularly influenced the delegates.

The Framers who shaped the document werefamiliar with the parliamentary system ofBritain, and many had participated in the colo-nial assemblies or their state assemblies. Theyvalued the individual rights guaranteed by theBritish judicial system. Although the Americanshad broken away from Britain, they respectedmany British traditions.

British System of GovernmentThe Magna Carta (1215) had placed limits on

the power of the monarch. England’s lawmakingbody, Parliament, emerged as a force that theking had to depend on to pay for wars and tofinance the royal government. Like Parliament,the colonial assemblies controlled their colony’sfunds. For that reason the assemblies had somecontrol over colonial governors.

The English Bill of Rights of 1689 providedanother important model for Americans. ManyAmericans felt that the Constitution also neededa bill of rights.

Framers of the Constitution got many ideason the nature of people and government fromEuropean writers of the Enlightenment. TheEnlightenment was a movement of the 1700sthat promoted knowledge, reason, and scienceas the means to improve society. James Madisonand other architects of the Constitution werefamiliar with the work of John Locke and Baronde Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs•KYOO), twoimportant philosophers.

Locke, an English philosopher, believed that allpeople have natural rights. These natural rightsinclude the rights to life, liberty, and property. Inhis Two Treatises of Civil Government (1690), hewrote that government is based on an agreement,or contract, between the people and the ruler.Many Americans interpreted natural rights tomean the rights of Englishmen defined in theMagna Carta and the English Bill of Rights. TheFramers viewed the Constitution as a contractbetween the American people and their govern-ment. The contract protected the people’s naturalrights by limiting the government’s power.

In The Spirit of Laws (1748), the French writerMontesquieu declared that the powers of gov-ernment should be separated and balancedagainst each other. This separation would keepany one person or group from gaining too muchpower. The powers of government should alsobe clearly defined and limited to prevent abuse.Following the ideas of Montesquieu, theFramers of the Constitution carefully specifiedand divided the powers of government.

Describing How did the English Billof Rights influence Americans?

The Federal SystemThe Constitution created a federal system of

government that divided powers between thenational, or federal, government and the states.Under the Articles of Confederation the statesretained their sovereignty. Under the Constitu-tion the states gave up some of their powers tothe federal government while keeping others.

Shared PowersFederalism, or sharing power between the fed-

eral and state governments, is one of the distinc-tive features of the United States government.

208 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

“[E]very manhas a propertyin his own per-son. This nobodyhas any right tobut himself.”

—John Locke, The SecondTreatise of Government

(1690)

Under the Constitution, the federal governmentgained broad powers to tax, regulate trade, con-trol the currency, raise an army, and declare war.It could also pass laws that were “necessary andproper” for carrying out its responsibilities.

However, the Constitution left importantpowers in the hands of the states. The states hadthe power to pass and enforce laws and regulatetrade within their borders. They could alsoestablish local governments, schools, and otherinstitutions affecting the welfare of their citi-zens. Both federal and state governments alsohad the power to tax and to build roads.

The Constitution BecomesSupreme Law of the Land

The Constitution and the laws that Congresspassed were to be “the supreme law of theland.” No state could make laws or take actionsthat went against the Constitution. Any disputebetween the federal government and the stateswas to be settled by the federal courts on thebasis of the Constitution. Under the new federalsystem, the Constitution became the final andsupreme authority.

Describing What is the principle offederalism?

The Organization of Government

Influenced by Montesquieu’s idea of a divi-sion of powers, the Framers divided the federalgovernment into three branches—legislative,executive, and judicial. The first three articles,or parts, of the Constitution describe the powersand responsibilities of each branch.

The Legislative BranchArticle I of the Constitution establishes Con-

gress, the legislative branch, or lawmakingbranch, of the government. Congress is com-posed of the House of Representatives and theSenate. As a result of the Great Compromisebetween large and small states, each state’s rep-resentation in the House is proportional to itspopulation. Representation in the Senate isequal—two senators for each state.

The powers of Congress include collectingtaxes, coining money, and regulating trade. Congress can also declare war and “raise andsupport armies.” Finally it makes all lawsneeded to fulfill the functions given to it as statedin the Constitution.

The Executive BranchMemories of King George III’s rule made

some delegates reluctant to establish a powerfulexecutive, or ruler. Others believed that the

America’s Architecture

The Old Senate Chamber The U.S. Senate met in the OldSenate Chamber from 1810 until 1859. The two-story chamber issemicircular in shape and measures 75 feet long and 50 feet wide.Two visitors galleries overlook the chamber. After the Senatemoved to its present location, the room was occupied by theSupreme Court, from 1860 to 1935. What branches of govern-ment conducted business in the chamber?

Confederation had failed, in part, because itlacked an executive branch or president. Theyargued that a strong executive would serve as acheck, or limit, on Congress.

Article II of the Constitution established theexecutive branch, headed by the president, tocarry out the nation’s laws and policies. Thepresident serves as commander in chief of thearmed forces and conducts relations with for-eign countries.

The president and a vice president areelected by a special group called the ElectoralCollege, made up of presidential electors. Eachstate’s voters select electors to cast their votesfor the president and vice president. Each statehas as many electors as it has senators and rep-resentatives in Congress. The president andvice president chosen by the electors serve afour-year term.

The Judicial BranchArticle III of the Constitution deals with the

judicial branch, or court system, of the UnitedStates. The nation’s judicial power resides in“one supreme Court” and any other lower fed-eral courts that Congress might establish. The

Supreme Court and the federal courts hear casesinvolving the Constitution, laws passed by Con-gress, and disputes between states.

System of Checks and BalancesThe most distinctive feature of the United

States government is the separation of powers.The Constitution divides government poweramong the legislative, executive, and judicialbranches. To keep any one branch from gainingtoo much power, the Framers built in a systemof checks and balances. The three branches ofgovernment have roles that check, or limit, theothers so that no single branch can dominate thegovernment.

Both the House and the Senate must pass a billfor it to become law. The president can checkCongress by vetoing, or rejecting, the bill. How-ever, Congress can then check the president byoverriding, or voting down, the veto. To overridea veto, two-thirds of the members of both housesof Congress must vote for the bill.

The system of checks and balances alsoapplies to the Supreme Court. The presidentappoints Supreme Court justices, and the Senatemust approve the appointments.

210 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

The Supreme Court has the final sayin deciding what the Constitutionmeans. What types of cases doesthe Supreme Court hear?

History

Great Seal of the United States

The Great Seal and the number thirteen

The Great Seal of the United States is the official seal of the United States government. The seal appears on important government documents. First adopted in 1782, it remains in use today. The face of the seal shows an American eagle with its wings spread. The seal also includes the motto E pluribus unum (“From many, one”). Most Americans don’t know it, but they often carry

around the seal. The one-dollar bill has both sides of the

Great Seal on its back.

The United States has had several versions of the Great Seal.

13 letters in the motto above the eye, Annuit Coeptis

13 letters in E Pluribus Unum

13 olives and leaves in the eagle’s right claw

13 arrows in the eagle’s left claw

13 stripes on the eagle’s shield

13 stars in the crest above the eagle

On the Great Seal are

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Over time, the Court became a check on Con-gress and the president by ruling on the consti-tutionality of laws and presidential acts. Thesystem has been successful in maintaining a bal-ance of power among the branches of the federalgovernment and limiting abuses of power.

National CitizensThe Constitution created citizens of the

United States. It set up a government in whichthe people choose their officials—directly orindirectly. Officials answer to the people ratherthan to the states. The new government pledgedto protect the personal freedoms of its citizens.

With these revolutionary changes, Americansshowed the world that it was possible for a peo-ple to change its form of government throughdiscussion and choice—rather than throughchaos, force, or war. The rest of the worldwatched the new nation with interest to seewhether its experiment in self-governmentwould really work.

Explaining Why does the Constitu-tion divide government power among the legislative, execu-tive, and judicial branches?

Citizenship

The Constitutional DebateThe delegates at Philadelphia had produced

the Constitution, but its acceptance dependedupon the will of the people. Gaining approval ofthe Constitution, with its radical new plan ofgovernment, was not going to be easy. Support-ers and opponents prepared to defend theirpositions.

Before the Constitution could go into effect,nine states needed to ratify, or approve, it. Statelegislatures set up special ratifying conventionsto consider the document. By late 1787 theseconventions started to meet. Rhode Island stoodapart. Its leaders opposed the Constitution fromthe beginning and therefore did not call a con-vention to approve it.

A great debate now took place throughout thecountry. In newspapers, at public meetings, and inordinary conversations, Americans discussed thearguments for and against the new Constitution.

211

FederalistsSupporters of the new Constitution were

called Federalists. Better organized than theiropponents, Federalists enjoyed the support oftwo of the most respected men in America—George Washington and Benjamin Franklin.

had some dedicated supporters. They respondedto the Federalists with a series of their ownessays, now known as the Antifederalist Papers.Their main argument was that the new Constitu-tion would take away the liberties Americanshad fought to win from Great Britain. The Con-stitution would create a strong central govern-ment, ignore the will of the states and the people,and favor the wealthy few over the commonpeople. Antifederalists preferred local govern-ment close to the people. An energetic centralgovernment, they feared, would be governmentby a small, educated group of individuals. Theyagreed with Patrick Henry, who warned that theConstitution was “incompatible with the geniusof republicanism.”

Protecting RightsPerhaps the strongest criticism of the Consti-

tution was that it lacked a bill of rights to protectindividual freedoms. Antifederalists believedthat no government could be trusted to protectthe freedom of its citizens. Several state conven-tions took a stand and announced that theywould not ratify the Constitution without theaddition of a bill of rights.

Mercy Otis Warren, a Massachusetts oppo-nent of the Constitution, expressed the problemfaced by many Antifederalists. She admitted theneed for a strong government but feared it.

“We have struggled for liberty and made costlysacrifices . . . and there are still many among uswho [value liberty] too much to relinquish . . . therights of man for the dignity of government.”

In many ways the debate between Federal-ists and Antifederalists came down to their dif-ferent fears. Federalists feared disorderwithout a strong central government. Theybelieved that more uprisings like Shays’sRebellion would occur. They looked to theConstitution to create a national governmentcapable of maintaining order. The Antifederal-ists feared oppression more than disorder. Theyworried about the concentration of power thatwould result from a strong national government.

Explaining According to theAntifederalists, why was a bill of rights important?

212 CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union

Three of the nation’s most gifted politicalthinkers—James Madison, Alexander Hamilton,and John Jay—also backed the Constitution.

Madison, Hamilton, and Jay teamed up towrite a series of essays explaining and defendingthe Constitution. These essays appeared innewspapers around the country and werewidely read by Americans of every persuasion.Called The Federalist Papers, they were later pub-lished as a book and sent to delegates at theremaining ratifying conventions. ; (See pages

614–615 of the Appendix for excerpts from The Federalist Papers .)

Jefferson described the series of essays as

“the best commentary on the principles ofgovernment which was ever written.”

AntifederalistsThe Federalists called those who opposed rat-

ification Antifederalists. Although not as wellorganized as the Federalists, the Antifederalists

Antifederalist Mercy Otis Warren feared that theConstitution would make the central governmenttoo powerful. What was the biggest criticismof the Constitution by Antifederalists?

History

That left three states—New York, North Car-olina, and Rhode Island—to ratify. In July 1788,New York finally ratified it by a narrow margin.North Carolina ratified in November 1789, andRhode Island ratified in May 1790.

After ratification came the celebrations.Boston, New York, and Philadelphia held bigparades accompanied by cannon salutes andringing church bells. Smaller celebrations tookplace in hundreds of American towns.

The task of creating the Constitution hadended. The Bill of Rights would be added in1791, after the new government took office.Now it was time for the nation to elect leadersand begin the work of government.

Explaining Why was the support ofNew York and Virginia vital to ratifying the Constitution?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: Enlightenment, federalism,article, Electoral College, checksand balances, ratify, Federalist,Antifederalist, amendment.

2. Reviewing Facts What influence did John Locke have on Americangovernment?

Reviewing Themes3. Civic Rights and Responsibilities

Why did the Framers of the Constitu-tion believe that a division of powersand a system of checks and balanceswere necessary in a government?

Critical Thinking4. Finding the Main Idea What do you

think was the most important reasonfor establishing a strong central gov-ernment under the Constitution?

5. Comparing Re-create the diagrambelow. Describe the differencesbetween Hamilton’s and Henry’sviews on the Constitution.

Analyzing Visuals6. Political Cartoons Study the politi-

cal cartoon on this page. Thenanswer the questions that follow.What do the pillars represent? Howdo the last two pillars appear?

CHAPTER 7 A More Perfect Union 213

Citizenship Refer to the Bill ofRights on pages 244–245. Collectphotographs from newspapers ormagazines that illustrate the free-doms guaranteed in the Bill ofRights. Put your photos on a posterentitled “Pictures of Liberty.”

A cartoon published in 1788 celebrates New Hamp-shire becoming the ninth state to ratify the Constitu-tion. From the cartoon, which was the firststate to ratify?

Analyzing Political Cartoons

Views on the Constitution

Hamilton Henry

Adopting the ConstitutionOn December 7, 1787, Delaware became the

first state to approve the Constitution. On June21, 1788, the ninth state—New Hampshire—ratified it. In theory that meant that the new gov-ernment could go into effect. However, withoutthe support of the two largest states—New Yorkand Virginia—the future of the new governmentwas not promising. Neither state had ratified yet,and both had strong Antifederalist groups.

In Virginia, Patrick Henry gave fiery speechesagainst the proposed Constitution. It did not, he charged, sufficiently limit the power of thefederal government. Still, Virginia ratified theConstitution at the end of June 1788, after beingassured that the Constitution would include abill of rights amendment. An amendment issomething added to a document.

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