CONTRASTIVE ENGLISH AND TURKISH GRAMMAR, YUKSEL GOKNEL

ENGLISH TURKISH GRAMMAR

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TURKISH GRAMMAR

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FOREWORD

The Turkish Grammar book that you have just started reading is quite different from

the grammar books that you read in schools. This kind of Grammar is known as traditional

grammar. The main difference of a traditional grammar and that of a trans-formational one

is that the first one describes a natural language as a static object, but the second one

describes both the parts of the language engine and how it runs. Learning a traditional

grammar is like learning about a motionless car. There is some-thing lacking in this

description. It is the dynamics of the parts of a car that runs a hundred and twenty

kilometers an hour.

Traditional grammars describe only the physical appearance of a language; they do

not mind what goes on behind the curtain. The mind of a human being works like the

engine of a sports car. It arranges and chooses words matching one another, transforms

simple sentence units to use in different parts of sentences, and recollects morphemes

and phonemes to be produced by the human speech organs. All these activities are

simultaneously carried out by the human mind.

Another point that the traditional grammarians generally miss is that they write the

grammar of a certain language to teach it to those who have been learning it from the time

when they were born up to the time when they discover something called grammar. This

is like teaching a language to professional speakers.

Then, what is the use of a grammar? I believe most people were acquainted with it

when they started learning a foreign language. Therefore, a grammar written for those

who are trying to learn a second language is very useful both in teaching and learning a

second language.

I started teaching English as a second language in 1952, a long time ago. Years

passed and one day I found myself as a postgraduate Fulbright student at the University

of Texas at Austin in 1960. Although I studied there for only a short period, I learnt enough

from Prof. Archibald A. Hill and Dr. De Camp to stimulate me to learn more about

Linguistics.

After I came back to Turkey, it was difficult to find books on linguistics in booksellers in

Istanbul. Thanks to the American Library in Istanbul, I was able to borrow the books that

attracted my attention.

In those books, I discovered Noam Chomsky, whose name I had not heard during my stay

in the U.S.A.

I must confess that I am indebted to the scholars and the library above in writing this

Turkish Grammar.

I am also grateful to my son Dr. zgr Gknel who encouraged me to write this book

and to Vivatinell U.K., which sponsored to publish it.

YKSEL GKNEL


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TO MY WIFE AYE GKNEL WITH LOVE

Yksel Gknel


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COMPLETALY REVISED COLORED ADITION

2015

YKSEL GKNEL

Vivatinell Bilim-Kltr Yaynlar

2015

Grafik Tasarm Uygulamalar

Vivatinell Press

letiim:

Vivatinell Cosmopharmaceutics

Fetih Mah. Tunca Sk. No:2 34704

Ataehir / stanbul / TRKYE

Tel: +90 216 470 09 44

Faks: +90 216 470 09 48


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CONTENTS

Foreword 2

Contents 7

Infntves and Gerunds 13

Logical, Morphemic, and Oral Sequencing 15

Turkish Grammar 18

Turkish Vowel and Consonant Harmony 19

Vowel Harmony Sequence 19

Consonant HarmonySequence 21

Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 24

Derivational Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 25

Morphemes Attached to Nouns that Produce Nouns 25

Morphemes Attached to Nouns that Produce Adjectives 26

Morphemes Attached to Adjectives that Produce Nouns 29

Morphemes Attached to Verbs that Produce Nouns 30

Morphemes Attached to Verbs that Produce Adjectives 34

Morphemes Attached to Nouns that Produce Verbs 35

Morphemes Attached to Adjectives that Produce Verbs 36

Inflectional Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 36

Nominal Phrases 39

Adverbs and Adverbials 42

Transformational Activity of the Logic 43

Form and Function in Languages 46

Using Adjectives as Adverbs 48

Inflectional Morphemes 50

Defining [] Morpheme and Its Allomorphs [i, , , u] 50

The [LE], [LE.YIN] and [E], [DE], [DEN] Inflectional Morphemes 55

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la] 55

[LE.YIN]: 56

[E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] Morphemes 56

[E] allomorphs: [e, a] 58

[DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta] 64

[DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan] 66

Possessive + Owned Noun Compounds (sim Tamlamalar) 68

Definite Noun Compounds (Belirtili sim Tamlamalar) 68

Indefinite Noun Compounds (Belirtisiz sim Tamlamalar) 75

Noun Compounds Without Suffixes (Taksz Tamlamalar) 76

Noun + Infinitive Compounds (sim Mastar Tamlamalar) 77

Prepositions and Postpositions (Edatlar ve lgeler) 79


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Primary, Secondary, and Weak Stresses, and Intonation 80

[E], [DE], [DEN] Morphemes + Postpositions 89

Inflectional Morphemes Attached to Verbs 96

Linking Verbs 97

Linking Verbs Past 102

Present Modals with Verb be 109

must be 109

cant be 110

may be 111

may not be 112

The Interrogative Sentences Whose answers are "Yes" or "No" 113

must be, have to be, should be, ought to be, neednt be 115

have to be (zorundaym) 116

neednt be (gerek yok) 117

The Simple Past Verb be 117

Interrogative Words 121

[M] (Rumor, Inference) (sylenti, anlam karma) 125

The Future Form of be (will be) 127

there is, there are; have, (have got) 128

there used to be, there used to have 129

there must (may) be, there cant be, there is going to be 130

Imperatives and Wishes 130

Wish 132

The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) 134

The Verbs Ending with Vowels or Consonants 138

Turkish Verbs that are Formed by Objects Followed by Verbs 139

The Negative Form of The Simple Present Tense 141

The Simple Present Positive Question 143

The Simple Present Negative Question 144

The Question Words Used in the Simple Present Tense 146

The Present Continuous and the Present Perfect Continuous 148

The Verbs That Are Not Used In The Simple Present In Turkish 153

Turkish Verb Frames (Trkede Fiil atlar) 155

Transitive and Intransitive Verb Frames 155

Reflexive Verb Frames 156

The Passive Transformation of the Intransitive Verb Frames 157

Reciprocal Verb Frames (te Fiil atlar) 159

Both Transitively and Intransitively Used English Verbs 161

The Simple Past and the Present Perfect 167


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Mili Past Tense (Rumor and Inference) (Mili Gemi) 175

The Simple Future and be going to 179

The Past Continuous Tense 182

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense 186

Was (were) going to 187

used to 188

The Rumor Forms of The Simple and The Continuous Tenses 189

The Past Perfect Tense 191

The Future Continuous Tense 192

The Future Perfect Tense 193

Infinitives (Mastarar) 194

The [mek, mak] Infinitives 194

The [me, ma] Infinitives 194

The [i, , , u] Infinitives 194

The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] Infinitives 194

Where and How the Infinitives Are Used 196

1.(a) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used as Subject 196

1.(b) The [mak, mak] Infinitives Used before Postpositions 196

1.(c) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used as Objects of iste 198

1.(d) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used Attached to [DEN] Morph. 198

2.(a) The [me, ma] Infinitives Used Attached to Noun Compounds 200

2.(b) noun+infinitive-[], and V-[me-/y/i], V-[ma]-/y/] 201

2.(c) noun+infinitive-[e, a] 205

2.(d) noun+infinitive Compounds Followed by [den, dan] 206

3.(a) noun+infinitive-[], [E], [DE], [DEN] 207

4.(a) possessive noun+ V-[dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] 207

The Passive Infinitive 209

Modals 210

Present Modals 210

can, may [ebil, abil] 210

must [meli, mal] 214

have to (zorunda) 217

neednt (dont have to) 217

should (ought to) 218

Past Modals 221

Could 221

was (were) able to 222

would, could (polite request) 223

Perfect Modals 224


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must have 224

cant (couldnt) have 226

should have (ought to have) 227

may have 228

might have 229

neednt have 229

didnt need to 230

Transformations (English) 231

Nominalization of the Simple English Sentences 232

Transformation of the Simple Sentences into Modifiers 237

The Productivity of the Natural Languages 239

TheTransformed Simple Sentences Used as Adverbial Clauses 240

Turkish Sentence Nominalizations 243

Turkish Simple Sentence Nominalization 246

Transformed Nominal Phrases 246

The infinitives with [me, ma]: 248

The infinitives with [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]: 248

Simple Sentence Nominalization 1: V - [DK] - [pers] - ([]) 249

The Simple Future Tense: V-[ecek, acak]-[pers]-[] 250

The Past Perfect: V-[mi, m, m, mu] + ol-[duk]-[pers]-[] 251

The Future Perfect V-[mi, m, m, mu] + ol-[duk]]-[pers]-[] 251

Simple Sentences with the Verb root ol (be) 251

Chain Noun Compounds 252

2. V- [DK]- [pers]-([]) 255

V-[M] + ol-[duk]-[pers]-([]) 258

Nominalized Phrases Containing question words 258

Turkish Modifier + Noun Compounds 261

Simple Sentences and Transformed Nominal Phrases 266

The Passive Transformation and the Passive Verb Frames 268

The Verb Frames 271

The Structural Composition of the Causative Verb Frames 272

A Short List of Verb Frames 273

Causative Verb Frames Examples 278

The Passive Causative 279

Some Example Sentences of the Verb Frames 280

Adverbial Clauses (Postpositional Adverbial Phrases) 327

Time 327

before 327

after 332


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when and while 333

while 337

as soon as 339

until 341

by and by the time 343

since 344

Cause or Reason 346

Contrast (Ramen) 348

Purpose 351

Place 354

Manner 355

as 355

as if (as though) 357

Result 359

so that such that 359

o kadar + adjective + noun-time + ki 360

too + adjective + to + V + iin and adjective + enough + to + Verb 361

Degree 362

Comparative Degree 362

Superlative Degree 364

Positive or Negative Equality 365

Parallel Proportion (Kout Uyum) 367

Wish 368

wish + would 368

wish + past subjunctive 369

wish + past perfect or perfect modal 370

Conditional Sentences 371

Present Real Supposition 371

Present Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition 374

Past Real Supposition 375

Past Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition 376

Orders and Requests 378

Plain Orders and Requests 378

Polite Requests 379

Polite Refusals 380

Offers 381

{ verb- [P] } 382

Question Tags ( deil mi?) 382

So do I (Neither do I) 384


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Conjunctions and Transitional Phrases 385

Intensifiers 392

Roots, Stems and Verb Frames 396

Morphemic and Oral Sequences 397

Symbols and Abbreviations 400

References 401

Note: The aim of this colored revised version of this book is not to make the pages look colorful, but to show the functional parts of the words in different colors. They are as follows: 1. Subject pronouns and personal allomorphs are blue. 2. Verb roots, verb stems and verb frames, and the deriva-tional allomorphs that change noun roots or stems, and adjec-tive roots into verbs are red. 3. Objects, nouns, coordinating conjunctions and the last suffixes that turn words into nouns are black. 4. Adverbs, adverbials, adverbial phrases, prepositions or postpositions, subordinating conjunctions, adverb claus-es, and the inflectional allomorphs that change nouns into ad-verbs are green. 5. Subject and object complements are brown. 6. Adjectives and noun modifiers, and the purple allo-morphs attached to nouns and verbs that change them into adjectives, and the a, an, the ariticles are purple. In short, when you see a black allomorph attached to the end of a Turkish or an English word, that word together with the black allomorph is a noun. When you see a green allomorph attached to a word, this word together with the green allo-morph is an adverb, and when you see a purple allomorph attached to a word, this word together with the purple allo-morph is an adjective or a noun modifier. In Turkish, the last allomorphs attached to the last parts of the words are the allomorphs that identify whether a word is a verb, an adjectve, an adverb, a preposition, or a noun.


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INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS

Before we begin with the English and Turkish grammars, it may be useful to

start with the Turkish infinitives, and English infinitives or gerunds.

In Turkish, there are only infinitives that are formed of a verb and various

noun-making allomorphs attached to the verb, such as:

verb-[mek, mak]

verb-[me, ma]

verb-[i, , , u]

verb-[dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]

The allomorphs written black are the noun making allomorphs that turn

verbs into infinitives when they are attached to them. Infinitives generally

function as nouns in Turkish sentences.

In English, there are both infinitives and gerunds that may function as

nouns in sentences:

To verb is an infinitive, and verb-ing is a gerund.

The ing noun-making suffix may turn the verb into a nominal gerund,

but the same ing may also change the verb into an adjective verb-ing.

Nominal gerunds may be used as subjects, objects, objects of preposi-

tions or as subject complements in sentences. English gerunds and their

Turkish infinitive equivalents are underlined as follows:

Read-ing helps us improve our knowledge. (Nominal gerund subject)

Oku-mak bilgi-im-iz-i gelitir-me-/y/e yardm et-er. (Subject)

Jack enjoys listen-ing to pop music. (Listen-ing is nominal gerund.)

Jack pop mzik dinle-mek-ten holan-r. (Infinitive-ten is adverbial.)

My sister is interested in annoy-ing me. (Nominal gerund object of in.)

Kz karde-im can-m- sk-mak-la ilgilen-ir. (Sk-mak-la is adverbial.)

See-ing is believ-ing. Gr-mek inan-mak-tr. gerund verb gerund infinitive infinitive verb

Gerunds used after be verbs are called subject noun complements.

Some English gerunds can be used as adjectives in sentences whose

Turkish equivalents are formed by attaching [en, an] adjective making

allomorphs to verbs. For instance:


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fly-ing u-an, talk-ing konu-an, shin-ing lda-/y/an,

smil-ing glmse-/y/en, rise-ing yksel-en, cry-ing ala-/y/an,

sing-ing t-en, fall-ing d-en, roar-ing kkre-/y/en.

fly-ing birds U-an kular, talk-ing parrots konu-an papaanlar,

shin-ing lights lda-/y/an klar, smil-ing baby glmse-/y/en

bebek, ris-ing prices ysel-en fiyatlar, fall-ing leaves d-en

yapraklar, roar-ing lions kkre-/y/en arslanlar.

Turkish infinitives verb-[mek, mak], verb-[me, ma] and the others are

always nominal infinitives. They always function as nouns in sentences.

However, the English to verb infinitives either function as nouns, as ad-

jectives or adverbs without changing their forms. For instance:

Mary Trke ren-mek iste-i.yor. (The infinitive is nominal.)

Mary wants to learn Turkish. (The infinitive is nominal.)

Mary benim-le konu-ma-/y/ reddet-ti. (The infinitive is nominal.)

Mary refused to talk to me. (The infinitive is nominal.)

Mary bir araba al-mak iin para biriktir-i.yor. (Infinitive + iin is adverbial.)

Mary is saving money to buy a car. (The infinitive is adverbial.)

Balk tut-mak iin gl-e git-ti-im. (Infinitive + postposition) (Adverbial)

I went to the lake to fish. (The infinitive is adverbial.)

Jack okul-dan k-an ilk ocuk-tu. (k-an is an adjective.)

Jack was the first boy to leave the school. (To leave is an adjective.)

(The infinitve modifies the noun boy, so it is an adjective.)

Yr-/y/e.cek uzun bir yol-um-uz var. (Yr-/y/e.cek is an adjective.)

We have a long way to walk. (To walk is an adjective.)

ren-e.cek ok ey-in.iz var. (ren-e.cek is an adjective.)

You have a lot of things to learn. (To learn is an adjective.)

Bitir-e.cek bir i-im var. (Bitir-e.cek is an adjective.)

I have a work to finish. (To finish is an adjective.)

Note:

The blue underlines show the subjects or the subject allomorphs.

The black underlines show the objects, noun clauses, and nouns.

The red underlines show the verbs.

The green underlines show the adverbs, adverbial pheases or clauses.

The purple underlines show the adjectives and the noun modifiers.


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LOGICAL, MORPHEMIC, AND ORAL SEQUENCING

Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker in their books assert that the human

mind has an inborn logical ability which seperates a body of thought (a

sentence) into two parts to produce sentences. A person logically thinks that

a sentence should be about something or someone, and uses them as

subjects, and uses all the information given about the subjects as predi-

cates.

Chomsky calls them Nominal Phrase and Verbal Phrase, in short "NP +

VP". Additionally, the predicate part (VP) is also logically seperated into two

parts as a verb, and an object 'V + NP'. These logical storages are empty

before one starts learning his/her native language. When someone starts

hearing the sounds of his language, he loads these sounds with meaning,

and inserts them into these empty logical storages. Arranging these storages

in succession is also learned while someone is being exposed to his native

language. Therefore, the order of these logical storages change from

language to language. These logical storages, and their learned succession

are called the logical sequence of a sentence. The so called storages are

also flexible enough to hold the shortest and the longest language units.

The word verb "V" covers a verb root, a verb stem, or a verb frame, and

all the inflectional suffixes attached to them such as "ed", "ing", "s", and

auxiliary verbs such as "must", "may", "might", "can", "could", etc. preceded

by them. The verbs together with these inflectional suffixes and auxiliary

verbs constitude a verb composition concept and called a verb "V".

All subjects and objects, whether long or short, are Nominal Phrases. If a

verb is intransitive, it does not need an object (NP), so the predicate part

has only a verb, and some adverbs or adverbials. The predicates that have

"be" verbs are also considered Verbal Phrases.

The sentences described above are of three kinds:

1. A subject, a transitive verb, and an object: Jack killed a mouse.

subject verb object

predicate

2. A subject and an intransitive verb: Jack sleeps.

subject verb

predicate

3. A subject, a verb and a subject complement: Jack is brave.

subj verb subj complement

predicate


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Although these logical storages are inborn, their sequencing is learned

through the experiences of an individual. Therefore, the sequencing of the

subject and predicate, and that of the subject, verb, and object change

from language to language. For instance, in English: I am coming. subject predicate

(There are no personal suffixes attached to verbs in English.)

In Turkish: Gel-i.yor um (ge*li*yo*rum) verb subject allomorph

In Turkish, a personal concept is expressed by a personal suffix either at-

tached to a verb at the end of a sentence, or expressed by both a pronoun

or a noun in the beginning and a personal allomorph at the end of a sen-

tence. Using personal suffixes attached to the ends of the Turkish sen-

tences (except for the third person singular) is a grammatical necessity. Furthermore, the subject + verb + object sequence of the English lan-

guage differs in Turkish as (subject) + object + verb-personal allomorph

or object + verb-personal allomorph: English: We are picking flowers. subj (pron) verb object

Turkish 1: (Biz) iek topluyor-uz. = We are picking flowers. subj (pron) object verb-personal allomorph

Turkish 2: iek topluyor-uz. = We are picking flowers. object verb-personal allomorph

The reason why there may be two identical alternative sentences in Turkish

is that one should compulsorily use a personal allomorph attached to the

verb in a sentence. However, if he wants to emphasize the subject, he could

also use a pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a personal

allomorph representing the pronoun used in the beginning of the sentence. If we use a sentence without a personal allomorph attached to the main

verb, the sentence becomes ungrammatical although it is understandable: *Ben yarn Ankara'/y/a gidiyor. (ungrammatical)

(Ben) yarn Ankara'/y/a gidiyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.)

*Ben sen-i seviyor. (ungrammatical)

(Ben) sen-i seviyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.) As a general syllabication rule in Turkish, the single underlined consonants

of the words or allomorphs detach from their syllables, and attach to the first

vowels of the following morphemes as in the examples above. This opera-


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tion of the oral sequence of the Turkish language transposes the mor-

phemic sequence to produce harmonic syllable sequences. The lines that

are put under the consonants in this book are not used in writing.

One could estimate that there exist empty inborn logical subject + verb,

subject + verb + object or subject + linking verb + subject comple-

ment storages in one's mind ready to be filled with the learned sequences

of phonemes and morphemes in a newborn baby. A newborn baby hears the

sounds of his/her native language, learns which sounds convey which words

and morphemes. He/she also hears the sequences of subject + verb, and

subjec + verb + object, and the syllables of his/her native language. All

these sounds and information gather in its memory, and are inserted into the

inborn storages to produce sensible sentences. All human beings are born eager to learn. Learning his/her language is an

inherent instinct in everybody, which Steven Pinker calls it "Language Ins-

tinct". Children do not know what a subject, or an object is, but as soon as

they learn the interrogative concepts who?, what?, when?, where?,

why?, how?, etc., they start asking questions. In all languages, question

words ask for the functional parts of a sentence such as subject, object,

verb, and adverbs of time, place, reason, etc. So, he logically knows that

who and what asks for the subject, and whom and what asks for the

object, and he also understands that all the answers to the questions who,

and what are subjects, and whom, and what are the objects: Jack found a watch. who? what?

Jacks sister found a watch. who? what?

The boy who was walking along the street found a watch. who? what?

The boy who was walking along the street found the watch that I lost. who? what?

Jack saw a rabbit in the garden yesterday. who? what? where? when?

The house that Jack built collapsed suddenly last night. what? how? when?

Jack found a watch while he was walking down the streed. who? what? when? Jack passed his examination with difficulty because he was lazy. who? what? how? why?


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Jack saw Mary among the crowd. who? whom? where?

Jack bought some flowers for his mother. who? what? for whom?

Jack was coming from school. who? from where?

The parts that are not underlined in the sentences above are verbs. If

someone wants to ask about these verbs he says, What did Jack do?, and

for the underlined green parts he says, From where was Jack coming?,

Where was Jack coming from?, Whom did Jack see?, etc. Consequently, it is possible to say that a person fills the subject and predi-

cate logical storages using interrogative instruments in all languages. As in all natural languages, the Turkish language production system governs

three groups of sequences. The first sequence is the logical sequence

which governs the basic network of a sentence in which all sentences take

form. The second sequence is the morphemic sequence which arranges the se-

quence of the morphemes and allomorphs in Turkish sentences. The third sequence is the oral or phonological sequence, which arranges

the syllables and the overall harmony of the words in a sentence.

TURKISH GRAMMAR

After the above short survey of the universal Transformational Generative

Grammar (with some interpretations of my own), we can begin with the

sound system of The Turkish language.

Turkish has 29 letters in its alphabet. Some of these letters / o, u, a, / and /

, , e, i / are vowels (nller), and the others / b, c, , d, f, g, , h, j, k, l,

m, n, p, r, s, , t, v, y, z / are consonants (nszler).

All the letters above represent phonemes, that is why they are shown be-

tween / / signs. Phonemics is not interested in detailed phonetic differ-

ences. Some of the vowels / , , / do not exist in English. They are pro-

nounced: // as in English again; // as in German schn; and // as in

German htte respectively.

Among the consonants, there are the / , , / phonemes, which are pro-

nounced as ch as in church, sh as in fish; and to produce the //


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phoneme, which does not exist in English, first produce /g/ phoneme, and

make it longer by letting your breath pass between your tongue and the hard

palate of your mouth while vibrating your vocal cords.

TURKISH VOWEL AND CONSONANT HARMONY

Turkish is said to be an agglutinative language, which means that suffixes

are attached to word roots, stems and frames one following the other in a

sequence to arrange words. To understand how these syllable and suffix

chains are arranged, one should understand the vowel and consonant

harmony rules of the Turkish language before one begins to attach suffixes

to roots or stems, and to the suffixes following them.

VOWEL HARMONY SEQUENCE A Turkish speaker follows two certain harmony chains to produce a vowel

harmony sequence:

1. The hard vowel harmony chain. 2. The thin vowel harmony chain.

1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain is o u a

2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain is e i In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and // never repeat themselves. The

other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow ()

points to the vowel that should follow the previous one. The arrows (), pointing to both directions, show that /i/ may follow /e/, or /e/ may follow /i/.

In the hard vowel harmony chain, /a/ and // do the same. Furthermore,

besides the arrows, the letters r are put under repeatable vowels to

complete our diagrams:

1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain: o ur ar r

2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain: r er ir As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the

words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony

sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these

sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the

vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build


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up meaningless vowel chains made up of only vowels following the two

vowel chains: o*u*u*a**a*, o*a**a, **e*e*i, *e*i*e, "***", "o*a" For instance: kom*u*ya (o*u*a); kom*u*lar*dan (o*u*a*a); ge*le*cek*ler (e*e*e*e);

o*lu*tur*duk*la*r*mz*dan (o*u*u*u*a***a); u*nu*ta*lm (u*u*a*);

o*ku*la (o*u*a); ten*ce*re*ye (e*e*e*e); ka*a*ma*ya*cak (a*a*a*a*a)

One could make up Turkish meaningless vowel chains as many as one

wishes using the vowel chains above. I advise those who are interested in

learning Turkish to make up meaningles vowel chains like the chains above,

and repeat them loudly again and again. In doing so, they can memorize the

Turkish vowel harmony sequences easily and soundly as they learn a piece

of music. When they repeat them, they may even feel and sound as if they

were speaking Turkish.

As it has already been stated, borrowed words do not follow the vowel

harmony sequences, but the last syllables of such words attach to suffixes

in accordance with the vowel and consonant harmony rules:

patates-ler-i (pa*ta*tes*le*ri) the potatoes; televizyon-u

(te*le*viz*yo*nu) the television; mandalina-/y/ (man*da*li*

na*y) the tangerine; sigara-/y/ (si*ga*ra*y) the cigarette.

The /y/ phonemes used above are glides (semivowels) (consonants) insert-

ed between two vowels to help them pass the voice from one vowel to the

following one smoothly and harmoniously. They do not carry meaning.

One more thing to add to the explanation above is that the words that are

formed of two separate words do not follow the above vowel harmony se-

quences:

kahverengi (kahve + rengi) brown; buzdolab (buz + dolab) refrige-

rator; bilgisayar (bilgi + sayar) computer; tavanaras (tavan + aras)

attic.

Besides the vowel harmony rules above, there are three more essential

vowel rules to consider:

1. The verbs ending with vowels drop these vowels when they attach to

the allomorphs of [.YOR]. These vowels are double underlined. Besides the

double underlimed vowels, there are some consonants that are single un-


21

derlined which show that they detach from their syllables and attach to the

first vowels of the following allomorphs to produce new syllables:

Bekle-i.yor (bek*li*yor); bala-.yor (ba*l*yor); anla-.yor (an*l*yor);

gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor); oku-u.yor (o*ku*yor); atla-.yor (at*l*yor)

ye-i.yor (yi*yor); gzle-.yor (gz*l*yor); gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor) Gel-i.yor-um (ge*li*yo*rum); yz-.yor-uz (y*z*yo*ruz); i-er-im

(i*e*rim); yaz-a.cak-m (ya*za*ca*m); yakalan-a.cak-z (ya*ka*la*-

na*ca*z); gl-er-im (g*le*rim); kork-ar-z (kor*ka*rz) 2. When the last syllables of the nouns (including the infinitives), the verbs,

and the inflectional morphemes end with vowels, and the first vowels of the

following allomorphs start with the same vowels, these two vowels combine

and verbalize as single vowels. For example, when the last vowel of the

word anne and the first vowel of the allomorph em happen to be

articulated together, they combine and verbalize as a single vowel: anne-

em (an*nem). For instance: anne-en (an*nen); tarla-am (tar*lam); araba-an.z (a*ra*ba*nz);

kafa-an (ka*fan); git-ti-in (git*tin); bekle-di-ik (bek*le*dik); gl-d-

k (gl*dk); yakala-d-m (ya*ka*la*dm); git-me-em (git*mem);

al-ma-am (a*l*mam); temizle-en-mek (te*miz*len*mek); Dinle-er

mi-sin? (din*ler / mi*sin); ol-sa-am (ol*sam), bil-se-em (bil*sem) If the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of an allomorph happen to be

different, these two vowels are generally linked by the /y/ glides:

oku-ma-/y/z (o*ku*ma*yz); gel-me-/y/iz (gel*me*yiz); tava-/y/ (ta*va*y), salata-/y/ (sa*la*ta*y), uyku-/y/a (uy*ku*ya).

CONSONANT HARMONY SEQUENCE Consonants are grouped under two subdivisions: voiced consonants: / b, c, d, g, , j, y, l, m, n, r, v, z /

unvoiced consonants: / , f, k, p, s, , t / The voiced consonants are the phonemes that are produced by vibrating

the vocal cords while the breath is passing through the throat. To under-

stand the voiced and unvoiced difference, first produce the /v/ phoneme,

which vibrates the vocal cords in your throat, and then, without changing the

position of your teeth and lips, produce the same sound without vibrating the

vocal cords to produce the unvoiced /f/ phoneme. In doing this, you feel no

vibration in your throat. The consonants that vibrate the vocal cords are

named voiced consonants; the unvoiced consonants do not vibrate


22

them. By the way, one should keep in mind that all vowels and voiced con-

sonants vibrate the vocal cords. The vowels and the voiced consonants,

which vibrate the vocal cords are called vocals. Only the unvoiced con-

sonants do not vibrate them. In Turkish, the voiced consonants are called

"yumuak (sedal) nszler", and the unvoiced consonants are called

"sert nszler".

The /p/, //, /k/, /t/ unvoiced phonemes change into their voiced counter-

parts /b/, /c/, //, /d/ allophones when they detach from their syllables and

attach to the first vowels of the [i, , , u], or [e, a] allomorphs: /p/ changes into /b/: kitap-, kitap-a (ki*ta*b, ki*ta*ba), sebep-i, sebep-e

(se*be*bi, se*be*be), kebap-, kebap-a (ke*ba*b, ke*ba*ba), orap-,

orap-a (o*ra*b, o*ra*ba), dolap- (do*la*b, do*la*ba), arap-, arap-a

(a*ra*b, a*ra*ba), hesap-, hesap-a (he*sa:*b, he*sa:*ba). // changes into /c/: aa-, aa-a (a*a*c, a*a*ca), saya-, saya-a

(sa*ya*c, sa*ya*ca), ama-, ama-a (a*ma*c, a*ma*ca), ayra-, ayra-a

(ay*ra*c, ay*ra*ca), deme-i, deme-e (de*me*ci, de*me*ce). /k/ changes into //: sokak-, sokak-a (so*ka*, so*ka*a), tabak-, tabak-a

(ta*ba*, ta*ba*a), krek-i, krek-e (k*re*i, k*re*e), bebek-i, bebek-e

(be*be*i, be*be*e), kpek-i, kpek-e (k*pe*i, k*pe*e), ayak-, ayak-a

(a*ya*, a*ya*a), bardak-, bardak-a (bar*da*, bar*da*a). /t/ changes into /d/: adet-i, adet-e (a*de*di, a*de*de), kanat-, kanat-a (ka*-

na*d, ka*na*da), umut-u, umut-a (u*mu:*du, u*mu:*da), yourt-u, yourt-a

(yo*ur*du, yo*ur*da). As an exception: sepet-i, sepet-e (se*pe*ti, se*pe*-

te), nbet-i, nbet-e (n*be*ti, n*be*te). When the nouns or pronouns ending with /p, t, k, / consonants detach from

their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the [in, n, n, un] allomorphs,

their last consonants /p, t, k, / change into their voiced counterparts

/b, d, , c/ respectively. kitap-n (ki*ta*bn), sebep-in (se*be*bin), kebap-n (ke*ba*bn), orap-n

(o*ra*bn), aa-n (a*a*cn), ama-n (a*ma*cn), sokak-n (so*ka*n),

krek-in (k*re*in), bebek-in (be*be*in), ayak-n (a*ya*n), kanat-n

(ka*na*dn), yourt-un (yo*ur*dun). Some /t/ phonemes, however, do not change: hayat (ha*ya:*t), (ha*ya:*ta), (ha*ya:*tn); sanat (san*a*t), (san*a*ta),

(san*a*tn); sfat (s*fa*t), (s*fa*ta), (s*fa*tn); saat (sa*a*ti), (sa*a*te),

sa*a*tin); sepet (se*pe*ti), (se*pe*te), (se*pe*tin); glet (g*le*ti),

(g*le*te), (g*le*tin); demet (de*me*ti), (de*me*te), (de*me*tin).


23

The monosyllabic noun roots ending with unvoiced consonants do not

change when they get the [], [E], [DE], [DEN] and the personal allomorphs:

ek (eki, eke, ekte, ekten, ekin); sap (sap, sapa, sapta, saptan, sapn); ip

(ipi, ipe, ipte, ipten, ipin); hap (hap, hapa, hapta, haptan, hapn); tp (tp,

tpe, tpte, tpten, tpn); top (topu, topa, topta, toptan, topun); sa (sa,

saa, sata, atan, san); i (ii, ie, ite, iten, iin); g (g, ge,

gte, gten, gn); ma (ma, maa, mata, matan, man); kk

(kk, kke, kkte, kkten, kkn); ok (oku, oka, okta, oktan, okun ), yk

(yk, yke, ykte, ykten, ykn); krk (krk, krke, krkte, krkn); Trk

(Trk, Trke, Trkte, Trkten, Trkn); at (at, ata, atta, attan, atn); et

(eti, ete, ette, etten, etin); st (st, ste, stte, stten, stn); ot (otu, ota,

otta, ottan, otun); kart (kart, karta, kartta, karttan, kartn). However, the final consonants of some monosyllabic nouns do change

when they are attached only to [i, , , u], [e, a] and [in, n, n, un] allo-

morphs. They do not change when they are attached to the allomorphs of

the morphemes of [DE] and [DEN]: but (bu*du), (bu*da), (bu*dun), (but-ta, but-tan); dip (di*bi), (di*be), (di*bin),

(dip*te), (dip*ten); ok (ou, oa, oun, okta, oktan); gk (g,

ge, gn, gkte, gkten); kap (kab, kaba, kabn, kapta, kaptan); u

(ucu, uca, ucun, uta, utan); yurt (yurdu, yurda, yurdun, yurtta, yurttan);

kurt (kurdu, kurda, kurdun, kurtta, kurttan); tat (tad, tada, tadn, tatta,

tattan). When [] or [E] morphemes come after the nouns ending with vowels, the /y/

linking semivowels (glides) are inserted between these two vowels to pro-

vide harmonious links:

Testi (tes*ti*/y/i, tes*ti*/y/e); araba (a*ra*ba*/y/, a*ra*ba*/y/a); tarla (tar*-

la*/y/, tar*la*/y/a); salata (sa*la*ta*/y/, sa*la*ta*/y/a); mart (mar*t*/y/,

mar*t*/y/a); tava (ta*va*/y/, ta*va*/y/a); teneke (te*ne*ke*/y/i, te*ne*ke-

*/y/e); makara (ma*ka*ra*/y/, ma*ka*ra*/y/a); kundura (kun*du*ra*/y/,

kun*du*ra*/y/a); kafa (ka*fa*/y/, ka*fa*/y/a); su (su*/y/u, su*/y/a).

When the nouns ending with vowels are attached to the possesive per-

sonal allomorphs of [N], [in, n, n, un], which are used in the pos-

sessive parts of the noun compounds, the /n/ glides are inserted between

the two vowels, such as:

araba-/n/n (a*ra*ba*nn)

testi-/n/in (tes*ti*nin)

ordu-/n/un (or*du*nun)


24

yk-/n/n (y*k*nn)

sergi-/n/in (ser*gi*nin)

kafa-/n/n (ka*fa*nn)

makara-/n/n (ma*ka*ra*nn)

mart-/n/n (mar*t*nn) However, when pronouns are used in the possessive position, they are suf-

fixed by the possessive [im, in, un, im, in, n] allomorphs:

ben-im (be*nim), sen-in (se*nin), o/n/-un (o*/n/un), biz-im (bi*zim), siz-in (si*zin), o/n/-lar-n (o/n/*la*rn) Note: The single underlined consonants in the examples above show the consonants that detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs to change the morphemes into syllables.

Exception: su (su*/y/un). Example: (a*ra*ba*/n/n / h*z), (su*/y/un / h*z)

MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful language units in lan-

guages. For instance, the word um*brel*la has three syllables. None of

these three syllables are significant units on their own; they have sense only

when they are articulated or heard together. So, these three syllables form

a single shortest meaningful unit together, and consequently, umbrella is

both a morpheme and a word. Such words are called free morphemes.

However, although the suffixes are also the smallest meaningful units, they

do not convey any sense unless they are attached to word roots or stems.

Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.

All the words have roots or stems like open, soft-en, clean, beauty,

success, book, etc. Some morphemes (suffixes or prefixes) are attached

to these roots or stems. For instance, open-ed, clean-ed, success-ful,

beauti-ful, "whiten-ed" teach-er, ir-respons-ible, un-count-able, un-

necessari-ly, go-ing, etc. Look at page 396 for roots, stems and verb

frames.

As one could see, there are two kinds of suffxes and prefixes in the given

examples above. Some of these morphemes change the meaning and the

part of speech they belong with when they are attached to different roots or

stems. Some others, however, add certain inflectional meanings to verb

and noun roots or stems such as tense, voice, person, mood, number,

direction or state without changing their root or stem meanings.


25

A morpheme that changes the meaning of a root or stem is called a

derivational morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not

change the meaning of a root or stem, is called an inflectional morpheme

(ekim eki). Both the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound

morphemes. Some bound morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation

variants that bear the same meanings as the morphemes. For instance, in

English, when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun book, it is

pronounced as /s/; in boy-s as /z/; and in box-es as /iz/. As they are the

different pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named

as the allomorphs of the morpheme [S].

There are a lot more allomorphs in Turkish than there are in English. This

is because bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant

changes according to the vowel and consonant rules of the Turkish lan-

guage when they are attached to roots or stems and to one another, and this

process causes different allomorphs to arise. All the allomorphs of a certain

morpheme carry the same meaning vocalizing differently, and therefore

they do not change the meaning of the morphemes because the Turkish

sound system functions independently of the Turkish morphemic system.

THE DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Anlaml Yapm Ekleri Ve Onlarn Altbiimbirimleri Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the

lexical meaning or the part of speech of a word used in a sentence: MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE OTHER NOUNS [C] allomorphs: [ci, c, c, cu, i, , , u] When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels or voiced consonants) are at-

tached to the morpheme [C], the /i/ vowel in this morpheme changes into /i,

, , u/ in accordance with the vowel harmony rules. However, if a noun ends

with an unvoiced consonant, the /c/ voiced consonants also change into the

// unvoiced consonants in agreement with the consonant harmony rules: peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-c (postman), zm-c (grapes seller), tur-

u-cu (pickles seller), sepet-i (basket maker), balk- (fisherman), st-

(milkman), ok-u (archer), a- (cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci (cof-

fee seller), saat-i (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-c (furniture seller), ka-

ak- (smuggler), musluk-u (plumber), yaban-c (foreigner), iek-i

(florist), yol-cu (traveler), sanat- (artist), gz-c (watch, watchman), sz-

c (spokesman), politika-c (politician), milliyet-i (nationalist), di-i (den-


26

tist), kira-c (tenant), ark-c (singer), brek-i (someone who sells pies),

boya-c (painter), demir-ci (blacksmith), halter-ci (weight lifter). [LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk]

meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept), kitap-lk (bookcase), gz-lk (eye-

glasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), az-lk (cigarette

holder), kulak-lk (headphones), aydan-lk (tea pot), mezar-lk (grave-

yard), eker-lik (a bowl in which candies are kept), okevli-lik (polygamy),

tuz-luk (saltshaker), ocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lk (farce, foolery),

soytar-lk (clowning), dost-luk (friendship), dman-lk (enmity), gece-lik

(pajamas, nightgown), n-lk (apron), gven-lik (safety), anne-lik (moth-

erhood), evlat-lk (adopted child), kahraman-lk (heroism).

[C-LK] allomorphs: [ci.lik, c.lk, c.lk, cu.luk, i.lik, .lk, .lk, u.luk]

av-c.lk (hunting), meyve-ci.lik (selling fruit), n-c.lk (leadership), yol-cu-

luk (traveling), a-.lk (cooking), fal-c.lk (fortune telling), tefe-ci.lik

(usury), iek-i.lik (selling flowers), if-i.lik (farming), hava-c.lk (aviation),

balk-.lk (fishing), kaak-.lk (smuggling), p-.lk (scavenge)

[CK] allomorphs: [cik, ck, ck, cuk, ik, k, k, uk] (diminutive)

ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutu-

cuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck

(little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby).

[CE.IZ] allomorphs: [ce.iz, ca.z, e.iz, a.z] (innocence)

kedi-ce.iz (innocent cat), kz-ca.z (innocent girl), hayvan-ca.z (inno-

cent animal), kpek-e.iz (innocent dog), ku-a.z (innocent bird).

[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a]

ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Rus-

sian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese),

Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES

[CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul]

ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)


27

[L] allomorphs: [li, l, l, lu]

ev-li (married), ocuk-lu (with children), emsiye-li (with an umbrella), bah-

e-li ev (house with a garden), iyah ceket-li adam (the man in a black

coat), krmz-l kadn (the woman in red), grg-l (having good manners,

polite), iek-li aa (a tree in blossom), yamur-lu (rainy), kar-l (snowy),

sis-li (foggy, misty), gne-li (sunny), bulut-lu (cloudy), tuz-lu (salty), at-l

(man on horseback), istek-li (willing), becerik-li (skillful), amur-lu (muddy),

hesap-l (economical), sayg-l (respectful), su-lu (criminal), hata:-l

(faulty), tat-l (sweet), mayo-lu (in a bathing suit), st-l (with milk, milky),

paha-l (expensive), ta kafa-l (stone headed), Adana-l (from Adana),

srek-li (continuous), hiddet-li (outrageous), kl-l (hairy), bilin-li (inten-

tional, conscious), zarar-l (harmful), tehlike-li (dangerous), phe-li (suspi-

cious, suspect), yer-li (native), iki bacak-l (two legged), kanat-l (winged),

kayg-l (anxious), umut-lu (hopeful), gerek-li (necessary), yetenek-li (tal-

ented), bam-l (addicted, dependent), silah-l (armed), renk-li (colored),

kr-l (profitable), zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), nee-li (joyful),

kusur-lu (faulty), grlt-l (noisy), deer-li (precious), gerek-li (neces-

sary), dnce-li (thoughtful), yrek-li (brave), ayrnt-l (detailed, in detail),

sorum-lu (responsible), mantk-l (rational), g-l (strong), rt-l (cov-

ered), his-li (sensitive), hrs-l (ambitious), hz-l (fast), tertip-li (tidy), tuz-lu

(salty), buz-lu (icy), amur-lu (muddy), kir-li (dirty), pasak-l (untidy), kor-

ku-lu (frightening, scary), hak-l (right, fair), kast-l (intentional), hesap-l

(economical), meme-li (mammal), tecrbe-li, deneyim-li (experienced),

falso-lu (erroneous), kasvet-li (gloomy, doleful), kuku-lu (dubious, sus-

picious), onur-lu, gurur-lu (proud), dayank-l (durable), dikkat-li (care-

ful), becerik-li (skillful), yama-l (patchy), dokunak-l (pungent), grev-li

(on duty), yarar-l (useful), karar-l (firm, determined), grkem-li (magnif-

icent), atafat-l (pompous), akl-l (intelligent), rahmet-li (deceased), ya-l

(aged) dert-li (in trouble, miserable), eker-li (sweet), su-lu (saucy), fayda-

l (useful), gizem-li (mysterious), korku-lu (frightening, horrifying), duygu-lu

(emotional, sensitive), heyecan-l (exciting, nervous), tertip-li (tidy), ileri

gr-l (foreseeing), huzur-lu (peaceful), keyif-li (cheerful), yetki-li (au-

thorized), balant-l (related, agglutinative), boya-l (painted), cila-l (ci*-

l:*l) (finished, varnished), cilt-li (hardback), yay-l (with springs), ayrnt-l

(detailed, in detail), l-l (restrained), g-l (strong), tr-l tr-l (all

sorts of), besbel-li (obvious), isabet-li (i*sa:*bet*li) (right, to the purpose),

geer-li (valid), baar-l (successful), inan-l (believer), diren-li (resis-

tive), kant-l (proven, supported by evidence), yn-l (woollen), pamuk-lu

(cotton), ate-li (fiery, zealous), izgi-li (lined, striped), yldz-l (starry, star-

lit), boya-l (painted), kyma-l brek (mince pie), gne-li (sunny), toz-lu


28

(dusty), aa-l (wooded), iek-li (flowered), desen-li (patterned, figured),

yaldz-l (gilded), ss-l (ornamented), kymet-li (precious, valuable), kuy-

ruk-lu (tailed), zahmet-li (difficult, hard), temkin-li (cautious).

[SZ] allomorphs: [siz, sz, sz, suz]

korku-suz (fearless), istek-siz (unwilling), yamur-suz (rainless), aa-

sz (treeless), defo-suz (flawless), uyku-suz (sleepless), bilin-siz

(unconscious), karar-sz (hesitant), sorum-suz (irresponsible), dikkat-siz

(careless), ama-sz (aimless), kalp-siz (heartless), yrek-siz (timid), nee-

siz (ne*e*siz) (sad), mit-siz, umut-suz (desperate, hopeless), taban-sz

(timid), sayg-sz (disrespectful), mantk-sz (irrational), temel-siz (unsound,

baseless), renk-siz (colorless), gerek-siz (unnecessary), bam-sz (inde-

pendent), perva:-sz (reckless), kafa-sz (stupid), sevgi-siz (loveless),

terbiye-siz (impolite, rude), grg-sz (impolite), becerik-siz (incompe-

tent), imkn-sz (impossible), deer-siz (worthless), ses-siz (silent), eker-

siz (without sugar), gerek-siz (unnecessary), dnce-siz (thoughtless),

sorum-suz (irresponsible), mesnet-siz (baseless), tasa-sz (carefree),

ahlk-sz (immoral), yz-sz (impudent), huy-suz (perverse), akl-sz

(foolish), dayanak-sz (baseless), dayank-sz (not durable), duygu-suz

(senseless), kusur-suz (faultless), ta:lih-siz (unfortunate), kymet-siz

(worthless), tehlike-siz (safe), tat-sz (tasteless), haya-sz (shameless,

impudent), tertip-siz (untidy), yarar-sz (useless), tutar-sz. (inconsistent),

ama-sz (aimless), deer-siz (worthless), zarar-sz (harmless), koku-suz

(odorless), neden-siz (causeless), acma-sz (merciless), taraf-sz (impar-

tial), yetenek-siz (incompetent), su-suz (innocent), denge-siz (unbal-

anced), keyif-siz (low-spirited), kayg-sz (indifferent), tasa-sz (carefree),

deneyim-siz (inexperienced), kuku-suz (without doubt), uygun-suz

(inappropriate), surat-sz (sour faced), denge-siz (unbalanced), kontrol-

suz (uncontrolled), kymet-siz (worthless), anlam-sz (insignificant, non-

sense), eitim-siz (uneducated), bilgi-siz (ignorant), inan-sz (faithless),

huzur-suz (fidgety), annes-siz (motherless), leke-siz (stainless), kayg-sz

(without anxiety), denge-siz (unbalanced), uyum-suz (unharmonious).

[SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal]

bilim-sel (scientific), evren-sel (universal), deney-sel (experimental, empir-

ical), yzey-sel (superficial), duygu-sal (emotional, sensational), sanat-sal

(artistic), yap-sal (structural), gelenek-sel (traditional), dn-sel (mental),

tarih-sel (historical), tarih (historic), kavram-sal (conceptual), kimya-sal

(chemical), fizik-sel (physical), ant-sal (monumental), yaam-sal (vital),

din-sel (religious), ulus-sal (u*lu*sal) (national), evre-sel (environmental),


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kalt-sal (hereditary), onur-sal (honorary), bitki-sel (herbal), hayvan-sal

(zoological), tarm-sal (agricultural), us-sal (us*sal) (mental, rational), tanr-

sal (divine, celestial), yrnge-sel (orbital), kurum-sal (institutional, corpo-

rate), kamu-sal (public), kre-sel (global, spherical), kr-sal (rural), rgt-

sel (organizational), toplum-sal (social, common), belge-sel (documental),

kurgu-sal (fictional), ruh-sal (psychological), beden-sel (corporal), birey-

sel (individual), alg-sal (perceptual), say-sal (numerical, digital), simge-

sel (symbolic).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE NOUNS

[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk] (iyi-lik = iyilik), (scak-lk= scaklk)

iyi-lik (favor), scak-lk (temperature), zgr-lk (freedom), uzun-luk

(length), geni-lik (width), gzel-lik (beauty), irkin-lik (ugliness), drst-

lk (honesty), aptal-lk (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage),

baya-lk (meanness), iyimser-lik (optimism), ktmser-lik (pessimism),

uak-lk (servitude), yalnz-lk (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality),

kahraman-lk (heroism), vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lk (rudeness),

duygusal-lk (sensitivity), dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), ret-

ken-lik (productivity), kresel-lik (globalism), aalk kompleksi (inferiority

complex), arsz-lk (impudence), geveze-lik (chattering), dncesiz-lik

(inconsiderateness), mutsuz-luk (unhappiness), a-lk (hunger, starvation),

g-lk (difficulty), saydam-lk (transparency), utanga-lk (shyness),

uzak-lk (distance), yakn-lk (closeness, sympathy), kstah-lk (insolence),

kurak-lk (drought), rkek-lik (shyness), sersem-lik (dizziness), hovarda-

lk (debauchery), alkan-lk (addiction), yksek-lik (height), derin-lik

(depth), krmz-lk (redness), kt-lk (wickedness, evil), kurnaz-lk

(craftiness), drst-lk (honesty), karamsar-lk (moodiness), kolay-lk

(ease, facility), tembel-lik (lazyness), kira-lk (ki*ra:*lk) (to let, for

hire) zel-lik (speciality), zgn-lk (originality, genuineness), kararsz-lk

(hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance),

srekli-lik (continuity), kararl-lk (determination), avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik)

(idleness), yzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kt-lk (famine), sarkn-

t-lk (molestation), kibar-lk (kindness, politeness), dayankl-lk (durability),

bo-luk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence), yal-lk

(agedness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk (irresponsibility),

gayretke-lik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lk (callousness), tutarsz-lk (incon-

sistency), deli-lik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik) (ignorance), benzer-lik (resemblance), karamsar-lk (moodiness), gzel-lik (beauty), kzgn-lk


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(anger), bak-lk (immunity), dman-lk (enmity, hostility), budala-lk,

ahmak-lk (stupidity, idiocy).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS THAT PRODUCE NOUNS

In agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system, the last

consonants of the last syllables of the verbs detach from their syllables,

and attach to the first vowels of the following derivational allomorphs while

forming new syllables. These consonants are single underlined.

[] allomorphs: [i, , , u] (diz-i = dizi), (yaz- = yaz) diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz- (ya*z) (script, text), l-

(l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense),

gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k)

(jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t) (scales), art- (ar*t)

(plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru)

(question), rt- (r*t) (any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework), yet-i

(ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l),

(corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma,

perfume), bl- (b*l) (slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), gldr- (comedy)

do-u (do*u) (east), bat- (ba*t) (west), arp- (cross, times), bl- (b*l)

[M] allomorphs: [im, m, m, um, em, am] se-im (se*im) (election), al-m (a*lm) (purchase), l-m (*lm) (death),

yk-m (y*km) (disaster, demolition), yut-um (yu*dum) (gulp), ek-im

(e*kim) (October), ak-m (a*km) (current), ret-im (*re*tim) (production),

geli-im (ge*li*im) (improvement), kar-m (ka*r*m) (mixture), dn-

m (d*n*m) (transformation), ek-im (e*kim) (attraction), geril-im

(ge*ri*lim) (tension), tasar-m (ta*sa*rm) (plan, design), kavra-am (kav-

*ram) (concept), denkle-em (denk*lem) (equation), ekle-em (ek*lem) (joint),

tket-im (t*ke*tim) (consumption), yakla-m (yak*la*m) (approach),

benze-im (ben*ze*im) (similarity, resemblance), ileti-im (i*le*ti*im)

(communication), bili-im (bi*li*im) (informatics), de/y/-im (de*yim)

(expression, idiom), say-m (sa*ym) (census), giy-im (gi*yim) (clothing),

z-m (*zm) (solution), ky-m (k*ym) (massacre), al-m (a**lm)

(expansion), yatr-m (ya*t*rm) (investment), al-m, sat-m (a*lm, sa*tm)

(buying and selling, trade, commerce), giy-im (gi*yim) (attire), salk-m (sal*-

km) (bunch), bir salkm zm (a bunch of grapes), uy-um (u*yum) (ac-

cordance). dn-em (d*nem) (period), yaa-am (ya*am) (life), anla-am

(an*lam) (meaning), devin-im (de*vi*nim) (movement), dene-/y/im (de*ne*-

yim) (experience), gzle-em (gz*lem) (observation), syle-em (sy*lem)

(expression), ge-im (ge*im) (living), iz-im (i*zim) (drawing, design),


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al-m (a*lm) (feint), al-m (a*lm) (purchase), sr-m (sale), yatr-m

(ya*t*rm) (investment), yalt-m (ya*l*tm) (insulation). When the identical vowels written in bold face follow one another, they

combine and are pronounced as single vowels; and the single underlined

consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the

following allomorphs in agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish

sound system.

[K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk, ek, ak] del-ik (de*lik) (hole), art-k (ar*tk) (left over), ksr-k (k*s*rk) (cough

tkr-k (t*k*rk) (spit, saliva), aksr-k (ak*s*rk) (sneeze), bula-k

(bu*la*k) (dirty dishes), kayna-ak (kay*nak) (source, spring, origin), belle-

ek (bel*lek) (memory), tara-ak (ta*rak) (comb), yama-ak (ya*mak) (appren-

tice), de-ek (d*ek) (mattress), kapa-ak (ka*pak) (lid), e-ik (e*ik)

(threshold), dene-ek (de*nek) (experimental subject, object, or animal),

tekerle-ek (te*ker*lek) (wheel), kay-k (ka*yk) (boat), bat-k (ba*tk)

(submerged), iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), atla-ak (at*lak) (crack).

[EK] allomorphs: [ek, ak] Tapn-ak (ta*p*nak) (temple), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski), sa-ak (sa*ak)

(fringe), u-ak (u*ak) (airplane), yat-ak (ya*tak) (bed), ka-ak (ka*ak)

(escaped), dayan-ak (da*ya*nak) (support), kes-ek (ke*sek) (a lump of

earth), l-ek (l*ek) (scale), ben-ek (be*nek) (spot), dn-ek (d*nek)

(someone whom you cannot trust, incredulous), yan-ak (ya*nak) (cheek),

dzen-ek (d*ze*nek) (mechanism), geve-ek (loose), kayna-ak (source).

[G] allomorphs: [gi, g, g, gu, ki, k, k, ku]

sev-gi (love, affection); al-g (music instrument); sr-g (bolt); sor-gu

(interrogation); bas-k (pressure); as-k (hanger); r-g (knitting); gr-g

(good manners); dol-gu (filling); ver-gi (tax); et-ki (impression); sar-g (ban-

dage); ser-gi (exhibition); ez-gi (melody); say-g (respect); yanl-g (mis-

take); vur-gu (accent, stress); kur-gu (abstract thought, speculation); yer-gi

(satire); der-gi (periodical, magazine); yar-g (judgment); yaz-g (fate, des-

tiny); ol-gu (fact); duy-gu (sensation); i-ki (alcoholic beverage, drink); at-k

(scarf); et-ki (impression, stimulus); kat-k (aid, help, additive); gr-g (ex-

perience, good manners); kork-ku (fright) (The double underlined "k"

drops.); yet-ki (authority); co-ku (excitement); tep-ki (response, rea-

ction); al-g (perception); sal-g (secretion); kes-ki (chisel); tut-ku (ambi-

tion, passion); sez-gi (intuition); iz-gi (line); diz-gi (composition, string);

bit-ki (plant); bul-gu (discovery, finding).


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[E] allomorphs: [e, a]

sr-e (s*re) (process, procedure), tk-a (t*ka) (plug, wag, stoppage),

deme-e (de*me) (statement), sark-a (sar*ka) (pendulum), ayr-a

(ay*ra) (bracket). [EY] allomorphs: [ey, ay] dene-ey (de*ney) (experiment), yap-ay (ya*pay) (artificial), ol-ay (o*lay)

(event), d-ey (d*ey) (vertical), yat-ay (ya*tay) (horizontal), yz-ey

(y*zey) (surface), uza-ay (u*zay) (space).

[.C] allomorphs: [i.ci, .c, .c, u.cu]

Dinle-/y/i.ci (din*le*yi*ci) (listener), sat-.c (sa*t*c) (seller), yz-.c

(y*z*c) (swimmer), ko-u.cu (ko*u*cu) (runner), bl-.c (b*l*c)

(separatist), tara-/y/.c (ta*ra*y*c) (scanner), al-.c (a*l*c) (receiver),

bak-.c (ba*k*c) (companion), bebek bakcs (baby sitter), tut-u.cu

(tu*tu*cu) (conservative), kal-.c (ka*l*c) (lasting, durable) (adj), yaz-.c

(ya*z*c) (printer), doyur-u.cu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfactory) (adj), inandr-.c

(i*nan*d*r*c) (persuasive) (adj), ldr-.c (l*d*r*c) (adj) (deadly,

fatal). If a verb ends with vowel, and the allomorph starts with a different

vowel, the /y/ glide is inserted between these vowels by the oral sequence.

[E.CEK] allomorphs: [e.cek, a.cak]

sil-e.cek (si*le*cek) (wiper), gel-e.cek (ge*le*cek) (future), a-a.cak

(a*a*cak) (opener), ek-e.cek (e*ke*cek) (shoehorn), yak-a.cak

(ya*ka*cak) (fuel).

[MEK] allomorphs: [mek, mak]

ye-mek (meal), ak-mak (lighter), ek-mek (bread), kay-mak (cream)

[ME] allomorphs: [me, ma] dondur-ma (ice cream), dol-ma (green peppers, eggplants or marrows

stuffed with mince, rice, etc.), kavur-ma (fried pieces of meat), hala-ma

(boiled meat), dene-me (essay), dv-me (tattoo), as-ma (vine), kaz-ma

(pickax), aydnlan-ma (enlightenment). ky-ma (ky*ma) (minced meat), in-

me (in*me) (stroke), bas-ma (bas*ma) (printed cloth), yz-me (yz*me) [K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk, ek, ak] kes-ik (ke*sik) (cut), k-k (*kk) (dislocated joint), yar-k (ya*rk) (slash),

iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), r-k (*rk) (decay), sar-k (sa*rk) (turban),


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kaz-k (ka*zk) (stake, unreasonably expensive), yrt-k (yr*tk) (tear), del-

ik (de*lik) (hole) ele-ek (e*lek) (sieve), ada-ak (a*dak) (oblation), kay-ak

(ka*yak) (ski). [CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca]

CONTRASTIVE ENGLISH AND TURKISH GRAMMAR, YUKSEL GOKNEL

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