Context

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Context

ContentsArticlesContext 1

Context 1Context 1Context principle 3Triangle of reference 4The Message in the Bottle 6Cognitive anthropology 10Cognitive linguistics 14Cognitive psychology 18Cognitive science 29Cognitive semantics 38Frame semantics 43Situation semantics 44Semiotics 45Syntax 62Pragmatics 66Psycholinguistics 75Educational psychology 81Phenomenology 98Systems science 108Behaviorism 112Nativism 120Cognitive revolution 122Semantic externalism 125Legal interpretivism 126Synoptic philosophy 127Yin and yang 128Contextualism 131Holism 134

Phenomena 143Indexicality 143Anaphora 150

Metaphor 154Analogy 160Category 170Family resemblance 172Sense and reference 179Intension 184Denotation 185Connotation 186Implicature 187Syllogism 189Logical consequence 202Presupposition 205Thick description 210Affordance 213Latent semantic analysis 216Key Word in Context 222

Reality mapping ground 224Cognitive architecture 224Cognitive model 226Cognitive map 232Mind map 234Mental space 238Mental model 239Mental Models 244Archetype 245Stereotype 246Schema 258Behavioral script 263Scripts 264Frame 264Frame of reference 267FrameNet 275Semantic Web 277Semantic network 285Intentionality 289Language of thought 293Representational theory of mind 297

Representative realism 298Conceptual metaphor 305Conceptual blending 310Instructional scaffolding 311Neuro-linguistic programming 316Knowledge representation and reasoning 328Domain of discourse 335Community of practice 336Intertextuality 344Intersubjectivity 347Relativism 349Convention 359Grammar 361Connectionism 367Constructionism 371Constructivism 372

Reasoning ground 373Logical reasoning 373Inductive reasoning 374Deductive reasoning 379Abductive reasoning 382Defeasible reasoning 395Case-based reasoning 399Logic programming 403Probabilistic logic 411Probabilistic argument 414Bayesian inference 417Game theory 430Decision theory 448DempsterShafer theory 452Scientific method 459Critical thinking 487Problem solving 494Heuristics 503

World model 510Library of Alexandria 510

Age of Enlightenment 515Encyclopdie 552Encyclopdia Britannica 560World Brain 577Total Library 579Memex 587Scientific revolution 591Science and Civilisation in China 602The Two Cultures 606Unified Science 608Unity of science 609International Encyclopedia of Unified Science 610World-systems approach 611Internet 625World Wide Web 645Wikipedia 656Universal library 681Million Book Project 683Open Source Initiative 685Free software movement 687Consilience 691Theory of everything 695Tree of Knowledge System 703The Mind of God 714

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 715Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 739

Article LicensesLicense 744

1Context

ContextContext may refer to: Context (language use), the relevant constraints of the communicative situation that influence language use,

language variation, and discourse summary Archaeological context, an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record Opaque context, linguistic context in which substitution of co-referential expressions does not preserve truth Trama (mycology) (context or flesh), the mass of non-hymenial tissues that composes the mass of a fungal

fruiting body

Computing Context (computing), the virtual environment required to suspend a running software program Context awareness, a complementary to location awareness Context menu, a menu in a graphical user interface that appears upon user interaction ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system ConTEXT, a text editor for Microsoft Windows Operational context, a temporarily defined environment of cooperation

ContextContext is a notion used in the language sciences (linguistics, sociolinguistics, systemic functional linguistics,discourse analysis, pragmatics, semiotics, etc.) in two different ways, namely as verbal context social context

Verbal contextVerbal context refers to surrounding text or talk of an expression (word, sentence, conversational turn, speech act,etc.). The idea is that verbal context influences the way we understand the expression. Hence the norm not to citepeople out of context. Since much contemporary linguistics takes texts, discourses or conversations as its object ofanalysis, the modern study of verbal context takes place in terms of the analysis of discourse structures and theirmutual relationships, for instance the coherence relation between sentences.

Context 2

Social contextTraditionally, in sociolinguistics, social contexts were defined in terms of objective social variables, such as those ofclass, gender or race. More recently, social contexts tend to be defined in terms of the social identity being construedand displayed in text and talk by language users. Influenced by space.

Multidisciplinary theoryIn his new multidisciplinary theory of context, Teun A. van Dijk rejects objectivist concepts of social context andshows that relevant properties of social situations can only influence language use as subjective definitions of thesituation by the participants, as represented and ongoingly updated in specific mental models of language users:context models.

InfluenceThe influence of context parameters on language use or discourse is usually studied in terms of language variation,style or register (see Stylistics). The basic assumption here is that language users adapt the properties of theirlanguage use (such as intonation, lexical choice, syntax, and other aspects of formulation) to the currentcommunicative situation. In this sense, language use or discourse may be called more or less 'appropriate' in a givencontext. It is the language or derigitave terms surrounding set paragraph, novel or article.

References De Fina, A., Schiffrin, D., & Bamberg, M. (Eds.). (2006). Discourse and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Duranti, A., & Goodwin, C. (Eds.). (1992). Rethinking context. Language as an interactive phenomenon.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eckert, P., & Rickford, J. R. (2001). Style and sociolinguistic variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fetzer, A. (2004). Recontextualizing context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Ghadessy, M. (Ed.). (1999). Text and context in functional linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Givn, Talmy. (2005). Context as Other Minds. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. William Labov (1972). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Leckie-Tarry, H. (1995). Language & context. A functional linguistic theory of register. London: Pinter

Publishers. Stalnaker, Robert Culp (1999). Context and content. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Context principle 3

Context principleIn the philosophy of language, the context principle is a form of semantic holism[citation needed] holding that aphilosopher should "never ... ask for the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition"(Frege [1884/1980] x). It is one of Gottlob Frege's "three fundamental principles" for philosophical analysis, firstdiscussed in his Introduction to the Foundations of Arithmetic (Grundlagen der Arithmetik, 1884). Frege argued thatmany philosophical errors, especially those related to psychologism in the philosophy of logic and philosophy ofmathematics, could be avoided by adhering carefully to the context principle. The view of meaning expressed by thecontext principle is sometimes called contextualism, but should not be confused with the common contemporary useof the term contextualism in epistemology or ethics. This view need not be contrasted with the view that themeanings of words or expressions can (or must) be determined prior to, and independently of, the meanings of thepropositions in which they occur, which is often referred to as compositionalism.The context principle also figures prominently in the work of other Analytic philosophers who saw themselves ascontinuing Frege's work, such as Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Formulations of the context principle

Gottlob Frege, Introduction to The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884/1980)In the enquiry that follows, I have kept to three fundamental principles:

always to separate sharply the psychological from the logical, the subjective from the objective;never to ask for the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a propositionnever to lose sight of the distinction between concept and object.

Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921/1922)3.3 Only the proposition has sense; only in the context of a proposition has a name meaning. ...3.314 An expression has meaning only in a proposition. Every variable can be conceived as a propositionalvariable.(Including the variable name.)

References Frege, Gottlob (1884/1980). The Foundations of Arithmetic. Trans. J. L. Austin. Second Revised Edition.

Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 0-8101-0605-1. Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1921/1922). Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Trans. C. K. Ogden. London: Routledge

and Kegan Paul Ltd. ISBN 0-415-05186-X.

Triangle of reference 4

Triangle of referenceThe triangle of reference (also known as the triangle of meaning[1] and the semantic triangle) is a model of howlinguistic symbols are related to the objects they represent. The triangle was published in The Meaning of Meaning(1923) by Ogden and Richards.[2] While often referred to as the "Ogden/Richards triangle" the idea is also expressedin 1810, by Bernard Bolzano, in his Beitrge zu einer begrndeteren Darstellung der Mathematik. However, thetriangle can be traced back to the 4th century BC, in Aristotle's Peri Hermeneias (often referred to in its Latintranslation De Interpretatione, second book of his Organon). The Triangle relates to the problem of universals, aphilosophical debate which split ancient and medieval philosophers (mainly realists and nominalists).The triangle concerns the relationship between an expression and the subject of that expression. It draws a distinctionbetween referent (a word or non-literal representation e.g. a hieroglyph) and symbol (a literal representation), andsets out and describes the relationships between these and the thought or object that is the subject of them.

Interlocutory applications

Other triangles

The relations between the triangular cornersmay be phrased more precisely in causalterms as follows[citation needed]Wikipedia:Nooriginal research:

1. The matter evokes the writer's thought.2. The writer refers the matter to the

symbol.3. The symbol evokes the reader's thought.4. The reader refers the symbol back to the

matter.

The communicative stand

Such a triangle represents ONE person, whereas communication takes place between TWO (objects, not necessarilypersons). So imagine another triangle and consider that for the two to understand each other, the content that the"triangles" represent must fit or be aligned. Clearly, this calls for synchronisation and an interface as well as scaleamong other things. Notice also, that we perceive the world mostly through our eyes and in alternative phases ofseeing and not seeing with change in the environment as the most important information to look for. Our eyes arelenses and we see a surface (2D) in ONE direction (focusing) if we are stationary and the object is not moving either.This is why you may position yourself in one corner of the triangle and by replicating (mirroring) it, you will be ableto see the whole picture, your cognitive epistemological and the ontological existential or physical model of life, theuniverse, existence, etc. combined.[citation needed]Wikipedia:No original research

Triangle of reference 5

Direction of fitJohn Searle used the notion of "direction of fit" to create a taxonomy of illocutionary acts. [3] [4]

World orReferent

intended

Writer'sThought

decoded encodedThoughtReader's

extended

Symbolor Word

Word-to-World Fit

Writer's THOUGHT retrieves SYMBOL suited to REFERENT, Word suited to World.World-to-Word Fit

Reader's THOUGHT retrieves REFERENT suited to SYMBOL, World suited to Word.Actually the arrows indicate that there is something exchanged between the two parties and it is a feedback cycle.Especially, if you imagine that the world is represented in both persons' mind and used for reality check. If you lookat the triangle above again, then remember that reality check is not what is indicated there between the sign and thereferent and marked as "true', because a term or a sign is allocated "arbitrarily'. What you check for is the observanceof the law of identity which requires you and your partner to sort out that you are talking about the same thing. Sothe chunk of reality and the term are replacable/interchangeable within limits and your concepts in the mind aspresented in some appropriate way are all related and mean the same thing. Usually the check does not stop there,your ideas must also be tested for feasibility and doability to make sure that they are "real" and not "phantasy".Reality check comes from consolidating your experience with other people's experience to avoid solipsism and/or byputting your ideas (projection) in practice (production) and see the reaction. Notice, however how vague the verbsused and how the concept of a fit itself is left unexplained in details.Wikipedia:Manual of Style (words towatch)#Editorializing

References[1] Colin Cherry (1957) On Human Communication[2] C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards (1923) The Meaning of Meaning[3] John Searle (1975) "A Taxonomy of Illocutionary Acts", in: Gunderson, K. (ed.), Language, Mind, and Knowledge (Minneapolis: University

of Minnesota Press) pp. 344-369.[4] John Searle (1976) "A Classification of Illocutionary Acts", Language in Society, Vol.5, pp. 1-24.

External links Jessica Erickstad (1998) Richards' Meaning of Meaning Theory (http:/ / www. colorado. edu/ communication/

meta-discourses/ Papers/ App_Papers/ Erickstad. htm). University of Colorado at Boulder. Allie Cahill (1998) "Proper Meaning Superstition" (I. A. Richards) (http:/ / www. colorado. edu/ communication/

meta-discourses/ Papers/ App_Papers/ Cahill. htm). University of Colorado at Boulder.

The Message in the Bottle 6

The Message in the Bottle

The Message in the Bottle1st ed. cover (1975)

Author Walker Percy

Country United States

Language English

Genre Non-fiction: essays

Publisher Farrar, Straus and Giroux

Publication date 1975

Media type Print (Hardback)

Pages 335 pgs

ISBN 1-399-23128-6

The Delta Factor redirects here. For the film, see The Delta Factor (film)

The Message in the Bottle: How Queer Man is, How Queer Language is, and What One Has to Do with the Otheris a collection of essays on semiotics written by Walker Percy and first published in 1975. Percy writes at what hesees as the conclusion of the modern age and attempts to create a middle ground between the two dying ideologies ofthat age: Judeo-Christian ethics, which give the individual freedom and responsibility; and the rationalism of scienceand behavioralism, which positions man as an organism in an environment and strips him of this freedom.

"The Delta Factor""The Delta Factor," first published in January 1975 in the Southern Review, sets out the overall themes of the entirebook. Percy begins by asking why modern man is so sad despite the 20th century's technological innovations andunprecedented levels of comfort. More specifically, he is interested in why man feels happy in bad situations and sadin good situations (a question also posed in his novel The Last Gentleman). He posits that this overarching sadness isdue to contemporary society's position between two ages: the modern age, which is more or less slowly becomingout of date, and a new age, which is dawning but has not yet truly dawned. The anthropological theories of themodern age, according to Percy, "no longer work and the theories of the new age are not yet known" (7). Percytherefore sees his task as coming up with a new theory of man, which he chooses to center on language, man'sattribute that separates him from the animals; The Message in the Bottle will attempt to explain man's strangebehavior and unexplained sadness by explaining how man deals with language and symbols.Percy says that the current theories of man make him into a sort of monster, a "centaur organism-plus soul . . . onenot different from beasts yet somehow nevertheless possessing 'freedom' and 'dignity' and 'individuality' and 'mind'and such" (9). Modern man is, then, the collision of Judeo-Christian ethics and its focus upon individual freedom andscientific behaviorism, which says that man is no different from the animalsin other words, modern man believeshimself to be no different from animals and yet somehow above them. What's more, no existing research really dealswith the question of how language really works, of how human beings use and understand the symbols of linguistics.Percy puts this question into a sort of no-man's land, what he calls a "terra incognita" (17), between linguistics andpsychology, the former of which deals with the results of language and the latter of which deals with the way peoplerespond to language.The Delta Factor, Percy's theory of language, is framed in the context of the story of Helen Keller's learning to say and sign the word water while Annie Sullivan poured water over her hands and repeatedly made the signs for the


word into her hand. A behaviorist linguistic reading of this scene might suggest a causal relationshipin otherwords, Keller felt Sullivan's sign-language stimulus in her hand and in response made a connection in her brainbetween the signifier and the signified. This is too simplistic a reading, says Percy, because Keller was receivingfrom both the signifier (the sign for water) and the referent (the water itself). This creates a triangle between water(the word), water (the liquid), and Helen, in which all three corners lead to the other two corners and which Percysays is "absolutely irreducible" (40). This linguistic triangle is thus the building block for all of human intelligence.The moment when this Delta entered the mind of manwhether this happened via random chance or through theintervention of a deityhe became man.Further, in Delta , the corners of the triangle are removed from their behaviorist contexts. Helen Keller, in otherwords, becomes something other than just an organism in her environment because she is coupling two unrelatedthings--water the word and water the liquidtogether. Likewise, water the liquid is made something more thanwater the liquid because Keller has coupled it with the arbitrary sound water, and water the word becomes more thanjust the sound of the word water (and the shape of the sign language for water). In this way, "the Delta phenomenonyielded a new world and maybe a new way of getting at it. It was not the world of organisms and environments butjust as real and twice as human" (44)--man is made whole by the Delta where the popular notions of religion andscience had split him in two.

"The Loss of the Creature""The Loss of the Creature" is an exploration of the way the more or less objective reality of the individual isobscured in and ultimately lost to systems of education and classification. Percy begins by discussing the GrandCanyonhe says that, whereas Garca Lpez de Crdenas, who discovered the canyon, was amazed and awed by it,the modern-day sightseer can see it only through the lens of "the symbolic complex which has already been formedin the sightseer's mind" (47). Because of this, the sightseer does not appreciate the Grand Canyon on its own merits;he appreciates it based on how well or poorly it conforms to his preexisting image of the Grand Canyon, formed bythe mythology surrounding it. What is more, instead of approaching the site directly, he approaches it by takingphotographs, which, Percy says, is not approaching it at all. By these two processesjudging the site on postcardsand taking his own pictures of it instead of confronting it himselfthe tourist subjugates the present to the past andto the future, respectively.Percy suggests several ways of getting around this situation, almost all of them involving bypassing the structure oforganized approachesone could go off the beaten path, for example, or be removed from the presence of othertourists by a national disaster. This bypassing, however, can lead to other problems: Namely, the methods used arenot necessarily authentic; "some stratagems obviously serve other purposes than that of providing access to being"(51). Percy gives the example of a pair of tourists who, disgusted with the proliferation of other tourists in thepopular areas of Mexico, stumble into a tiny village where a festival is taking place. The couple enjoys themselvesand repeatedly tells themselves, "Now we are really living," but Percy judges their experience inauthentic becausethey are constantly concerned that things may not go perfectly. When they return home, they tell an ethnographistfriend of theirs about the festival and how they wish he could have been there. This, says Percy, is their real problem:"They wanted him, not to share their experience, but to certify their experience as genuine" (53).The layman in modern society, then, surrenders his ownership to the specialist, whom he believes has authority overhim in his field. This creates a caste system of sorts between laymen and experts, but Percy says that the worst thingabout this system is that the layman does not even realize what it is he has lost.This is most evident in education. Percy alludes to a metaphor he had used in "The Delta Factor," that of the literature student who cannot read a Shakespearean sonnet that is easily read by a post apocalyptic survivor in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World. The literature student is blocked from the sonnet by the educational system built around it, what Percy calls its "package." Instead of transmitting the subject of education, education often transmits only itself, and the student does not view the subject as open and delightful, nor does he view himself as sovereign.


Percy offers two ways around this, both involving, as did his solution to the problem of the Grand Canyon, anindirect approach. Either the student can suffer some sort of ordeal that opens the text to him in a new way; or elsehe can be apprenticed to a teacher who takes a very unusual approach to the subject. He suggests that biologystudents be occasionally taught literature, and vice-versa.The overall effect of this obscuration by structure is one of the basic conditions of modern society: The individuallayman is reduced to being a consumer. The individual thing becomes lost to the systems of classification and theorycreated for the consumer, and the individual man loses all sense of ownership. The solution to this problem,according to Percy, is not to get rid of museums but for "the sightseer to be prepared to enter into a struggle torecover a sight from a museum" (62).

"Metaphor as Mistake"Percy begins "Metaphor as Mistake" (1958) with five metaphors which were misunderstood; these misunderstoodmetaphors, he says, have nevertheless "resulted in an authentic poetic experience . . . an experience, moreover, whichwas notably absent before the mistake was made" (65). Metaphor, in Percy's view, is a way of getting at the realnature of a thing by comparing it to something that it does not resemble on the surface. It becomes a tool forontological exploration.Existing inquiries have failed to notice this, however, because they either abstract their viewpoints from botheffective and ineffective metaphors (this is the path of philosophy) or focus on the individual effects of the individualpoet (this is the path of literary criticism). As he does in "The Delta Factor," Percy wishes to seek a middle groundbetween these two extremes. He makes it clear, however, that the metaphor has scientific, rather than strictly poetic,value for him;he sees metaphor as a method of getting at the way things actually are.Two qualifications exist for the metaphor as mistake: It must be given by an authority figure, and it must have acertain aura of mystery around it. In this way, the metaphor becomes both right (given by authority) and wrong (notstrictly true as a descriptor).Percy's example is of a boy on a hunting trip who sees a bird and asks what it is. The African-Americanaccompanying him and his father calls the bird a blue dollar, which excites the boy until his father corrects him andtells him the bird is actually a blue darter. The term blue darter may describe what the bird does and what color it is,says Percy, but blue dollar in some mystical way gets at what the bird actually is. When the boy saw the bird, heformed a subjective impression of itwhat Percy calls the bird's "apprehended nature" (72)--and in some sense themistaken name blue dollar gets right at the heart of that apprehended nature.In this way, the metaphor becomes both science and poetry; it is a sort of subjective science, the ontology of theworld as it appears to the individual. Percy says that we can only understand reality through metaphor. We neverperceive the world--"We can only conceive being, sidle up to it by laying something else alongside" (72). Alllanguage, then, and perhaps all intelligence, are therefore metaphorical. When one person makes a metaphor, thepeople who hear it hope that it corresponds to their subjective understanding of realityan understanding they mayor may not even be consciously aware of.The poet, according to Percy, has a double-edged task: His metaphors must ring true, but they must be flexibleenough to reverberate with his audience and for them to gain a new understanding of the things to which they refer.The poet must refer to things we already know, but he must do so in new ways; in this, he gives his audience accessto their own private experiences.This can lead to a sort of blind groping for metaphors, however, a process which Percy sees as effective but harmful.Authority and intention are essential for metaphors to be shared between the Namer and the Hearer.


"Notes for a Novel About the End of the World""A Novel About the End of the World" makes a striking counterpart to Percy's novel Love in the Ruins, subtitled"The Adventures of a Bad Catholic at a Time Near the End of the World" and published only four years after theessay. The apocalyptic novel is a form of prophecy, a warning about what will happen if society does not change itsways. This sort of novel is written by a particular type of novelist, one defined not by his quality but by his goals.Percy refers to this novelist as a "religious novelist" but notes that he includes atheists such as Jean-Paul Sartre andAlbert Camus in this category because of their "passionate conviction about man's nature, the world, and man'sobligation in the world" (103).The religious novelist, says Percy, has very different concerns than the mainstream of the society in which helivesso different, in fact, one must decide whether society is blind or whether the novelist is insane or a charlatan.The central difference between the novelist and the rest of society is that the former tends to be pessimistic and thelatter tends to be optimistic. The novelist has a "profound disquiet" (106).The novelist is set off in particular against the scientist and against the "new theologian"from the former becausethe novelists insists on the individual while science measures only categories, and from the latter because thenovelist still believes in original sin. The Christian novelist in particular recognizes that the problem is not thatChristianity is not relevant to modern society but that man's blind acceptance of "the magical aura of science, whosecredentials he accepts for all sectors of reality" (113) is changing his consciousness to the point where he can nolonger recognize the Gospel.The novel about the end of the world, then, is an attempt to shock the complacent reader out of his scientism and intothe light of the real world.

"The Message in the Bottle"In "The Message in the Bottle," Percy attempts to separate information into two categories: knowledge and news.The essay is built on an extended metaphor of a castaway with amnesia who remembers nothing but the island hewashes up on and who creates a new life with the natives of the island. The castaway frequently finds on the beachbottles that have one-sentence messages on the inside, such as "There is fresh water in the next cove," "The Britishare coming to Concord," or "Lead melts at 330 degrees."A group of scientists lives on the island, and they separate these messages into two categories: empirical facts andanalytic facts. The castaway is disturbed by this classification, however, because it does not take into account themessages' effect on the reader. Thus, he comes up with the categories of knowledge and news. Knowledge belongs toscience, to psychology and to the arts; simply put, it is that "which can be arrived at anywhere by anyone and at anytime" (125). News, on the other hand, bears directly and immediately on his life. The scientists, because of theircommitment to objectivity above all else, cannot recognize the difference between these two categories.A piece of news is not verified the way a piece of knowledge iswhereas knowledge can be verified empirically,news can be verified empirically only after the hearer has already heeded its call. The castaway must first, however,decide when to heed the call of a piece of news and when to ignore it. Percy sets forth three criteria for theacceptance of a piece of news: (a) its relevance to the hearer's predicament; (b) the trustworthiness of thenewsbearer; and (c) its likelihood or possibility. As news depends so heavily on its bearer, the messages in bottlesthat the castaway finds cannot be sufficient credential in and of themselves. The castaway must know somethingabout the person who wrote them.The problem with modern society is that too many people attempt to cure their feelings of homelessness by seekingknowledge in the fields of science and art. Their real problem, says Percy, is that their feelings of homelessnesscome from their being stranded on the islandthey should be looking for news from across the seas.Percy links this distinction between news and knowledge to how the world understands the Christian gospel. Hewrites that the gospel must be understood as a piece of news and not a piece of knowledge. To Percy, the gospel is


news from across the seas.

References Percy, Walker. The Message in the Bottle. New York: Picador, 1975.

Cognitive anthropology

Part of a series on

Medical andpsychologicalanthropology

Social and culturalanthropology

Anthropology Fields Archaeological Biological Cultural Linguistic SocialArchaeological subfields Bioarchaeological Environmental Ethnoarchaeological Feminist Maritime Paleoethnobotanical ZooarchaeologicalSocial and cultural subfields Applied Art

Cognitive anthropology 11

Cognitive Cyborg Development Digital Ecological Environmental Economic Political economy Historical Feminist Kinship Legal Media Medical Musical Political Psychological Public Religion Science and technology Transpersonal Urban VisualLinguistics subfields Anthropological Descriptive Ethno- Historical Semiotic Sociolinguistics EthnopoeticsBiological subfields Anthrozoological Biocultural Evolutionary Forensic Molecular Neurological Nutritional


Palaeoanthropological PrimatologicalResearch framework Anthropometry Ethnography Ethnology Cross-cultural comparison Participant observation Online ethnography Holism Reflexivity Thick description Cultural relativism Ethnocentrism Emic and etic History of anthropologyKey theories Actor-network and alliance theory Cross-cultural studies Cultural materialism Culture theory Feminism Functionalism Interpretive Performance studies Political economy Practice theory Structuralism Post-structuralism Systems theoryKey concepts Evolution Society Culture Prehistory Sociocultural evolution Kinship and descent Gender Race


Ethnicity Development Colonialism Postcolonialism ValueLists Outline Bibliography Journals By years Organizations Anthropologists by nationality Anthropology portalCognitive anthropology is an approach within cultural anthropology in which scholars seek to explain patterns ofshared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of thecognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaborationwith historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in thedescription and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people fromdifferent groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the worldaround them.From a linguistics stand-point, cognitive anthropology uses language as the doorway to study cognition. Its generalgoal is to break language down to find commonalities in different cultures and the ways people perceive the world.Linguistic study of cognitive anthropology may be broken down into three subfields: semantics, syntactics, andpragmatics.One of the techniques used is Cultural Network Analysis, the drawing of networks of interrelated ideas that arewidely shared among members of a population. Recently there has been some interchange between cognitiveanthropologists and those working in artificial intelligence.

Notes

References Colby, Benjamin; Fernandez, James W.; Kronenfeld, David B. (1981). Toward a convergence of cognitive and

symbolic anthropology. New York: Blackwell Publishing. D'Andrade, R. (1995), The Development of Cognitive Anthropology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gomm, Roger (2009). Key concepts in social research methods. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

ISBN0-230-21499-1. Quinn, N. (2005), Finding Culture in Talk: A Collection of Methods, New York: Palgrave Macmillan


Further reading Sieck, W. R. (2010). Cultural network analysis: Method and application. In D. Schmorrow & D. Nicholson

(Eds.), Advances in Cross-Cultural Decision Making, CRC Press / Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

Cognitive linguistics

LinguisticsTheoretical linguistics

Cognitive Generative Quantitative Functional theories of grammar Phonology Morphology Morphophonology Syntax Lexis Semantics Pragmatics Graphemics Orthography Semiotics

Descriptive linguistics

Anthropological Comparative Historical Etymology Graphetics Phonetics Sociolinguistics

Applied andexperimental linguistics

Computational Contrastive Evolutionary Forensic Internet

Language acquisition(second-language)

Language assessment Language development Language education Linguistic anthropology Neurolinguistics Psycholinguistics

Related articles

Cognitive linguistics 15

History of linguistics Linguistic prescription List of linguists Unsolved problems

Linguistics portal

Cognitive linguistics (CL) refers to the branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts,sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie its forms. It is thus closely associatedwith semantics but is distinct from psycholinguistics, which draws upon empirical findings from cognitivepsychology in order to explain the mental processes that underlie the acquisition, storage, production andunderstanding of speech and writing.Cognitive linguistics is characterized by adherence to three central positions. First, it denies that there is anautonomous linguistic faculty in the mind; second, it understands grammar in terms of conceptualization; and third,it claims that knowledge of language arises out of language use.Cognitive linguists deny that the mind has any module for language-acquisition that is unique and autonomous. Thisstands in contrast to the stance adopted in the field of generative grammar. Although cognitive linguists do notnecessarily deny that part of the human linguistic ability is innate, they deny that it is separate from the rest ofcognition. They thus reject a body of opinion in cognitive science suggesting that there is evidence for themodularity of language. They argue that knowledge of linguistic phenomena i.e., phonemes, morphemes, andsyntax is essentially conceptual in nature. However, they assert that the storage and retrieval of linguistic data isnot significantly different from the storage and retrieval of other knowledge, and that use of language inunderstanding employs similar cognitive abilities to those used in other non-linguistic tasks.Departing from the tradition of truth-conditional semantics, cognitive linguists view meaning in terms ofconceptualization. Instead of viewing meaning in terms of models of the world, they view it in terms of mentalspaces.Finally, cognitive linguistics argues that language is both embodied and situated in a specific environment. This canbe considered a moderate offshoot of the SapirWhorf hypothesis, in that language and cognition mutually influenceone another, and are both embedded in the experiences and environments of its users.

Areas of studyCognitive linguistics is divided into three main areas of study: Cognitive semantics, dealing mainly with lexical semantics, separating semantics (meaning) into

meaning-construction and knowledge representation. Cognitive approaches to grammar, dealing mainly with syntax, morphology and other traditionally more

grammar-oriented areas. Cognitive phonology, dealing with classification of various correspondences between morphemes and phonetic

sequences.Aspects of cognition that are of interest to cognitive linguists include: Construction grammar and cognitive grammar. Conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending. Image schemas and force dynamics. Conceptual organization: Categorization, Metonymy, Frame semantics, and Iconicity. Construal and Subjectivity. Gesture and sign language. Linguistic relativity. Cultural linguistics.


Related work that interfaces with many of the above themes: Computational models of metaphor and language acquisition. Dynamical models of language acquisition Conceptual semantics, pursued by generative linguist Ray Jackendoff is related because of its active

psychological realism and the incorporation of prototype structure and images.Cognitive linguistics, more than generative linguistics, seeks to mesh together these findings into a coherent whole.A further complication arises because the terminology of cognitive linguistics is not entirely stable, both because it isa relatively new field and because it interfaces with a number of other disciplines.Insights and developments from cognitive linguistics are becoming accepted ways of analysing literary texts, too.Cognitive Poetics, as it has become known, has become an important part of modern stylistics.

ControversyThere is significant peer review and debate within the field of linguistics regarding cognitive linguistics. Critics ofcognitive linguistics have argued that most of the evidence from the cognitive view comes from the research inpragmatics and semantics on research into metaphor and preposition choice. They suggest that cognitive linguistsshould provide cognitive re-analyses of topics in syntax and phonology that are understood in terms of autonomousknowledge (Gibbs 1996).There is also controversy and debate within the field concerning the representation and status of idioms in grammarand the actual mental grammar of speakers. On one hand it is asserted that idiom variation needs to be explainedwith regard to general and autonomous syntactic rules. Another view says such idioms do not constitute semanticunits and can be processed compositionally (Langlotz 2006).

References

Notes

General references Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press. Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Gibbs (1996) in Casad ED. Cognitive Linguistics in the Redwoods: The Expansion of a New Paradigm in

Linguistics (Cognitive Linguistic Research) Mouton De Gruyter (June 1996) ISBN 9783110143584 Langlotz, Andreas. 2006. Idiomatic Creativity: A Cognitive-linguistic Model of Idiom-representation And Idiom

Variation in English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Further reading Evans, Vyvyan & Melanie Green (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh

University Press. Evans, Vyvyan (2007). A Glossary of Cognitive Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Evans, Vyvyan; Benjamin Bergen & Joerg Zinken (2007). The Cognitive Linguistics Reader. London: Equinox. Evans, Vyvyan, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jrg Zinken. The Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise: An Overview (http:/

/ www. vyvevans. net/ CLoverview. pdf). In Vyvyan Evans, Benjamin K. Bergen and Jrg Zinken (Eds). TheCognitive Linguistics Reader. Equinox Publishing Co.

Geeraerts, D. & H. Cuyckens, eds. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. ISBN 978 0 19 514378 2.


Geeraerts, D., ed. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Kristiansen et al., eds. (2006). Cognitive Linguistics: Current Applications and Future Perspectives. Berlin / New

York: Mouton de Gruyter. Rohrer, T. Embodiment and Experientialism in Cognitive Linguistics. In the Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics,

Dirk Geeraerts and Herbert Cuyckens, eds., Oxford University Press, forthcoming. Gilles Fauconnier has written a brief, manifesto-like introduction to Cognitive linguistics, which compares it to

mainstream, Chomsky-inspired linguistics. See "Introduction to Methods and Generalizations" in T. Janssen andG. Redeker (Eds) (1999). Scope and Foundations of Cognitive Linguistics. The Hague: Mouton De Gruyter.Cognitive Linguistics Research Series. ( on-line version (http:/ / cogweb. ucla. edu/ Abstracts/ Fauconnier_99.html))

Grady, Oakley, and Coulson (1999). "Blending and Metaphor". In Metaphor in cognitive linguistics, Steen andGibbs (eds.). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ( online version (http:/ / cogweb. ucla. edu/ CogSci/ Grady_99.html))

Schmid, H. J. et al. (1996). An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics. New York, Longman. Silverman, Daniel (2011). "Usage-based phonology", in Bert Botma, Nancy C. Kula, and Kuniya Nasukawa, eds.,

Continuum Companion to Phonology. Continuum. Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in Thought and Language. Taylor, J. R. (2002). Cognitive Grammar. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Croft, W. & D. A. Cruse (2004) Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard

University Press. Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner (2003). The Way We Think (http:/ / markturner. org/ wwt. html). New York:

Basic Books. Lakoff, George (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind University

of Chicago Press. ISBN 0 226 46804 6. The Cognitive Linguistics Bibliography, Wolf et al., Mouton De Gruyter, Berlin, 2006. Conceptual semantics and Cognitive linguistics. Online Version (http:/ / www. linglit. tu-darmstadt. de/

fileadmin/ linglit/ teich/ lg-science/ herget. pdf) GOOSSENS, LOUIS. Oct. 2009. Metaphtonymy: the interaction of metaphor and metonymy in expressions for

linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics (includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Volume 1, Issue 3, Pages323342, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641, ISSN (Print) 0936-5907, DOI: 10.1515/cogl.1990.1.3.323

Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Lee, D.A. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction 1st ed. Melbourne:Oxford University Press, 2001.

Corpus Approaches to Critical Metaphor Analysis: Charteris-Black, J. (2004) Corpus Approaches to CriticalMetaphor Analysis. Palgrave-MacMillan. ISBN 1403932921

The cognitive psychological reality of image schemas and their transformations. Oct. 2009. Cognitive Linguistics(includes Cognitive Linguistic Bibliography). Volume 6, Issue 4, Pages 347378, ISSN (Online) 1613-3641,ISSN (Print) 0936-5907


External links International Cognitive Linguistics Association (http:/ / www. cogling. org) UK Cognitive Linguistics Association (http:/ / www. uk-cla. org. uk) Annotated Cognitive Linguistics Reading List (http:/ / www. vyvevans. net) (Vyv Evans) JohnQPublik's Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (http:/ / www. chrisdb. me. uk/ wiki/ doku.

php?id=cognitive_linguistics)Wikipedia:Link rot is an overview of the field, comparing it to traditionalChomskyan linguistics.

Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics (http:/ / markturner. org/ coglingSpring07. html) (Mark Turner). The Gestalt Theory and Linguistics Page (http:/ / www. gestalttheory. net/ linguistics/ ) deals with the relationship

between Gestalt theory and cognitive linguistics. The Center for the Cognitive Science of Metaphor Online (http:/ / zakros. ucsd. edu/ ~trohrer/ metaphor/

metaphor. htm) is a collection of numerous formative articles in the fields of conceptual metaphor and conceptualintegration.

Cognitive psychology

Psychology

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Neuropsychology

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Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception,problem solving, and thinking."[1] Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated intovarious other modern disciplines of psychological study including social psychology, personality psychology,abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, and educational psychology.

HistoryPhilosophically, ruminations of the human mind and its processes have been around since the times of the ancientGreeks. In 387 BC, Plato is known to have suggested that the brain was the seat of the mental processes.[2] In 1637,Ren Descartes posited that humans are born with innate ideas, and forwarded the idea of mind-body dualism, whichwould come to be known as substance dualism (essentially the idea that the mind and the body are two separatesubstances).[3] From that time, major debates ensued through the 19th century regarding whether human thought wassolely experiential (empiricism), or included innate knowledge (nativism). Some of those involved in this debateincluded George Berkeley and John Locke on the side of empiricism, and Immanuel Kant on the side of nativism.[4]

With the philosophical debate continuing, the mid to late 18th century was a critical time in the development of psychology as a scientific discipline. Two discoveries that would later play substantial roles in cognitive psychology were Paul Broca's discovery of the area of the brain largely responsible for language production, and Carl Wernicke's discovery of an area thought to be mostly responsible for comprehension of language.[5] Both areas were subsequently formally named for their founders and disruptions of an individual's language production or comprehension due to trauma or malformation in these areas have come to commonly be known as Broca's aphasia


and Wernicke's aphasia.In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formalschool of thought: With the development of new warfare technology during WWII, the need for a greater understanding of human

performance came to prominence. Problems such as how to best train soldiers to use new technology and how todeal with matters of attention while under duress became areas of need for military personnel. Behaviorismprovided little if any insight into these matters and it was the work of Donald Broadbent, integrating conceptsfrom human performance research and the recently developed information theory, that forged the way in this area.

Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and thecomputational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell andHerbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitivepsychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization ofmental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.)

Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique[6] of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come tobe known as the "cognitive revolution".

Ulric Neisser is credited with formally having coined the term "cognitive psychology" (in terms of the currentunderstanding of cognitive psychology) in his book Cognitive Psychology, published in 1967.[7] Neisser's definitionof "cognition" illustrates the, then, progressive concept of cognitive processes well:

The term "cognition" refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced,elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate inthe absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition,it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that everypsychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon. But although cognitive psychology is concernedwith all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view.Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary. Dynamic psychology, which begins with motivesrather than with sensory input, is a case in point. Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiencesresult from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow fromthe subject's goals, needs, or instincts.

The mental processesThe main focus of cognitive psychologists is on the mental processes that affect behavior. Those processes include,but are not limited to, the following:

AttentionThe psychological definition of attention is "A state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual information". The key function of attention is to discriminate between irrelevant data and filter it out, enabling the desired data to be distributed to the other mental processes. The human brain may, at times, simultaneously receive inputs in the form of auditory, visual, olfactory, taste, and tactile information. Without the ability to filter out some or most of that simultaneous information and focus on one or typically two at most, the brain would become overloaded as a person attempted to process that information. One major focal point relating to attention within the field of cognitive psychology is the concept of divided attention. A number of early studies dealt with the ability of a person wearing headphones to discern meaningful conversation when presented with different messages into each ear. Key findings involved an increased understanding of the mind's ability to both focus on one message, while still being somewhat aware of information being taken in from the ear not being consciously attended to. E.g. participants (wearing earphones) may be told that they will be hearing separate messages in each ear and that they are expected to attend only to information related to basketball. When the experiment starts, the message about basketball will be


presented to the left ear and non-relevant information will be presented to the right ear. At some point the messagerelated to basketball will switch to the right ear and the non-relevant information to the left ear. When this happens,the listener is usually able to repeat the entire message at the end, having attended to the left or right ear only when itwas appropriate.

MemoryModern conceptions of memory typically break it down into three main sub-classes. These three classes aresomewhat hierarchical in nature, in terms of the level of conscious thought related to their use.[8]

Procedural memory is memory for the performance of particular types of action. It is often activated on asubconscious level, or at most requires a minimal amount of conscious effort. Procedural memory includesstimulus-response type information which is activated through association with particular tasks, routines, etc. Aperson is using procedural knowledge when they seemingly "automatically" respond in a particular manner, to aparticular situation or process.

Semantic memory is the encyclopedic knowledge that a person possesses. Things like what the Eiffel Towerlooks like, or the name of a friend from sixth grade would be semantic memory. Access of semantic memoryranges from slightly to extremely effortful, which depends on a number of variables including but not limited to:recency of encoding of the information, number of associations it has to other information, frequency of access,and levels of meaning (how deeply it was processed when it was encoded).

Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly stated. It contains all memoriesthat are temporal in nature, such as when you last brushed your teeth, where you were when you heard about amajor news event, etc. Episodic memory typically requires the deepest level of conscious thought, as it often pullstogether semantic memory and temporal information to formulate the entire memory.

PerceptionPerception involves both the physical senses (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch, and proprioception) as well as thecognitive processes involved in interpreting those senses. Essentially, it is how people come to understand the worldaround them through interpretation of stimuli.[9] Early psychologists like Edward B. Titchener, began to work withperception in their structuralist approach to psychology. Structuralism dealt heavily with trying to reduce humanthought (or "consciousness," as Titchener would have called it) into its most basic elements by gainingunderstanding of how an individual perceives particular stimuli.[10]

Current perspectives on perception within cognitive psychology tend to focus on particular ways in which the humanmind interprets stimuli from the senses and how these interpretations affect behavior. An example of the way inwhich modern psychologists approach the study of perception would be the research being done at the Center forEcological Study of Perception and Action at the University of Connecticut (CESPA). One study at CESPA concernsways in which individuals perceive their physical environment and how that influences their navigation through thatenvironment.[11]

LanguagePsychologists have had an interest in the cognitive processes involved with language that dates back to the 1870s, when Carl Wernicke proposed a model for the mental processing of language.[12] Current work on language within the field of cognitive psychology varies widely. Cognitive psychologists may study language acquisition,[13]

individual components of language formation (like phonemes),[14] how language use is involved in mood,[15] or numerous other related areas. Significant work has been done recently with regard to understanding the timing of language acquisition and how it can be used to determine if a child has, or is at risk of, developing a learning disability. A study from 2012, showed that while this can be an effective strategy, it is important that those making evaluations include all relevant


information when making their assessments. Factors such as individual variability, socioeconomic status, short termand long term memory capacity, and others must be included in order to make valid assessments.

MetacognitionMetacognition, in a broad sense, is the thoughts that a person has about their own thoughts. More specifically,metacognition includes things like: How effective a person is at monitoring their own performance on a given task (self-regulation). A person's understanding of their capabilities on particular mental tasks. The ability to apply cognitive strategies.[16]

Much of the current study regarding metacognition within the field of cognitive psychology deals with its applicationwithin the area of education. Being able to increase a student's metacognitive abilities has been shown to have asignificant impact on their learning and study habits.[17] One key aspect of this concept is the improvement ofstudents' ability to set goals and self-regulate effectively to meet those goals. As a part of this process, it is alsoimportant to ensure that students are realistically evaluating their personal degree of knowledge and setting realisticgoals (another metacognitive task).[18]

Modern cognitive psychologyModern perspectives on cognitive psychology generally address cognition as a dual process theory, introduced byJonathan Haidt in 2006, and expounded upon by Daniel Kahneman in 2011.[19] Kahneman differentiated the twostyles of processing more, calling them intuition and reasoning. Intuition (or system 1), similar to associativereasoning, was determined to be fast and automatic, usually with strong emotional bonds included in the reasoningprocess. Kahneman said that this kind of reasoning was based on formed habits and very difficult to change ormanipulate. Reasoning (or system 2) was slower and much more volatile, being subject to conscious judgments andattitudes.

Applications of cognitive psychology

Abnormal psychologyFollowing the cognitive revolution, and as a result of many of the principle discoveries to come out of the field ofcognitive psychology, the discipline of cognitive therapy evolved. Aaron T. Beck is generally regarded as the fatherof cognitive therapy.[20] His work in the areas of recognition and treatment of depression has gained worldwidenotoriety. In his 1987 book titled Cognitive Therapy of Depression, Beck puts forth three salient points with regardto his reasoning for the treatment of depression by means of therapy or therapy and antidepressants versus using apharmacological-only approach:

1. Despite the prevalent use of antidepressants, the fact remains that not all patients respond to them.Beck cites (in 1987) that only 60 to 65% of patients respond to antidepressants, and recentmeta-analyses (a statistical breakdown of multiple studies) show very similar numbers.[21]

2.Many of those who do respond to antidepressants end up not taking their medications, for variousreasons. They may develop side-effects or have some form of personal objection to taking the drugs.3. Beck posits that the use of psychotropic drugs may lead to an eventual breakdown in the individual'scoping mechanisms. His theory is that the person essentially becomes reliant on the medication as ameans of improving mood and fails to practice those coping techniques typically practiced by healthyindividuals to alleviate the effects of depressive symptoms. By failing to do so, once the patient isweaned off of the antidepressants, they often are unable to cope with normal levels of depressed moodand feel driven to reinstate use of the antidepressants.[22]


Social psychologyMany facets of modern social psychology have roots in research done within the field of cognitive psychology.Social cognition is a specific sub-set of social psychology that conlloocentrates on processes that have been ofparticular focus within cognitive psychology, specifically applied to human interactions. Gordon B. Moskowitzdefines social cognition as "...the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, attending to, remembering,thinking about, and making sense of the people in our social world".[23]

The development of multiple social information processing models (SIP) has been influential in studies involvingaggressive and anti-social behavior. Kenneth Dodge's SIP model is one of, if not the most, empirically supportedmodels relating to aggression. Among his research, Dodge posits that children who possess a greater ability toprocess social information more often display higher levels of socially acceptable behavior. His model asserts thatthere are five steps that an individual proceeds through when evaluating interactions with other individuals and thathow the person interprets cues is key to their reactionary process.[24]

Developmental psychologyMany of the prominent names in the field of developmental psychology base their understanding of development oncognitive models. One of the major paradigms of developmental psychology, the Theory of Mind (ToM), dealsspecifically with the ability of an individual to effectively understand and attribute cognition to those around them.This concept typically becomes fully apparent in children between the ages of 4 and 6. Essentially, before the childdevelops ToM, they are unable to understand that those around them can have different thoughts, ideas, or feelingsthan themselves. The development of ToM is a matter of metacognition, or thinking about one's thoughts. The childmust be able to recognize that they have their own thoughts and in turn, that others possess thoughts of their own.[25]

One of the foremost minds with regard to developmental psychology, Jean Piaget, focused much of his attention oncognitive development from birth through adulthood. Though there have been considerable challenges to parts of hisstages of cognitive development, they remain a staple in the realm of education. Piaget's concepts and ideas predatedthe cognitive revolution but inspired a wealth of research in the field of cognitive psychology and many of hisprinciples have been blended with modern theory to synthesize the predominant views of today.[26]

Educational psychologyModern theories of education have applied many concepts that are focal points of cognitive psychology. Some of themost prominent concepts include: Metacognition: Metacognition is a broad concept encompassing all manners of one's thoughts and knowledge

about their own thinking. A key area of educational focus in this realm is related to self-monitoring, which relateshighly to how well students are able to evaluate their personal knowledge and apply strategies to improveknowledge in areas in which they are lacking.[27]

Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge: Declarative knowledge is a persons 'encyclopedic' knowledgebase, whereas procedural knowledge is specific knowledge relating to performing particular tasks. Theapplication of these cognitive paradigms to education attempts to augment a student's ability to integratedeclarative knowledge into newly learned procedures in an effort to facilitate accelerated learning.

Knowledge organization: Applications of cognitive psychology's understanding of how knowledge is organized inthe brain has been a major focus within the field of education in recent years. The hierarchical method oforganizing information and how that maps well onto the brain's memory are concepts that that have provenextremely beneficial in classrooms.


Personality psychologyThe Big 5 personality traits are five broad domains or dimensions of personality that are used to describe humanpersonality. Those five traits include neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness.Cognitive therapeutic approaches have received considerable attention in the treatment of personality disorders inrecent years. The approach focuses on the formation of what it believes to be faulty schemata, centralized onjudgmental biases and general cognitive errors.[28]

Cognitive psychology vs. cognitive scienceThe line between cognitive psychology and cognitive science can be a blurry one. The differentiation between thetwo is best understood in terms of cognitive psychology's relationship to applied psychology, and the understandingof psychological phenomena. Cognitive psychologists are often heavily involved in running psychologicalexperiments involving human participants, with the goal of gathering information related to how the human mindtakes in, processes, and acts upon inputs received from the outside world.[29] The information gained in this area isthen often used in the applied field of clinical psychology. One of the paradigms of cognitive psychology derived inthis manner, is that every individual develops schemata which motivate the person to think or act in a particular wayin the face of a particular circumstance. E.g., most people have a schema for waiting in line. When approachingsome type of service counter where people are waiting their turn, most people don't just walk to the front of the lineand butt in. Their schema for that situation tells them to get in the back of the line. This, in turn, applies to the fieldof abnormal psychology as a result of individuals sometimes developing faulty schemata which lead them toconsistently react in a dysfunctional manner. If a person has a schema that says "I am no good at making friends",they may become so reluctant to pursue interpersonal relationships that they become prone to seclusion.[citation needed]

Cognitive science is better understood as predominantly concerned with gathering data through research. Cognitivescience envelopes a much broader scope, which has links to philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, andparticularly with artificial intelligence. It could be said that cognitive science provides the database of informationthat fuels the theory from which cognitive psychologists operate.[30] Cognitive scientists' research mostly involvesnon-human subjects, allowing them to delve into areas which would come under ethical scrutiny if performed onhuman participants. I.e., they may do research implanting devices in the brains of rats to track the firing of neuronswhile the rat performs a particular task. Cognitive science is highly involved in the area of artificial intelligence andits application to the understanding of mental processes.[citation needed]

CriticismsIn its early years, critics held that the empiricism of cognitive psychology was incompatible with its acceptance ofinternal mental states. However, the sibling field of cognitive neuroscience has provided evidence of physiologicalbrain states that directly correlate with mental states - thus providing support for the central assumption of cognitivepsychology.As cognitive psychology gained momentum as a movement, through the 1970s, the complexity of the processesinvolved in human thought, in the opinion of many, fractured studies of cognition so greatly that the field lostcohesion. John C. Malone poses the assertion, in his book: Psychology: Pythagoras to Present, that "Examinationsof late twentieth-century textbooks dealing with 'cognitive psychology', 'human cognition', 'cognitive science', andthe like quickly reveals that there are many, many varieties of cognitive psychology and very little agreement aboutexactly what may be its domain".The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches inpsychology, such as dynamical systems, and the embodiment perspective.


Major research areasPerception

General perception Psychophysics Attention Pattern recognition Object recognition Time sensation Form PerceptionCategorization

Category induction and acquisition Categorical judgement and classification Category representation and structure Similarity (psychology)Memory

Aging and memory Autobiographical memory Constructive memory Emotion and memory Episodic memory Eyewitness memory False memories Flashbulb memory List of memory biases Long-term memory Semantic memory Short-term memory Spaced repetition Source monitoring Working memoryKnowledge representation

Mental imagery Propositional encoding Imagery versus proposition debate Dual-coding theories Media psychology Numerical cognitionLanguage

Grammar and linguistics Phonetics and phonology Language acquisition Language processingThinking

Choice (see also: Choice theory) Concept formation


Decision making Logic, formal and natural reasoning Problem solving

Influential cognitive psychologists John R. Anderson Alan Baddeley Albert Bandura Frederic Bartlett Elizabeth Bates Aaron T. Beck Donald Broadbent Jerome Bruner Gordon H. Bower Susan Carey Noam Chomsky Fergus Craik Antonio Damasio Hermann Ebbinghaus William Estes C. Randy Gallistel Michael Gazzaniga Rochel Gelman Dedre Gentner Keith Holyoak Philip Johnson-Laird Daniel Kahneman Nancy Kanwisher Eric Lenneberg Alan Leslie Elizabeth Loftus Brian MacWhinney George Mandler Jean Matter Mandler James McClelland Eugene Galanter George Armitage Miller Ken Nakayama Ulrich Neisser Allen Newell Allan Paivio Seymour Papert Charles Sanders Peirce Jean Piaget Steven Pinker Michael Posner Henry L. Roediger III


Eleanor Rosch David Rumelhart Eleanor Saffran Daniel Schacter Roger Shepard Herbert A. Simon Elizabeth Spelke George Sperling Robert Sternberg Saul Sternberg Larry Squire Endel Tulving Anne Treisman Amos Tversky Lev Vygotsky

References[1] American Psychological Association (2013). Glossary of psychological terms (http:/ / www. apa. org/ research/ action/ glossary. aspx)[2] Mangels, J. History of neuroscience (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ psychology/ courses/ 1010/ mangels/ neuro/ history/ history. html)[3][3] Malone, J.C. (2009). Psychology: Pythagoras to present. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. (a pp. 143, b pp. 293, c pp. 491)[4][4] Anderson, J.R. (2010). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.[5] Eysenck, M.W. (1990). Cognitive psychology: An international review. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (pp. 111)[6][6] Chomsky, N. A. (1959), A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior[7][7] Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Neisser's definition on page 4.[8] Balota, D.A. & Marsh, E.J. (2004). Cognitive psychology: Key readings. New York, NY: Psychology Press. (pp. 364-365)[9] Cherry, K. (2013). [[Perception (http:/ / psychology. about. com/ od/ sensationandperception/ ss/ perceptproc. htm)] and the perceptual

process][10] Plucker, J. (2012). Edward Bradford Titchener (http:/ / www. indiana. edu/ ~intell/ titchener. shtml)[11] University of Connecticut (N.D.). Center for the ecological study of perception (http:/ / ione. psy. uconn. edu/ )[12] Temple, Christine M. (1990). Developments and applications of cognitive neuropsychology. In M. W. Eysenck (Ed.)Cognitive psychology:

An international review. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. p. 110[13] Conti-Ramsden, G. & Durkin, K. (2012). Neuropsychology Review, 22, 384-401. DOI 10.1007/s11065-012-9208-z[14] Valimaa-Blum, R. (2009). The phoneme in cognitive phonology: episodic memories of both meaningful and meaningless units.

CogniTextes, 2. DOI : 10.4000/cognitextes.211[15] Berkum, J. Language in action - Mood and language comprehension (http:/ / www. mpi. nl/ departments/ other-research/ research-projects/

language-in-action/ subprojects/ Mood-and-language-comprehension)[16] Martinez, M.E. (2006). What is metacognition. The Phi Delta Kappan, 87(9), 696-699 (http:/ / www. jstor. org. libproxy. clemson. edu/

stable/ 20442131)[17] Cohen, A. (2010). The secret to learning more while studying (http:/ / blog. brainscape. com/ 2010/ 04/ learning-study-less/ )[18] Lovett, M. (2008). Teaching metacognition (http:/ / serc. carleton. edu/ NAGTWorkshops/ metacognition/ teaching_metacognition. html)[19] Kahneman D. (2003) A perspective on judgement and choice. American Psychologist. 58, 697-720.[20] University of Pennsylvania (N.D). Aaron T. Beck, M.D. (http:/ / www. med. upenn. edu/ suicide/ beck/ index. html)[21] Grohol, J. (2009). Efficacy of Antidepressants (http:/ / psychcentral. com/ blog/ archives/ 2009/ 02/ 03/ efficacy-of-antidepressants/ )[22][22] Beck, A.T. (1987). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press[23][23] Moskowitz, G.B. (2004). Social cognition: Understanding self and others. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. (pp. 3)[24][24] Fontaine, R.G. (2012). The mind of the criminal: The role of developmental social cognition in criminal defense law. New York, NY:

Cambridge University Press. (pp. 41)[25] Astington, J.W. & Edward, M.J. (2010). The development of theory of mind in early childhood. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood

Development, 2010:1-6 (http:/ / www. child-encyclopedia. com/ documents/ Astington-EdwardANGxp. pdf)[26] Brainerd, C.J. (1996). Piaget: A centennial celebration. Psychological Science, 7(4), 191-194.[27][27] Reif, F. (2008). Applying cognitive science to education: Thinking and learning in scientific and other complex domains. Cambridge, MA:

The MIT Press. (a pp. 283-84, b pp. 38)[28] Beck, A.T., Freeman, A., & Davis, D.D. (2004). Cognitive therapy of personality disorders (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. (pp. 300).


[29] Baddeley, A. & Bernses, O.A. (1989). Cognitive Psychology: Research Directions In Cognitive Science: European perspectives, Vol 1 (pp.7). East Sussex, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd. (pg. 7)

[30] Thagard, P. (2010). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ cognitive-science/ )

Further reading John A. Groeger. 2002. Trafficking in cognition: applying cognitive psychology to driving. Transportation

Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Volume 5, Issue 4, Pages 235-248 A.M. Jacobs. 2001. Literacy, Cognitive Psychology of International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral

Sciences, Pages 8971-8975 Warren Mansell. 2004. Cognitive psychology and anxiety. Psychiatry, Volume 3, Issue 4, Pages 610 Philip Quinlan, Philip T. Quinlan, Ben Dyson. 2008. Cognitive Psychology. Publisher-Pearson/Prentice Hall.

ISBN 0131298100, 9780131298101 Robert J. Sternberg, Jeff Mio, Jeffery Scott Mio. 2009. Publisher-Cengage Learning. ISBN 049550629X,

9780495506294 Nick Braisby, Angus Gellatly.2012. Cognitive Psychology. Publisher-Oxford University Press. ISBN

0199236992, 9780199236992

External links Cognitive psychology (http:/ / www. scholarpedia. org/ article/ Cognitive_psychology) article in Scholarpedia Laboratory for Rational Decision Making (http:/ / www. human. cornell. edu/ hd/ reyna/ publications. cfm) Winston Sieck, 2013. What is Cognition and What Good is it? (http:/ / www. globalcognition. org/ head-smart/

what-is-cognition/ ) Terry Winograd. 1972. Understanding Natural Language (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ 0010-0285(72)90002-3) Nachshon Meiran, Ziv Chorev, Ayelet Sapir. 2000. Component Processes in Task Switching (http:/ / dx. doi. org/

10. 1006/ cogp. 2000. 0736)

Cognitive science 29

Cognitive science

Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, includinglinguistics, neuroscience, artificial Intelligence, philosophy, anthropology, and

psychology. Adapted from Miller, George A (2003). "The cognitive revolution: ahistorical perspective". TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences 7.

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Outline Portal Category

Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognitionis, what it does and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on howinformation is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory,reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitivescience consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy,neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.[1] It spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decisionmechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. The fundamentalconcept of cognitive science is "that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in themind and computational procedures that operate on those structures."


Principles

Levels of analysisA central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained bystudying only a single level. An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling itlater. One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation. A personcould be presented with a phone number, asked to recall it after some delay. Then the accuracy of the response couldbe measured. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying toremember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process ofremembering a phone number works. Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time wereavailable, and it were known when each neuron was firing, it would still be impossible to know how a particularfiring of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to eachother is needed. The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience says the new sciences of the mindneed to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for transformationinherent in human experience.[2] This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. Studying aparticular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain togive rise to a particular behavior. Marr[3] gave a famous description of three levels of analysis:1. the computational theory, specifying the goals of the computation;2. representation and algorithm, giving a representation of the input and output and the algorithm which transforms

one into the other; and3. the hardware implementation, how algorithm and representation may be physically realized.(See also the entry on functionalism.)

Interdisciplinary natureCognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology,neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology, sociology, and biology. Cognitivescience tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus it too has an objective,observer-independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with the physical sciences, and uses thescientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of humanbehavior. Some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science and prefer to speak of the cognitive sciences inplural.[4]

Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a functionalist view of the mindthe view thatmental states are classified functionally, such that any system that performs the proper function for some mental stateis considered to be in that mental state. According to some versions of functionalism, even non-human systems, suchas other animal species, alien life forms, or advanced computers can, in principle, have mental states.

Cognitive science: the termThe term "cognitive" in "cognitive science" is "used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studiedin precise terms" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused withhow "cognitive" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where "cognitive" has to do only with formal rulesand truth conditional semantics.The earliest entries for the word "cognitive" in the OED take it to mean roughly pertaining "to the action or processof knowing". The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions ofPlatonic theories of knowledge. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is thestudy of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.[citation needed]


ScopeCognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognizedthat cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of themind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, comparative andevolutionary approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophicalconflicts. Another important mind-related subject that the cognitive sciences tend to avoid is the existence of qualia,with discussions over this issue being sometimes limited to only mentioning qualia as a philosophically open matter.Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate theimportance of investigating them.[5]

Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but ismeant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See List of cognitive science topics for a list of variousaspects of the field.

Artificial intelligence"... One major contribution of AI and cognitive science to psychology has been the information processing model ofhuman thinking in which the metaphor of brain-as-computer is taken quite literally. ." AAAI Web pages [6].Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AIis to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which tostudy cognitive phenomena. Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may bestructured.[7] (See the section on computational modeling in the Research Methods section.)There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individuallyfeeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemas, plans, andrules. The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations.One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer withoutaccurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.

AttentionAttention is the selection of important information. The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and itmust have a way of deciding which of this information to process. Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight,meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information. Experiments that support this metaphorinclude the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998). Inthe dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus ononly one of the messages. At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message,subjects cannot report it.


Knowledge and processing of language

A well known example of a Phrase structure tree. This is oneway of representing human language that shows how different

components are organized hierarchically.

The ability to learn and understand language is an extremelycomplex process. Language is acquired within the first fewyears of life, and all humans under normal circumstancesare able to acquire language proficiently. A major drivingforce in the theoretical linguistic field is discovering thenature that language must have in the abstract in order to belearned in such a fashion. Some of the driving researchquestions in studying how the brain itself processeslanguage include: (1) To what extent is linguisticknowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficultfor adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infantsto acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humansable to understand novel sentences?The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning ofwords and whole sentences. Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonology andphonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Many aspects of language can be studied from each ofthese components and from their interaction.

The study of language processing in cognitive science is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics wastraditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty yearsor so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the mainproblems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of. Linguistshave found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they areremarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods todetermine what those rules might be, if indeed rules as such exist. In any event, if speech is indeed governed byrules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.

Learning and developmentLearning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time. Infants areborn with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to uselanguage, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aims to explain themechanisms by which these processes might take place.A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned.This is often framed in terms of the nature versus nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain featuresare innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand,emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. Although clearly both genetic and environmentalinput is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about how genetic information mightguide cognitive development. In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker) haveargued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereasothers (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims arebiologically unrealistic. They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific"facts" about how grammar works can only be learned as a result of experience.


MemoryMemory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of consisting of both a long-termand short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years).We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to storeinformation over short time scales (seconds or minutes).Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative me

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