Continuare Gram

8/11/2019 Continuare Gram

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COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

AS + ADJECTIVE + AS

To compare people, places, events or things, when there is no difference, use

as + adjective + as:

Peter is 24 years old. John is 24 years old. Peter is as old as John.

More examples:

Moscow is as cold as St. Petersurg in the winter. !amona is as happy as !aphael. "instein is as famous as #arwin. $ tiger is as dangerous as a lion.


COMPARATIVE + THAN

To compare the di%%erence etween two people, things or events.

"xamples:

Mt. "verest is higher than Mt. &lanc. Thailand is sunnier than 'orway. $ car is more expensive than a icycle. $lert is more intelligent than $rthur.


FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

Nu!er of "#$$%!$e" Co&%r%'i(e Su&er$%'i(e

one "#$$%!$e + )er + )e"'

tall taller tallest

one "#$$%!$e with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant*doule the %inal consonant:

fat fatter fattest

big bigger biggest



sad sadder saddest


'o "#$$%!$e" + )er OR ore + %d + )e"' OR o"' + %d

ending in: -y, -ly, -ow

ending in: -le, -er or -urethese common ad(ectives ) handsome, polite, pleasant, common, *uiet

happy happier/ more happy happiest/ most happy

yellow

yellower/ more yellow yellowest/ most yellow

simple simpler/ more simple simplest/ most simple

tender tenderer/ more tender tenderest/ most tender

If #ou %re no' "ure, u"e MORE + OR MOST +'ote: $d(ectives ending in '-y' li+e happy, pretty, busy, sunny, lucky etc:.replace the -y with )ier or -iest in the comparative and superlative %orm

busy busier busiest


'-ree "#$$%!$e" or ore ore + %d o"' + %d

important

more important

most important

expensive more expensive most expensive

"xamples:

a. $ cat is fast, a tiger is faster ut a cheetah is the fastest. $ car is heavy , a truc+ is heavier , ut a train is the heaviestc. $ par+ ench is comfortable, a restaurant chair is more comfortable, ut a

so%a is thCOMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES



COMPARISONS OF .UANTIT/

To show no difference: as much as as many as as few as as little as

as many as / as few as coun'%!$e nouns

as much as / as little as uncoun'%!$e nouns

"xamples:

-ith coun'%!$e noun":

They have as many children as us. -e have as many customers as them. Tom has as few oo+s as Jane. There are as few houses in his village as in mine. ou +now as many people as / do. / have visited the States as many times as he has.

-ith uncoun'%!$e noun":

John eats as much %ood as Peter. Jim has as little %ood as Sam. ou0ve heard as much news as / have. 1e0s had as much success as his rother has. They0ve got as little water as we have.



To show di%%erence: more less fewer + thanTo show no di%%erence: as much as as many as as few as as little as



To show difference* more less fewer + than

"xamples:

-ith coun'%!$e nouns: more ! fewer

"loise has more children than hantal. hantal has fewer children than "loise. There are fewer dogs in ardi%% than in &ristol / have visited fewer countries than my %riend has. 1e has read fewer oo+s than she has.

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-ith uncoun'%!$e nouns: more ! less

"loise has more money than hantal. hantal has less money than "loise. / spend less time on homewor+ than you do. ats drin+ less water than dogs.

This new dictionary gives more in%ormation than the old one.

So, the rule is:

MORE nouns that are coun'%!$e or uncoun'%!$eFE0ER coun'%!$e nounsLESS uncoun'%!$e nouns

To show no di%%erence see next page

FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES

FORM

3. $d(ectives are in(%ri%!$e:They do not change their %orm depending on the gender or numer o% the noun.

A hot potato Some hot potatoes

2. To e&-%"i"e or strengthen the meaning o% an ad(ective use 0(er#0 or1re%$$#0:

A very hot potato Some really hot potatoes.

2UT see also Modi%iers5$dvers6

7. Po"i'ion o% ad(ectives:a6 8sually in fron' of a noun: A beautiful girl.

6 Af'er vers li+e 9to e9, 9to seem9 , 9to loo+9, 9to taste9:

he girl is beautiful

!ou look tired

his meat tastes funny.

c6 Af'er the noun: in some %ixed expressions: he "rincess #oyal

he "resident elect

a court martial

the ad(ectives involved present concerned : / want to see the people involved!concerned the people who have

something to do with the matter6


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1ere is a list o% the people present the people who were in theuilding or at the meeting6

2e c%refu$3 -hen these ad(ectives are used e%ore the noun they have adi%%erent meaning:

$n involved discussion detailed, complex

$ concerned %ather worried, anxious The present situation current, happening now


FUNCTION

$d(ectives tell us more aout a noun. They can:

#escrie fee$in4" or 5u%$i'ie":

1e is a lonely manThey are honest people

;ive n%'ion%$i'# or ori4in:

Pierre is "renchThis cloc+ is #erman<ur house is $ictorian

Tell more aout a thing0s c-%r%c'eri"'ic":

$ wooden tale.The +ni%e is sharp.

Tell us aout %4e:

1e0s a young manMy coat is very old

Tell us aout "i6e %nd e%"ureen':

John is a tall man.This is a very long %ilm.

Tell us aout co$our:

Paul wore a red shirt.The sunset was crimson and gold .

Tell us aout %'eri%$7-%' "oe'-in4 i" %de of :

/t was a wooden taleShe wore a cotton dress



Tell us aout "-%&e:

$ rectangular ox$ s%uare envelope

"xpress a ud4een' or % (%$ue:

$ fantastic %ilm;rammar is boring.


IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

These ad(ectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative %orms:

Adec'i(e Co&%r%'i(e Su&er$%'i(e

good better best

ad worse worst

little less least

much more most

%ar further / farther furthest / farthest

ADJECTIVES

Sec'ion Menu


=orm =unction

<rder


=orming the omparative and Superlative /rregular omparatives and Superlatives the Superlative

The omparative than

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$s ad(ective as 'ot as ad(ective as

omparisons o% *uantity


NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS

#i%%erence can also e shown y using no' "o7%" 888%":

Mont &lanc is not as high as Mount "verest

'orway is not as sunny as Thailand

$ icycle is not as expensive as a car

$rthur is not as intelligent as $lert


ORDER

-here a numer o% ad(ectives are used together, the order depends on the%unction o% the ad(ective. The usual order is:

>alue5opinion, Si?e, $ge5Temperature, Shape, olour, <rigin, Material

V%$ue7o&inion delicious, lovely, charming

Si6e small, huge, tiny

A4e7Te&er%'ure old, hot, young

S-%&e round, s*uare, rectangular

Co$our red, londe, lac+

Ori4in Swedish, >ictorian, hinese

M%'eri%$ plastic, wooden, silver

"xamples:

a lovely old red post)ox

some small round plastic tales some charming small silver ornaments


THE + SUPERLATIVE

&the& is placed e%ore the superlative:









=or example: 1e is the richest man in the world.

$#>"!&8@

9INDS OF ADVER2S

ADVER2S OF CERTAINT/

These advers express how certain or sure we %eel aout an action or event.

ommon advers o% certainty:

certainly , definitely probably undoubtedly surely

$dvers o% certainty go e%ore the main ver ut a%ter the ver 0to e0:

1e definitely le%t the house this morning.

1e is probably in the par+.

-ith other auxiliary ver, these advers go etween the auxiliary and the mainver:

1e has certainly %orgotten the meeting. 1e will probably rememer tomorrow.

Sometimes these advers can e placed at the eginning o% the sentence: 'ndoubtedly , -inston hurchill was a great politician.

&" $!"=8@A with surely( -hen it is placed at the eginning o% the sentence, itmeans the spea+er thin+s something is true, ut is loo+ing %or con%irmation:

"xample: Surely you0ve got a icycleB

See also $#>"!&S <= $TT/T8#"

COMPARATIVE FORMS OF ADVER2S

/n general, comparative and superlative %orms o% advers are the same as %orad(ectives:

add )er or )est to short advers:

Ad(er! Co&%r%'i(e

Su&er$%'i(e

hardlate%ast

harder later %aster

the hardestthe latest the %astest

"xample: Jim wor+s harder than his rother.






"veryone in the race ran fast, ut John ran the fastest o% all.

with advers ending in )ly , use more %or the comparative and most %or thesuperlative:

Ad(er! Co&%r%'i(e Su&er$%'i(e

*uietlyslowlyseriously

more *uietly more slowly more seriously

most *uietly most slowly most seriously

"xample: The teacher spo+e more slowly to help us to understand. ould you sing more %uietly pleaseB

Some advers have irregular comparative %orms:

Ad(er! Co&%r%'i(e Su&er$%'i(e

adly%ar

littlewell

worse farther!further

lessbetter

worst farthest!furthest

leastbest

"xample:

The little oy ran further than his %riends. ou0re driving worse today than yesterday A

2E CAREFUL3 Sometimes &most0 can mean &very&: -e were most grate%ul %or your help

/ am most impressed y this application.

9INDS OF ADVER2S

ADVER2S OF DEGREE

$dvers o% degree tell us aout the intensity or degree o% an action, anad(ective or another adver.

ommon advers o% degree:

*lmost nearly %uite just too enough hardly scarcely completely veryextremely(

$dvers o% degree are usually placed:

e%ore the ad(ective or adver they are modi%ying:e.g. The water was extremely cold .

e%ore the main ver:e.g. 1e was just leaving. She has almost %inished.

"xamples: She doesn0t %uite +now what she0ll do a%ter university.



They are completely exhausted %rom the trip.

/ am too tired to go out tonight. 1e hardly noticed what she was saying.

Enou4-, (er#, 'oo"nough as an adver meaning 0to the necessary degree0 goes after ad(ectives

and advers."xample:

/s your co%%ee hot enoughB ad(ective6 1e didn0t wor+ hard enough. adver6

/t also goes e%ore nouns, and means 0as much as is necessary0. /n this case it isnot an adver, ut a 0determiner0."xample:

-e have enough bread . They don0t have enough food .

Too as an adver meaning 0more than is necessary or use%ul0 goes before

ad(ectives and advers, e.g. This co%%ee is too hot. ad(ective6 1e wor+s too hard. adver6

Enou4- and 'oo with ad(ectives can e %ollowed y 0 for someone/something' ."xample:

The dress was ig enough %or me. She0s not experienced enough %or this (o. The co%%ee was too hot %or me. The dress was too small %or her.

-e can also use 'to $ infinitive' a%ter enou4- and 'oo with ad(ectives5adver."xample:

The co%%ee was too hot to drin+. 1e didn0t wor+ hard enough to pass the exam. She0s not old enough to get married. ou0re too young to have grandchildrenA

Ver# goes e%ore an adver or ad(ective to ma+e it stronger."xample:

The girl was very eauti%ul. ad(ective6 1e wor+ed very *uic+ly. adver6

/% we want to ma+e a negative %orm o% an ad(ective or adver, we can use aword o% opposite meaning, or not very .

"xample: The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very eauti%ul 1e wor+ed slowly OR 1e didn&t wor+ very *uic+ly.

2E CAREFUL3 There is a ig di%%erence etween 'oo and (er#. Ver# expresses a f%c':

1e spea+s very *uic+ly. Too suggests there is a &ro!$e:

1e spea+s too *uic+ly for me to understand%.



O'-er %d(er!" $i:e very These common advers are used li+e very and not very, and are listed in ordero% strength, %rom positive to negative:extremely especially particularly pretty rather %uite fairly rather notespecially not particularly('ote: rather can e positive or negative, depending on the ad(ective or adver

that %ollows:

Po"i'i(e: The teacher was rather nice.Ne4%'i(e: The %ilm was rather disappointing.

No'e on in(er"ion with negative advers:'ormally the su(ect goes e%ore the ver:

SU2JECT VER2

/She

le%tgoes

1owever, some negative advers can cause an in(er"ion ) the order is reversedand the ver goes e%ore the su(ect

"xample:

/ have never seen such courage. ever have / seen such courage. She rarely le%t the house. Rarely did she leave the house.

'egative inversion is used in ri'in4, not in spea+ing.

<ther advers and adverial expressions that can e used li+e this:

seldom scarcely hardly not only (((((but also no sooner (((((

than nADVER2S ) FORM

3. /n most cases, an %d(er! is %ormed y adding &)ly& to an%dec'i(e:

Adec'i(e Ad(er!

cheap

*uic+slow

cheaply

*uic+lyslowly

"xamples:

Time goes %uic,ly .

1e wal+ed slowly to the door. She certainly had an interesting li%e. 1e carefully pic+ed up the sleeping child.



/% the ad(ective ends in &)y&, replace the &y& with &i& and add &)ly&:

Adec'i(e Ad(er!

easyangry

happyluc+y

easilyangrily

happilyluc+ily

/% the ad(ective ends in -&able& &)ible&, or &)le&, replace the &)e& with &)y&:

Adec'i(e Ad(er!

proaleterrilegentle

proalyterrilygently

/% the ad(ective ends in &)ic&, add &)ally&:

Adec'i(e Ad(er!

asiceconomictragic

asicallyeconomicallytragically

'ote: "xception: public ) publicly

2. Some advers have the "%e for as the ad(ective:

Adec'i(e 7 Ad(er!

early%asthardhigh

latenearstraightwrong

ompare: /t is a fast car. 1e drives very fast.

This is a hard exercise. 1e wor+s hard . -e saw many high uildings. The ird %lew high in the s+y.

7. 1-ell1 and 1good 1 1-ell& is the adver that corresponds to the ad(ective &good&."xamples:

1e is a good student. 1e studies well. She is a good pianist. She plays the piano well.

They are good swimmers. They swim well.

ot until under no circumstancesADVER2S ) FUNCTION



$dvers modi%y, or tell us more aout other words, usually (er!":

The us moved slowly . The ears ate greedily .

Sometimes they tell us more aout %dec'i(e": ou loo+ absolutely %aulousA

They can also modi%y other %d(er!": She played the violin extremely well. ou0re spea+ing too *uietly.

( 9INDS OF ADVER2S

INTERROGATIVE ADVER2S

These are:

why , where how , when

They are usually placed at the beginning of a %uestion(

"xamples:

-hy are you so lateB -here is my passportB .ow are youB .ow much is that coatB

-hen does the train arriveB

'otice that how can e used in %our di%%erent ways:3. meaning &in what way/&:.ow did you ma+e this sauceB.ow do you start the carB2. with adjectives:.ow tall are youB.ow old is your houseB7. with much and many :.ow much are these tomatoesB.ow many people are coming to the partyB4. with other adverbs:.ow *uic+ly can you read thisB

.ow o%ten do you go to @ondon?

9INDS OF ADVER2S

ADVER2S OF MANNER

$dvers o% manner tell us -o something happens. They are usually placed%f'er '-e %in (er! or %f'er '-e o!ec'8



"xamples:

1e swims well, a%ter the main ver6 1e ran... rapidly , slowly , %uic,ly .. She spo+e... softly , loudly , aggressively ..

James coughed loudly to attract her attention.

1e plays the %lute beautifully . a%ter the o(ect6 1e ate the chocolate ca+e greedily .

2E CAREFUL3 The adver should no' e put !e'een the ver and the o(ect: 1e ate greedily the chocolate ca+e ;incorrec'<

1e ate the chocolate ca+e greedily ;correc'<

/% there is a &re&o"i'ion e%ore the o(ect, e.g. at, towards, we can place theadver either e%ore the preposition or a%ter the o(ect."xample:

The child ran happily towards his mother. The child ran towards his mother happily .

Sometimes an adver o% manner is placed e%ore a ver o(ect to addemphasis:

1e gently wo+e the sleeping woman.

Some writers put an adver o% manner at the eginning o% the sentence tocatch our attention and ma+e us curious:

Slowly she pic+ed up the +ni%e.

-e want to +now what happened slowly , who did it slowly , why they did itslowly 61owever, advers should always come AFTER in'r%n"i'i(e (er!" vers whichhave no o(ect6."xample:

The town grew %uic,ly

1e waited patiently

$lso, these common advers are almost always placed AFTER '-e (er!* well

badly

hard

fast

The position o% the adver is important when there is more than one ver in asentence. /% the adver is placed a%ter a clause then it modi%ies the -o$e

%c'ion descried y the clause.'otice the di%%erence in meaning etween the %ollowing pairs o% sentences:

She %uic,ly agreed to re)type the letter her agreement was *uic+6 She agreed to re)type the letter %uic,ly the re)typing was *uic+6

1e %uietly as+ed me to leave the house his re*uest was *uiet6 1e as+ed me to leave the house %uietly the leaving was *uiet6

9INDS OF ADVER2S



ADVER2S OF PLACE

$dvers o% place tell us where something happens.They are usually placed a%ter the main ver or a%ter the o(ect:

"xample:

%f'er '-e %in (er!*

/ loo+ed everywhere

John loo+ed away , up, down, around ...

/0m going home, out, bac,

ome in

%f'er '-e o!ec'*

They uilt a house nearby

She too+ the child outside

&.ere& and &there&-ith vers o% movement, here means towards or with the spea+er:

ome here towards me6 /t0s in here come with me to see it6

There means away %rom, or not with the spea+er: Put it there away %rom me6 /t0s in there go y yoursel% to see it6

.ere and there are comined with prepositions to ma+e many commonadverial phrases:

down here, down there&over here, over there&under here, under there&up here, up there

.ere and there are placed at the eginning o% the sentence in exclamations orwhen emphasis is needed.They are %ollowed y the (er! i% the su(ect is a noun:

.ere comes the us. %ollowed y the ver6

<r y a &ronoun i% this is the su(ect it, she, he etc.6:

.ere it isA %ollowed y the pronoun6 There she goesA %ollowed y the pronoun6

NOTE: most common advers o% place also %unction as &re&o"i'ion"."xamples:about across along around behind by down in off on over roundthrough under up.;o to Pre&o"i'ion" or P-r%"%$ Ver!"



<ther advers o% place: ending in 0)wards&, expressing movement in aparticular direction:

ac+wards%orwardsdownwards

upwardsinwardsoutwards

northwardssouthwardseastwardswestwards

homewardsonwards

"xample: ats don0t usually wal+ bac,wards. The ship sailed westwards.

2E CAREFUL3 1To%rd"1 is a &re&o"i'ion, not an adver, so it is always%ollowed y a noun or a pronoun:

1e wal+ed towards the car . She ran towards me.

expressing oth movement and location:ahead abroad overseas uphill downhill sideways indoors outdoors"xample:

The child went indoors.

9INDS OF ADVER2S

RELATIVE ADVER2S

The %ollowing advers can e used to (oin sentences or clauses. They replacethe more %ormal structure o% preposition $ which in a relative clause:

where when why

"xamples:

That0s the restaurant where we met %or the %irst time.where at/in which6

/ rememer the day when we %irst met.when on which6

There was a very hot summer the year when he was orn.when in which6

Tell me the reason6 why you were late home.why for which, ut could replace the whole phrase 'the reason for

which' 6

19INDS OF ADVER2S

ADVER2S OF TIME

$dvers o% time tell us when an action happened, ut also for how long, andhow often.



"xamples:

0-en* today, yesterday, later, now, last year

For -o $on4* all day, not long, for a while, since last year

Ho of'en* sometimes, fre(uently, never, often, yearly

=0-en= advers are usually placed at the end o% the sentence: ;oldiloc+s went to the &ears0 house yesterday .

/0m going to tidy my room tomorrow .

This is a 9neutral9 position, ut some 0when0 advers can e put in otherpositions to give a di%%erent emphasisompare:

1ater ;oldiloc+s ate some porridge. the time is more important6 ;oldiloc+s later ate some porridge. this is more %ormal, li+e a

policeman0s report6 ;oldiloc+s ate some porridge later . this is neutral, no particular

emphasis6

=For -o $on4= advers are usually placed at the end o% the sentence: She stayed in the &ears0 house all day . My mother lived in =rance for a year .

'otice: &for& is always %ollowed y an expression o% duration: for three days for a wee,

for several years

for two centuries8

&since& is always %ollowed y an expression o% a point in time2

since Monday

since 3445

since the last war(

=Ho of'en= advers expressing the fre%uency o% an action are usually placede%ore the main ver ut a%ter auxiliary vers such as be, have, may, must%:

/ often eat vegetarian %ood. e%ore the main ver6

1e never drin+s mil+. e%ore the main ver6

ou must always %asten your seat elt. a%ter the auxiliary must6 She is never sea)sic+.a%ter the auxiliary is6 / have never %orgotten my %irst +iss. a%ter the auxiliary have and

e%ore the main ver forgotten6

Some other 0how often0 advers express the exact number of times an actionhappens and are usually placed at the end o% the sentence:

This maga?ine is pulished monthly . 1e visits his mother once a wee,.

-hen a fre%uency adver is placed at the end o% a sentence it is muchstronger.ompare:

She regularly visits =rance.



She visits =rance regularly .

$dvers that can e used in these two positions: fre%uently

generally

normally

occasionally often

regularly

sometimes

usually

&6et& and &still&6et is used in *uestions and in negative sentences, and is placed %' '-e end of'-e "en'ence or %f'er not8

1ave you %inished your wor+ yet/ a simple re*uest %or in%ormation6'o, not yet( simple negative answer6

They haven0t met him yet( simple negative statement6

1aven0t you %inished yet/ expressing slight surprise6

Still expresses continuityC it is used in positive sentences and *uestions, and isplaced !efore '-e %in (er! and %f'er %u>i$i%r# (er!" such as be, have,might, will%

/ am still hungry. She is still waiting %or you $re you still hereB #o you still wor+ %or the &&B

ORDER OF ADVER2S OF TIME/% you need to use more than one adver o% time at the end o% a sentence, use

them in this order:

3: &how long&2: &how often&7: &when& thin+ o% 0$o06

"xample: 3 2 : / wor+ 36 for five hours 26 every day

2 7 : The maga?ine was pulished 26 wee,ly 76 last year . 3 7 : / was aroad 36 for two months 76 last year . 3 2 7 : She wor+ed in a hospital 36 for two days 26 every wee,

76 last year .

e lived and wor+ed abroad .

9INDS OF ADVER2S

VIE0POINT AND COMMENTING ADVER2S



There are some advers and adverial expressions which tell us aout thespea+er0s viewpoint or opinion aout an action, or ma+e some comment on theaction.

Vie&oin'

"ran,ly , / thin+ he is a liar. this is my %ran+, honest opinion6Theoretically , you should pay a %ine. %rom a theoretical point o% view utthere may e another way o% loo+ing at the situation6

These advers are placed at the !e4innin4 o% the sentence and are separated%rom the rest o% the sentence y a comma.

Some common >iewpoint advers:

honestly seriously confidentially personally surprisingly ideallyeconomically officially obviously clearly surely undoubtedly(

"xamples:

7ersonally , /0d rather go y train. Surprisingly , this car is cheaper than the smaller model. #eographically , &ritain is rather cut o%% %rom the rest o% "urope.

Coen'in4 She is certainly the est person %or the (o.

ou obviously en(oyed your meal.

These are very similar to viewpoint advers, and o%ten the same words, utthey go in a di%%erent position ) a%ter the ver to be and !efore the main ver.

Some common ommenting advers:definitely certainly obviously simply(

DEFINING 0ORDS

0HICH AND 0HOSE

/n a statement, these words de%ine or explain which thing or person is re%erredto:

"xample:

1e went ac+ to the house. -hich houseB6 The house which stood onthe corner. 1e went ac+ to the house which stood on the corner.

/ saw the man. -hich manB6 The man whose car you damaged. / sawthe man whose car you damaged.




More examples: 1e couldn0t rememer which %ilm he had seen. That0s the man whose wi%e wor+s in my o%%ice. Tell me which co%%ee you li+e. The woman whose dog it you is at the door.

THE DEMONSTRATIVES

THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE

3. =unction

The demonstratives this that these those ,show where an o(ect or personis in relation to the spea+er.his singular6 and these plural6 re%er to an o(ect or person near the spea+er.hat singular6 and those plural6 re%er to an o(ect or person %urther away. /t

can e a physical closeness or distance as in:

-ho owns that houseB distant6/s this John0s houseB near6

<r it can e a psychological distance as in:

That0s nothing to do with me.. distant6This is a nice surprise) near6

2. Position

a6 &e%ore the noun.6 &e%ore the word 'one'.c6 &e%ore an ad(ective noun.d6 $lone when the noun is 0understood0.

"xamples:

This car loo+s cleaner than that one.This old world +eeps turning round#o you rememer that wonder%ul day in JuneB/0ll never %orget this.

DIFFERENCE 0ORDS

OTHER, ANOTHER

These words re%er to something di%%erent, remaining, or additional.

They are placed !efore '-e noun.

*nother is used with singular nouns, other with singular or plural.



There are other (os you could try. -here0s the other pac+et o% cerealsB /s there any other readB 1ave another cup o% tea.

THE DISTRI2UTIVES

ALL, 2OTH, HALF

These words can e used in the %ollowing ways:

ALL +

3

2

7

4a

4

)

the

my, your, etc.

this, that

these, those

8ncountale noun

or

ountale noun in the plural

8ncountale noun


"xample:

3. *ll cheese contains protein *ll children need a%%ection

2. *ll the people in the room were silent.1ave you eaten all the bread B

7. /0ve invited all my friends to the party.

/0ve een waiting all my life %or this opportunity.4a. -ho0s le%t all this paper on my des+B

4. @oo+ at all those alloonsA

2OTH +

3

2

7

4

)

the

my, your, etc.

these, those


"xample:

3. 8oth children were orn in /taly.

2. 1e has crashed both 9of: the cars.

7. 8oth 9of: my parents have %air hair.

4 ou can ta+e both 9of: these boo,s ac+ to the lirary.See note elow

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http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/#note



HALF +

1

2

3

4

a

the

my, your, etc.

this, that,these, those

Uncountable

or

countable noun

"xample:

3. / ought half a ,ilo o% apples yesterday.

2. ou can have half 9of: the ca,e.She gave me half 9of: the apples.

7. /0ve already given you half 9of: my money ..alf 9of: his boo,s were in =rench.

4 .alf 9of: these sna,es are harmlessou can ta+e half 9of: this sugar .

NOTE: *ll both half + OF: 0<=0 must e added when %ollowed y a pronoun:

*ll of you; both of us; half of them/t is also *uite common to add it in most o% the aove situations except whenthere is no article 'o.3 in all the tales aove.6

THE DISTRI2UTIVES

EACH, EVER/, EITHER, NEITHER

These distriutive words are normally used with singular nouns, and are placede%ore the noun.

Each either and neither can e used with plural nouns ut must e %ollowedy ' of ' :

E%c- is a way o% seeing the memers o% a group as individuals:

Each child received a present. Each of the children received a present.

E(er# is a way o% seeing a group as a series o% memers: Every child in the world deserves affection.

/t can also express di%%erent points in a series, especially with time expressions: Every third morning *ohn goes +ogging.

his magaine is published every other week.



Ei'-er and Nei'-er are concerned with distriution etween two things )either is positive, neither is negative:

hich chair do you want Either chair will do.

can stay at either hotel, they are both good

here are two chairs here. !ou can take either of them. either chair is any good, they're both too small.

hich chair do you want either of them - they're both too small.

THE DISTRI2UTIVES

$@@, &<T1, 1$@="$1, ">"!, "/T1"!, '"/T1"!

These words re%er to a group o% people or things, and to individual memers o% thegroup. They show di%%erent ways o% loo+ing at the individuals within a group, and theyexpress how something is distriuted, shared or divided.

E?CEPTIONS TO USING THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

There is no article:

with names o% coun'rie" i% singular6#ermany is an important economic power.1e0s (ust returned %rom <imbabwe.2u'* /0m visiting the 'nited States next wee+.6

with the names o% $%n4u%4e"

"rench is spo+en in Tahiti.English uses many words o% 1atin origin.=ndonesian is a relatively new language.

with the names o% e%$".1unch is at midday.>inner is in the evening.8rea,fast is the %irst meal o% the day.

with people0s n%e" i% singular6: ?ohn0s coming to the party.#eorge @ing is my uncle.2u'* we0re having lunch with the Morgans tomorrow.6

with 'i'$e" and n%e":

7rince Aharles is Bueen EliCabeth&s son.7resident @ennedy was assassinated in #allas.>r( -atson was Sherloc+ 1olmes0 %riend.2u'* the Bueen of England the 7ope.6

$%ter the 1" possessive case:1is rother0s car .Peter0s house.

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http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/DETERMINERS12.cfm





with &rofe""ion":Engineering is a use%ul career.1e0ll proaly go into medicine.

with n%e" of "-o&":/0ll get the card at Smith&s.

an you go to 8oots %or meB

with #e%r":34D was a wonder%ul year.#o you rememer 344FB

-ith uncoun'%!$e noun"*

Rice is the main %ood in $sia. Mil, is o%ten added to tea in "ngland.-ar is destructive.

with the names o% indi(idu%$ oun'%in", $%:e" %nd i"$%nd":

Mount Mc@inley is the highest mountain in $las+a.She lives near 1a,e -indermere.1ave you visited 1ong =sland B

with most n%e" of 'on", "'ree'", "'%'ion" %nd %ir&or'":$ictoria Station is in the centre o% @ondon.an you direct me to &ond StreetBShe lives in =lorence.They0re %lying %rom 1eathrow.

in some fi>ed e>&re""ion", %or example:

y cary trainy airon %ooton holidayon air 0in broadcasting%

at schoolat wor+at 8niversityin churchin prisonin ed

THE .UANTIFIERS

Duanti%iers are ad(ectives and ad(ectival phrases that give approximateanswers to the *uestions 91ow muchB9 and 91ow manyB9

"xample:

/0ve got a little money./0ve got a lot of %riends.

Duanti%iers with countale and uncountale nouns $ %ew and %ew, a little and little



http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/DETERMINERS7b.cfm


http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/DETERMINERS7b.cfm



Some and any ompound nouns made with S<M", $' and '<

;raded Duanti%iers

"nough 'oun

THE POSSESSIVES

Possessive pronouns and possessive ad(ectives show who the thing elongs to.

PERSON ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS

3st /6 my mine

2nd you6 your yours

7rd he6 his his

she6 her hers

it6 it its

P$ur%$

3st we6 our ours

2nd you6 your yours

7rd they6 their theirs

NOTE* /n "nglish, possessive ad(ectives and pronouns re%er to the possessor, notthe o(ect or person that is possessed.

"xample:

Jane0s rother is married to John0s sister.

Her rother is married to -i" sister.

"xamples:

a. Peter and his sister .. Jane and her father .c. #o you +now where your boo,s areBd. /s this their picnicB 'o, it is ours.e. / thin+ this is your passport. es, it is mine.

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/DETERMINERS7c.cfm

http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/DETERMINERS7d.cfm




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PRE)DETERMINERS

SUCH, 0HAT, RATHER, .UITE

These words are normally placed e%ore the inde%inite article.

Suc- and

-%' are o%ten used to express surprise or other emotions:

"xamples:

a. -hat a lovely dayA. She0s such a lovely womanAc. -hat an incredile %ilmAd. 1e0s such a %antastic guitaristA

R%'-er and 5ui'e are 0commenting0 words, re%erring to the degree o% aparticular *uality. They can express disappointment, pleasure, or otheremotions, and are used e%ore a/an $ ad+ective $ noun:

"xamples:

a. /t0s rather a small car. /0m a it disappointed ecause it0s small6. /t was %uite a nice day. / was agreealy surprised.6c. 1e0s had %uite a ad accident. /0m worried6d. /0ve (ust met rather a nice man. /0m pleased6

THE .UANTIFIERS

A fe %nd fe, % $i''$e %nd $i''$e

These expressions show the spea+er0s %''i'ude towards the *uantity he5she isre%erring to.

* few %or countale nouns6 and a little %or uncountale nouns6 descrie the*uantity in a &o"i'i(e way:

9/0ve got a few %riends9 maye not many, ut enough6 9/0ve got a little money9 /0ve got enough to live on6

"ew and little descrie the *uantity in a ne4%'i(e way: "ew people visited him in hospital he had almost no visitors6

1e had little money almost no money6

THE .UANTIFIERS

Gr%ded .u%n'ifier"

They %unction li+e comparatives and hold a relative position on a scale o%increase or decrease.



INCREASE Fro @ 'o B@@

-ith plural countale nouns:

%n# ore o"'

-ith uncountale nouns:

uc- ore o"'

DECREASE Fro B@@ 'o @

-ith plural countale nouns:

fe feer fee"'

-ith uncountale nouns:

$i''$e $e"" $e%"'

"xamples:

There are many people in "ngland, more in /ndia, ut the most peoplelive in hina.

Much time and money is spent on education, more on health servicesut the most is spent on national de%ence.

"ew rivers in "urope are not polluted. "ewer people die young now than in the seventeenth century. The country with the fewest people per s*uare +ilometre must e

$ustralia. Scientists have little hope o% %inding a complete cure %or cancer e%ore

the year 2,EEE. She had less time to study than Paul ut had etter results.

;ive that dog the least opportunity and it will ite you.

THE .UANTIFIERS

.u%n'ifier" i'- coun'%!$e%nd uncoun'%!$e noun"

$d(ectives and ad(ectival phrases that descrie *uantity are shown elow.Some can only go with countable nouns %riends, cups, people6, and some canonly go with uncountable nouns sugar, tea, money, advice6. The words in themiddle column can e used with both countale and uncountale nouns.

On$# i'-uncoun'%!$e noun"

0i'- uncoun'%!$e%nd coun'%!$e noun"

On$# i'-coun'%!$e noun"

Ho uc- Ho uc- or Ho %n# Ho %n#

a little no5none a %ew

a it o%6 not any a numer o%6

) some any6 several

a great deal o% a lot o% a large numer o%



a large amount o% plenty o% a great numer o%

) lots o% )

+ noun

No'e* much and many are used in negative and *uestion %orms.

"xample:

.ow much money have you gotB .ow many cigarettes have you smo+edB There0s not much sugar in the cupoard. There weren&t many people at the concert.

They are also used with too, 0not% so, and 0not% as 1There were too many people at the concert ) we couldn0t see the and./t0s a prolem when there are so many people.

There0s not so much wor+ to do this wee+./n positive statements, we use a lot of :

/0ve got a lot of wor+ this wee+.

There were a lot of people at the concert.

THE .UANTIFIERS

NUM2ERS

The c%rdin%$ numers one, two, three, etc.6 are ad(ectives re%erring to*uantity, and the ordin%$ numers %irst, second, third, etc.6 re%er todistriution.

Nu!er Ordin%$ C%rdin%$

3 %irst one

2 two second

7 three third

4 %our %ourth

F %ive %i%th

G six sixth

H seven seventh



I eight eighth

nine ninth

3E ten tenth

33 eleven eleventh

32 twelve twel%th

37 thirteen thirteenth

34 %ourteen %ourteenth

3F %i%teen %i%teenth

3G sixteen sixteenth

3H seventeen seventeenth

3I eighteen eighteenth

3 nineteen nineteenth

2E twenty twentieth

23 twenty)one twenty)%irst

22 twenty)two twenty)second

27 twenty)three twenty)third

24 twenty)%our twenty)%ourth

2F twenty)%ive twenty)%i%th

2G twenty)six twenty)sixth

2H twenty)seven twenty)seventh

2I twenty)eight twenty)eighth

2 twenty)nine twenty)ninth



7E thirty thirtieth

73 thirty)one thirty)%irst

4E %orty %ortieth

FE %i%ty %i%tieth

GE sixty sixtieth

HE seventy seventieth

IE eighty eightieth

E ninety ninetieth

3EE one hundred hundredth

FEE %ive hundred %ive hundredth

3,EEE one thousand thousandth

3EE,EEE one hundred thousand hundred thousandth

3,EEE,EEE one million millionth

"xamples:

There are twenty)five people in the room. 1e was the fourteenth person to win the award since 374.

Six hundred thousand people were le%t homeless a%ter theearth*ua+e.

/ must have as+ed you twenty times to e *uiet. 1e went to /srael %or the third time this year.

=ractions and decimals

S%id 0ri''en S%id

hal% E.F point %ive

a *uarter E.2F point two %ive

three *uarters E.HF point seven %ive

Percentages



0ri''en S%id

2FK twenty %ive percent

FEK %i%ty percent

HFK seventy %ive percent

3EEK a5one hundred percent

8nits

0ri''en S%id

L3,2EE one thousand two hundred dollars

3G,4IG sixteen thousand %our hundred andeighty)six pounds

F4F+ms %ive hundred and %orty)%ive +ilometres

L2F.7F twenty)%ive dollars thirty)%ive

ears

0ri''en S%id

3II 'ineteen eighty)eight

3IG4 "ighteen sixty)%our

3 'ineteen ninety)nine

1ow to say 0E0

nou4-'

u"ed in %'-e%'ic%$ e>&re""ion" %nd deci%$"*' nought times three e*uals nought0E.7 0nought point three0 or 0point three06E.E7 0point nought three0

6ero

u"ed in "cien'ific e>&re""ion", e"&eci%$$#'e&er%'ure"*

2Eo minus twenty degrees or twenty degrees elow Cero

%$"o u"ed 'o e%n 1'-e $oe"' &oin'1*0The heavy rain reduced visiility to Cero'

0o0 the letter6 u"ed in 'e$e&-one nu!er"*E3H3 7E EEG2 0o one seven one three nine o doule o



six two0

ni$5no'-in4 u"ed 'o e>&re"" '-e "core in 4%e" "uc- %" foo'!%$$*2 ) E 0two nil0 or 0two nothing0

THE .UANTIFIERS

Soe %nd An#

Some and any are used with countale and uncountale nouns, to descrie aninde%inite or incomplete *uantity.

Some is used in &o"i'i(e statements:

/ had some rice %or lunch

1e0s got some oo+s %rom the lirary.

/t is also used in *uestions where we are sure aout the answer: #id he give you some teaB /0m sure he did.6

/s there some %ruit (uice in the %ridgeB / thin+ there is6

Some is used in situations where the *uestion is not a re*uest %or in%ormation,ut a method o% ma+ing a re*uest, encouraging or giving an invitation:

ould / have some oo+s, pleaseB -hy don0t you ta+e some oo+s home with youB

-ould you li+e some oo+sB

*ny is used in *uestions and with not in ne4%'i(e statements: 1ave you got any teaB 1e didn&t give me any tea. / don&t thin+ we0ve got an# co%%ee le%t.

More examples:

SOME in positive sentences(a. / will have some news next wee+.. She has some valuale oo+s in her house.c. Philip wants some help with his exams.d. There is some utter in the %ridge.e. -e need some cheese i% we want to ma+e a %ondue.

SOME in %uestions2a. -ould you li+e some helpB. -ill you have some more roast ee%B

*6 in negative sentencesa. She doesn&t want any +itchen appliances %or hristmas.



. They don&t want any help moving to their new house.c. 'o, than+ you. / don&t want any more ca+e.d. There isn&t any reason to complain.

*6 in interrogative sentencesa. #o you have any %riends in @ondonB

. 1ave they got any childrenBc. #o you want any groceries %rom the shopBd. $re there any prolems with your wor+B

THE .UANTIFIERS

Co&ound noun" %de i'- SOME, AN/ %nd NO

Some

)thing )ody )one )where$ny

'o

ompound nouns with some- and any - are used in the same way as some andany .

Po"i'i(e "'%'een'":

Someone is sleeping in my ed.

1e saw something in the garden. / le%t my glasses somewhere in the house.

.ue"'ion"* $re you loo+ing %or someoneB /0m sure you are6

1ave you lost somethingB /0m sure you have6 /s there anything to eatB real *uestion6

#id you go anywhere last nightB

Ne4%'i(e "'%'een'"* She didn0t go anywhere last night. 1e doesn0t +now anybody here.

NOTICE that there is a di%%erence in emphasis etween nothing, nobody etc.and not ((( anything, not ((( anybody :

/ don&t +now anything aout it. neutral, no emphasis6 / +now nothing aout it more emphatic, maye de%ensive6

More examples:SOMET.=# SOME8O>6 SOME-.ERE a. / have something to tell you.. There is something to drin+ in the %ridge.c. 1e +nows somebody in 'ew or+d. Susie has somebody staying with her.e. They want to go somewhere hot %or their holidays.%. Neith is loo+ing %or somewhere to live.



*68O>6 *6T.=# *6-.ERE a. /s there anybody who spea+s "nglish hereB. #oes anybody have the timeBc. /s there anything to eatBd. 1ave you anything to sayBe. 1e doesn0t have anything to stay tonight.

%. / wouldn0t eat anything except at Maxim0s.O8O>6 OT.=# O-.ERE a. There is nobody in the house at the moment. -hen / arrived there was nobody to meet me.c. / have learnt nothing since / egan the course.d. There is nothing to eat.e. There is nowhere as eauti%ul as Paris in the Spring.%. 1omeless people have nowhere to go at night.

*6 can also e used in positive statements to mean ' no matter which', ' nomatter who', ' no matter what'1

"xamples:

a. ou can orrow any o% my oo+s.. They can choose anything %rom the menu.c. ou may invite anybody to dinner, / don0t mind.

THE .UANTIFIERS

Enou4- + Noun

Enough is placed e%ore the noun, to indicate the *uantity re*uired ornecessary:

There is enough read %or lunch. She has enough money.

Enough is also used with ad(ectives and advers ) see these sections. -e didn0t have enough time to visit @ondon &ridge.

$re there enough eggs to ma+e an omeletteB

!ichard has enough talent to ecome a singing star.

.UESTION 0ORDS

0HICH, 0HAT, 0HOSE

/n *uestions, these words as+ which thing or person is eing re%erred to. Theyare placed e%ore the noun.

-hich dress are you going to wear tonightB -hat colour is your dressB

-hose car are you going to useB

DEFINITE ARTICLE







THE

$rticles in "nglish are invariale. That is, they do not change according to thegender or numer o% the noun they re%er to, e.g. '-e !o#, '-e o%n, '-ec-i$dren

1T-e1 is used:

3. to re%er to something which has already een mentioned.

"xample: $n elephant and a mouse %ell in love.T-e ou"e loved '-e e$e&-%n'1" long trun+,and '-e e$e&-%n' loved '-e ou"e1" tiny nose.

2. when oth the spea+er and listener +now what is eing tal+ed aout, even i%it has not een mentioned e%ore.

"xample: 0-here0s '-e !%'-roo0

0/t0s on '-e fir"' f$oor.0

7. in sentences or clauses where we de%ine or identi%y a particular person oro(ect:

"xamples: T-e %n who wrote this oo+ is %amous.0-hich car did you scratchB0 0T-e red one.My house is '-e one with a lue door.0

4. to re%er to o(ects we regard as uni*ue:

"xamples: '-e "un, '-e oon, '-e or$d

F. e%ore superlatives and ordinal numers: see $d(ectives6

"xamples: '-e -i4-e"' uilding, '-e fir"' page, '-e $%"' chapter.

G. with ad(ectives, to re%er to a whole group o% people:

"xamples: '-e Japanese see 'ouns ) 'ationalities6, '-e old

H. with names o% geographical areas and oceans:

"xamples: '-e ariean, '-e Sahara, '-e $tlantic

I. with decades, or groups o% years:

"xample: she grew up in '-e seventies

INDEFINITE ARTICLE


http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/NOUNS6.CFM


http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/NOUNS6.CFM



A 7 AN

8se 1a& with nouns starting with a consonant 0letters that are not vowels%,&an& with nouns starting with a vowel a,e,i,o,u6

"xamples:

A oyAn appleA carAn orangeA houseAn opera

NOTE*An e%ore an h mute ) %n hour, %n honour.A e%ore u and eu when they sound li+e 'you'1 a european, a university, a unitT-e indefini'e %r'ic$e i" u"ed*

'o refer 'o "oe'-in4 for '-e fir"' 'ie*

*n elephant and a mouse %ell in love.-ould you li+e a drin,B/0ve %inally got a good job.

'o refer 'o % &%r'icu$%r e!er of % 4rou& or c$%""

"xamples:

i'- n%e" of o!"*

John is a doctor .Mary is training to e an engineer .1e wants to e a dancer .

i'- n%'ion%$i'ie" %nd re$i4ion"*

John is an Englishman.Nate is a Aatholic.

i'- u"ic%$ in"'ruen'"*

Sherloc+ 1olmes was playing a violin when the visitor arrived.2UT to descrie the activity we say 91e plays the violin.96

i'- n%e" of d%#"*

/ was orn on a Thursday

'o refer 'o % :ind of, or e>%&$e of "oe'-in4*

the mouse had a tiny nosethe elephant had a long trun,

it was a very strange car i'- "in4u$%r noun", %f'er '-e ord" &what& %nd &such&*

-hat a shameAShe0s such a beautiful girl.

e%nin4 1one1, referrin4 'o % "in4$e o!ec' or &er"on*

/0d li+e an orange and two lemons please.The urglar too+ a diamond nec,lace and a valuable painting.

'otice also that we usually say a hundred , a thousand , a million.



NOTE* that we use &one1 to add emphasis or to contrast with other numers: / don0t +now one person who li+es eating elephant meat.-e0ve got six computers ut only one printer .

DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES

THE, A, AN

#e%inite article: T1"/nde%inite article: $5$'"xceptions to using the de%inite article

Direc' %nd Indirec' S&eec-

changes o% time and place re%erence introduction reporting hopes and intentions reporting orders, re*uests, suggestions reporting *uestions summary o% reporting vers tense changes

)REPORTED SPEECH

CHANGE OF TIME AND PLACE REFERENCE

Time5place re%erences are also changed in reported speech

"xamples:9/ will see you -ere 'oorro9, she said. She said that she would see me'-ere '-e ne>' d%#.

The most common o% these changes are shown elow:

Tod%# '-%' d%#

2 saw him today 2, she said. She said that she had seen him that day .

/e"'erd%# '-e d%# !efore

2 saw him yesterday 2, she said. She said that she had seen him the day before.

T-e d%# !efore #e"'erd%# 'o d%#" !efore

2 met her the day before yesterday 2, he said. 3e said that he had met her two days before.

Toorro '-e ne>'7fo$$oin4 d%#




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2'll see you tomorrow 2, he said 3e said that he would see me the next day .

T-e d%# %f'er 'oorro in 'o d%#" 'ie7 'o d%#" $%'er

2e'll come the day after tomorrow 2, they said. hey said that they would come in two days time!two days later .

Ne>' ee:7on'-7#e%r '-e fo$$oin4 ee:7on'-7#e%r

2 have an appointment next wee,2, she said. She said that she had an appointment the followingwee,.

L%"' ee:7on'-7#e%r '-e &re(iou"7ee:7on'-7#e%r

2 was on holiday last wee,2, he told us. 3e told us that he had been on holiday the previouswee,.

%4o !efore

2 saw her a wee, ago,2 he said. 3e said he had seen her a wee, before.

'-i" for 'ie '-%'

2'm getting a new car this week2, she said. She said she was getting a new car that week.

'-i"7'-%' %dec'i(e" '-e

24o you like this shirt2 he asked 3e asked if liked the shirt.

-ere '-ere

3e said, 2 live here2. 3e told me he lived there.

O'-er c-%n4e"*/n general, personal pronouns change to the third person singular or plural,except when the spea+er reports his own words:

=!me!my!mine you!your!yours him!his!her!herswe!us!our!ours you!your!yours they!their!theirs2

1e said: 9/ li+e your new car.9 1e told her that he li+ed her new car.

/ said: 9/0m going to my %riend0s house.9 / said that / was going to my %riend0shouse.

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

ou can answer the *uestion 9-hat did he5she sayB9 in two ways:



y repeating the words spo+en direct speech6

y reporting the words spo+en indirect or reported speech6.

Direc' S&eec-#irect speech repeats, or *uotes, the exact words spo+en. -hen we use directspeech in writing, we place the words spo+en etween inverted commas 9....96

and there is no change in these words. -e may e reporting something that0seing said '<- %or example a telephone conversation6, or telling someonelater aout a previous conversation"xamples:

She says 2hat time will you be home2 She said 2hat time will you be home2and said 2 don't know) 92here's a fly in my soup)2 screamed Simone. *ohn said, 2here's an elephant outside the window.2

Re&or'ed S&eec-

!eported speech is usually used to tal+ aout the past, so we normally changethe tense o% the words spo+en. -e use reporting vers li+e 'say', 'tell', 'ask', andwe may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. /nverted commasare not used.She said, 2 saw him.2 She said that she had seen him.

&That& may e omitted:She told him that she was happy.She told him she was happy.

&Say& and &tell&28se &say& when there is no indirect o(ect:3e said that he was tired.

$lways use &tell& when you say who was eing spo+en to i.e. with anindirect o(ect6:3e told me that he was tired.&Tal,& and &spea,& are used:) to descrie the action o% communicating:3e talked to us.She was speaking on the telephone.) with &about& to re%er to what was said:3e talked 0to us% about his parents.

REPORTED SPEECH

HOPES, INTENTIONS, PROMISES

-hen we report an intention, hope or promise, we use an appropriatereporting ver %ollowed y a that-clause or a to-infinitive1

9/0ll pay you the money tomorrow.93e promised to pay me the money the next day.3e promised that he would pay me the money the next day.



<ther vers used in this pattern include:hope propose threaten guarantee swear .

"xamples:

9/0ll e ac+ y lunchtime.9

3e promised to be bac, by lunchtime.3e promised that he would be bac, by lunchtime.

9-e should arrive in @ondon e%ore night%all.9hey hoped to arrive in 5ondon before nightfall.hey hoped they would arrive in 5ondon before nightfall.

9;ive me the +eys to the sa%e or /0ll shoot youA93e threatened to shoot me if didn't give him the keys to the safe.3e threatened that he would shoot me if didn't give him the keys tothe safe.

No'e: see also Summary o% !eporting >ers

REPORTED SPEECHORDERS, RE.UESTS, SUGGESTIONS

B8 -hen we want to report an order or re5ue"', we can use a ver li+e 'tell' i'- % 'o)c$%u"e.

"xamples:

3e told me to go away.The pattern is verb + indirect object + to)clause.The indirect o(ect is the person spo+en to.6

<ther vers used to report orders and re*uests in this way are: command order warn as, advise invite beg teach forbid .

"xamples:

a. The doctor said to me, 9Stop smo+ingA9.The doctor 'o$d e 'o "'o& "o:in4.

. 9;et out o% the carA9 said the policeman.The policeman ordered -i 'o 4e' ou' of '-e c%r.

c. 9ould you please e *uiet,9 she said.

She %":ed e 'o !e 5uie'.

d. The man with the gun said to us, 9#on0t moveA9The man with the gun %rned u" no' 'o o(e.

See also section on >ers %ollowed y in%initive and >ers %ollowed y gerund6

2. Re5ue"'" for o!ec'" are reported using the patternas, + for + object1 "xamples:


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a. 9an / have an appleB9, she as+ed. She as,ed for an apple.. 9an / have the newspaper, pleaseB91e %":ed for '-e ne"&%&er.c. 9May / have a glass o% waterB9 he said.1e %":ed for % 4$%"" of %'er.d. 9Sugar, please.9

She %":ed for '-e "u4%r.e. 9ould / have three +ilos o% onionsB91e %":ed for '-ree :i$o" of onion".

7. Su44e"'ion" are usually reported with a that-clause. 'hat' and 'should' areoptional in these clauses:

She said: 9-hy don0t you get a mechanic to loo+ at the carB9 She suggestedthat / should get a mechanic to loo+ at the car. OR She suggested / get amechanic to loo+ at the car.

<ther reporting vers used in this way are: insist recommend demandre%uest propose.

"xamples:

a. 9/t would e a good idea to see the dentist9, said my mother. My mother"u44e"'ed I "ee the dentist.

. The dentist said, 9/ thin+ you should use a di%%erent toothrush9. Thedentist recoended '-%' I "-ou$d u"e a di%%erent toothrush.

c. My manager said, 9/ thin+ we should examine the udget care%ully at thismeeting.9 My manager &ro&o"ed '-%' e e>%ine the udget care%ully atthe meeting.

d. 9-hy don0t you sleep overnight at my houseB9 she said. She suggested'-%' I "$ee& overnight at her house.

No'e"*

Suggest can also e %ollowed y a gerund: / suggested postponing the visit tothe dentist.

See also Summary o% !eporting >ers

REPORTED SPEECH

.UESTIONS

B8 'ormal word order is used in reported *uestions, that is, the su(ect comese%ore the ver, and it is not necessary to use 'do' or 'did' :

9-here does Peter liveB9 She as+ed him -ere Pe'er $i(ed.

8 /e" 7 no 5ue"'ion": This type o% *uestion is reported y using 1%":1 + &if !whether + c$%u"e:





a. 9#o you spea+ "nglishB9 1e as+ed me if I "&o:e En4$i"-.

. 9$re you &ritish or $mericanB9 1e as+ed me -e'-er I%" 2ri'i"- or Aeric%n8

c. 9/s it rainingB9 She as+ed if i' %" r%inin4.

d. 91ave you got a computerB9 1e wanted to +now -e'-erI -%d % co&u'er.

e. 9an you typeB9 She as+ed if I cou$d '#&e.

%. 9#id you come y trainB9 1e en*uired -e'-er I -%dcoe !# 'r%in.

g. 91ave you een to &ristol e%oreB9 She as+ed if I -%d!een 'o 2ri"'o$ !efore.

8 .ue"'ion ord":

This type o% *uestion is reported y using 0as+0 or another ver li+e 0as+06 *uestion word clause. The clause contains the *uestion, in normal word orderand with the necessary tense change."xamples:

a. 9-hat is your nameB9 he as+ed me. 1e as+ed me -%'# n%e %".

. 91ow old is your motherB9, he as+ed. 1e as+ed -o o$d-er o'-er %".

c. The mouse said to the elephant, 9-here do you liveB9The mouse as+ed the elephant -ere "-e $i(ed.

d. 9-hat time does the train arriveB9 she as+ed. She as+ed-%' 'ie '-e 'r%in %rri(ed.

e. 9-hen can we have dinnerB9 she as+ed. She as+ed -en'-e# cou$d -%(e dinner.

%. The elephant said to the mouse, 9-hy are you so smallB9The elephant as+ed the mouse -# "-e %" "o "%$$.

No'e* See also Summary o% !eporting >ers

REPORTED SPEECH

SUMMAR/ OF REPORTING VER2S

'ote that some reporting vers may appear in more than one o% the %ollowinggroups.

3. >ers %ollowed y 1if& or 1whether& + clause1





as++nowrememer

saysee

2. >ers %ollowed y a that)clause1

addadmitagreeannounceanswerargueoastclaimcommentcomplaincon%irmconsiderdeny

doutestimateexplain%ear%eelinsistmentionoservepersuadeproposeremar+rememerrepeat

replyreportrevealsaystatesuggestsupposetellthin+understandwarn

7. >ers %ollowed y either a that)clause or a to)infinitive1

decideexpectguaranteehope

promiseswearthreaten

4. >ers %ollowed y a that)clause containing should ut note that it may e omitted, leaving a su(ect ?ero)in%initive6:

adviseegdemand

insistpre%erpropose

recommendre*uestsuggest

F. >ers %ollowed y a clause starting with a %uestion word :

decide

descriediscoverdiscussexplain%orgetguess

imagine

+nowlearnrealiserememerrevealsay

see

suggestteachtellthin+understandwonder

G. >ers %ollowed y object + to)infinitive



Fu'ure Pre"en' condi'ion%$

2 will be in 7eneva on 8onday2, he said 3e said that he would be in 7eneva on 8onday.

Fu'ure con'inuou" Condi'ion%$ con'inuou"

She said, 2 =&ll be using the car next 9riday2. She said that she would be using the car next9riday.

'<T":

3. ou do not need to change the tense i% the reporting ver is in the present,or i% the original statement was aout something that is still true, e.g.

3e says he has missed the train but he&ll catch the next one.e explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

2. These modal vers do not change in reported speech:might, could, would, should, ought to, e.g.

e explained that it could be difficult to find our house.She said that she might bring a friend to the party.

)ING For

as present participle gerund or in%initiveB gerund5in%initive ) di%%erence in meaning

gerunds introduction vers %ollowed y gerund

1) ING1 FORM

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE

The present participle o% most vers has the %orm base$ing and is used in the%ollowing ways:

%8 %" &%r' of '-e con'inuou" for of % (er!

See continuous tenses in >"!& T"'S"S6

"xample:

am wor,ing,he was singing,they have been wal,ing.

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!8 %f'er (er!" of o(een'7&o"i'ion in '-e &%''ern* verb + present participle"xample:

She went shopping

1e lay loo,ing up at the clouds

She came running towards me

This construction is particularly use%ul with the ver 'to go' , as in thesecommon expressions :

c8 %f'er (er!" of &erce&'ion in '-e &%''ern*verb + object + present participle

"xample:

heard someone singing.3e saw his friend wal,ing along the road. can smell something burning)

NOTE: There is a di%%erence in meaning when such a sentence contains a ero-infinitive rather than a participle. The in%initive re%ers to a co&$e'e action,ut the participle re%ers to an inco&$e'e action, or part o% an action.ompare:

heard *oanna singing she had started e%ore / heard her, andproaly went on a%terwards6

heard *oanna sing / heard her complete per%ormance%

d8 %" %n %dec'i(e"xamples:amaCing worrying exciting boring(

t was an amaCing film.

t's a bit worrying when the police stop you

4ark billowing clouds often precede a storm.

Racing cars can go as fast as :;;kph.

3e was trapped inside the burning house.

8any of his paintings depict the setting sun.

e8 i'- '-e (er!" spend %nd waste, in '-e &%''ern*verb + time!money expression + present participle"xample:

8y boss spends two hours a day travelling to work.

4on't waste time playing computer games)

hey've spent the whole day shopping.

to go shoppingto go s+i)ingto go %ishingto go sur%ing

to go wal+ingto go swimmingto go runningto go dancing



A8 Ver!" -ere '-ere i" $i''$e or no difference in e%nin4*

allowattempteginother

ceasecontinue

deserve%earOhateOintendO

li+elove

neglectomitpermitpre%erO

recommendOstart

No'e"*

3. *llow is used in these two patterns:a. Allow $ ob+ect $ to-infinitive13er parents allowed her to go to the party.. Allow $ gerund13er parents don't allow smo,ing in the house.2. >eserve gerund is not very common, ut is mainly used with passiveconstructions or where there is a passive meaning:a. !our proposals deserve being considered in detail.. hese ideas deserve discussing. to e discussed6.

7. The vers hate love li,e prefer are usually %ollowed y a gerund whenthe meaning is general and y a to-infinitive when they re%er to a particulartime or situation. ou must always use the to-infinitive with the expressions'would love to', 'would hate to', etc.

ompare:

hate to tell you, but <ncle *im is coming this weekend.

hate loo,ing after elderly relatives)

love dancing.

would love to dance with you.

) ING1 FORM

GERUND OR INFINITIVE

28 Ver!" -ere '-ere i" % c$e%r difference in e%nin4:>ers mar+ed with an asteris+ can also e %ollowed y a that)clause.

come%orgetgo on

meanregretrememer

stoptry

NOTES*

Coe*

Coe + 4erund is li+e other vers o% movement %ollowed y the gerund,and means that the su(ect is doing something as they move:



She came running across the field.

Coe + 'o)infini'i(e means that something happens or develops, perhapsoutside the su(ect0s control:

At first thought he was cray, but 've come to appreciate his

sense of humour.

3ow did you come to be outside the wrong house

his word has come to mean something (uite different.

For4e', re4re' %nd ree!er*

-hen these vers are %ollowed y a 4erund, the gerund re%ers to an actionthat happened earlier:

remember loc,ing the door 0 / rememer now, / loc+ed the doorearlier6

3e regretted spea,ing so rudely. he regretted at some time inthe past, he had spo+en rudely at some earlier time in the past.6

"orget is %re*uently used with 'never' in the simple %uture %orm: 'll never forget meeting the =ueen.

-hen these vers are %ollowed y a 'o)infini'i(e, the in%initive re%ers to anaction happening at the same time, or later:

remembered to loc, the door / thought aout it, then / did it.6

4on't forget to buy some eggs) Please thin+ aout it and then doit.6

e regret to announce the late arrival of the >?.:@ from

"addington. -e %eel sorry e%ore we tell you this ad news.6

Go on*

Go on + 4erund means to continue with an action: 3e went on spea,ing for two hours.

can't go on wor,ing like this - 'm exhausted.

Go on + 'o)infini'i(e means to do the next action, which is o%ten the nextstage in a process:

After introducing her proposal, she went on to explain the benefits

for the company.

*ohn Smith worked in local government for five years, then went

on to become a 8ember of "arliament.

Me%n*

Me%n + 4erund expresses what the result o% an action will e, or what wille necessary:

f you take that +ob in 5ondon it will mean travelling for two hours

every day. e could take the ferry to 9rance, but that will mean spending a

night in a hotel.

Me%n + 'o)infini'i(e expresses an intention or a plan: 4id you mean to dial this number



mean to finish this +ob by the end of the week)

Sorry - didn't mean to hurt you.

S'o&*

S'o& + 4erund means to %inish an action in progress:

stopped wor,ing for them because the wages were so low.Stop tic,ling me)

S'o& + 'o)infini'i(e means to interrupt an activity in order to do somethingelse, so the in%initive is used to express a purpose:

stopped to have lunch. / was wor+ing, or travelling, and /interrupted what / was doing in order to eat.6

t's difficult to concentrate on what you are doing if you have to

stop to answer the phone every five minutes.

Tr#*

Tr# + 4erund means to experiment with an action that might e a solution

to your prolem. f you have problems sleeping, you could try doing some yoga

before you go to bed, or you could try drin,ing some warm milk. ' can't get in touch with arl.' '3ave you tried e)mailing him'

Tr# + 'o)infini'i(e means to ma+e an e%%ort to do something. /t may esomething very di%%icult or even impossile:

he surgeons tried to save his life but he died on the operating

table. e'll try to phone at B o'clock, but it might be hard to find a public

telephone.

Clephants and mice have to try to live together in harmony.

) ING1 FORM

THE GERUND

This looks exactly the same as a present participle, and %or this reason it is nowcommon to call oth %orms 'the )ing form&. 1owever it is use%ul to understandthe di%%erence etween the two. The gerund always has the same %unction as anoun although it loo+s li+e a ver6, so it can e used:

%8 %" '-e "u!ec' of '-e "en'ence*

Eating people is wrong.

.unting elephants is dangerous.

"lying makes me nervous.

!8 %" '-e co&$een' of '-e (er! &to be&* Dne of his duties is attending meetings.

he hardest thing about learning Cnglish is understanding the gerund.



Dne of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.

c8 %f'er &re&o"i'ion"8 T-e 4erund must !e u"ed -en % (er!coe" %f'er % &re&o"i'ion*

an you sneee without opening your mouth

She is good at painting.

hey're keen on windsurfing.

She avoided him by wal,ing on the opposite side of the road.

e arrived in 8adrid after driving all night.

8y father decided against postponing his trip to 3ungary.

This is also true o% certain expressions ending in a preposition, e.g. in spite of,there's no point in..1

here's no point in waiting.

n spite of missing the train, we arrived on time.

d8 %f'er % nu!er of &phrasal verbs& -ic- %re co&o"ed of %(er! + &re&o"i'ion7%d(er!"xample:to look forward to, to give up, to be for/against, to take to, to put off, tokeep on1

look forward to hearing from you soon. 0 at the end o% a letter6

hen are you going to give up smo,ing

She always puts off going to the dentist.

3e kept on as,ing for money.

NOTE* There are some phrasal vers and other expressions that include theword &to& as a preposition, not as part o% a to-infinitive: ) to look forward to,to take to, to be accustomed to, to be used to. /t is important to recognisethat &to& is a preposition in these cases, as it must e %ollowed y a gerund:

e are looking forward to seeing you.

am used to waiting for buses.

She didn't really take to studying Cnglish.

/t is possile to chec+ whether &to/ is a preposition or part o% a to-infinitive: i%you can put a noun or the pronoun 'it' a%ter it, then it is a preposition and muste %ollowed y a gerund:

am accustomed to it 0the cold%.

am accustomed to being cold.

e8 in co&ound noun""xample:

a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-spotting

/t is clear that the meaning is that o% a noun, not o% a continuous ver."xample:

the pool is not swimming, it is a pool for swimming in.

f8 %f'er '-e e>&re""ion"*can't help, can't stand, it's no use/good, and the ad(ective worth1

he elephant couldn't help falling in love with the mouse.



can't stand being stuck in traffic +ams.

t's no use/good trying to escape.

t might be worth phoning the station to check the time of the train.

1) ING1 FORM

INTRODUCTION

The 1)in41 %orm o% the ver may e a present participle or a gerund.

The %orm is identical, the di%%erence is in the %unction, or the (o the worddoes in the sentence.

T-e &re"en' &%r'ici&$e:This is most commonly used:

as part o% the continuous %orm o% a ver,

he is painting& she has been waiting

a%ter vers o% movement5position in the pattern:ver present participle,She sat loo,ing at the sea

a%ter vers o% perception in the pattern:ver o(ect present participle,e saw him swimming

as an ad(ective, e.g. amaCing, worrying, exciting, boring

T-e 4erund:This always has the same %unction as a noun although it loo+s li+e a ver6, so itcan e used:

as the su(ect o% the sentence:Eating people is wrong.

a%ter prepositions:an you sneee without opening your mouth She is good at painting

a%ter certain vers,e.g. li,e, hate, admit, imagine

in compound nouns,e.g. a driving lesson, a swimming pool, bird-watching, train-spotting

1) ING1 FORM

VER2S FOLLO0ED 2/ THE GERUND

The gerund is used a%ter certain vers.



"xample:

miss: miss living in Cngland.

The most important o% these vers are shown elow.Those mar+ed O can also e %ollowed y a that-clause

"xample:

VER2 GERUND

She admitted... rea+ing the window

T1$T)@$8S"

She admitted...

that she had ro+en the window.

ac+nowledge,Oadmit,Oanticipate,O appreciate,Oavoid,celerate,consider, contemplate,de%er,delay,deny,Odetest,disli+e,dread,en(oy,entail,escape,excuse,%ancy 0imagine%O,%inish,%orgive,imagine,Oinvolve,

+eep,loathe,mean,0have as result%Omention,Omind,miss,pardon,postpone,prevent,propose,Orecall,Orecollect,Orememer,report,Oresent,resist,ris+,save 0prevent the wasted effort%stop,suggest,Ounderstand,O

'otes: *ppreciate is %ollowed y a possessive ad+ective and the gerund when thegerund does not re%er to the su(ect. ompare : appreciate having some time off work. /0m having the time...6 appreciate your giving me some time off work. ou0re giving me the time...6Excuse forgive pardon can e %ollowed y an ob+ect and the gerund or for $ob+ect and the gerund oth common in spo+en "nglish6, or a possessivead+ective gerund more %ormal and less li+ely to e said6:Cxcuse me interrupting.Cxcuse me for interrupting.Cxcuse my interrupting.Suggest can e used in a numer o% ways, ut 2E CAREFUL. /t is important notto con%use these patterns:



suggest5suggested possessive ad(ective6 gerund:1e suggests going to ;lastonury1e suggested going to ;lastonury1e suggested5suggests my going to ;lastonury

suggest5suggested that)clause where oth that and should

may e omitted6:1e suggests that / should go to ;lastonury1e suggested that / should go to ;lastonury1e suggested5suggests / should go to ;lastonury1e suggested5suggests / go to ;lastonury1e suggested / went to ;lastonury.

suggest5suggested *uestion word in%initive:1e suggested where to go.

7ropose is %ollowed y the gerund when it means 0suggest'1 *ohn proposed going to the debateut y the in%initive when it means 'intend'1

he 7overnment proposes bringing in new laws..Stop can e %ollowed y a gerund or in%initive, ut there is a change o%meaning ) see 7C#<E4 / E9EFC section. >read is %ollowed y the in%initive when used with 'think' , in the expression 'dread to think'1 dread to think what she'll do next.7revent is %ollowed

EITHER y a possessive ad(ective gerund:!ou can't prevent my leaving.

OR y an o(ect %rom gerund:!ou can't prevent me from leaving.

"xamples: 'ormally, a mouse wouldn0t contemplate marrying an elephant. Most mice dread meeting elephants. -e can0t ris+ getting wet ) we haven0t got any dry clothes.

/% you ta+e that (o it will mean getting home late every night.

/ can0t imagine living in that ig house. /% you uy some petrol now, it will save you stopping on the way to

@ondon. She couldn0t resist eating the plum she %ound in the %ridge. They decided to postpone painting the house until the weather

improved.




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