Contents - Roller, Sibel

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©1996 CRC Press LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Handbook of fat replacers / edited by Sibel Roller, Sylvia A. Jones.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. – ) and index.

ISBN 0–8493–2512–9 (alk. paper)

1. Fat substitutes. I. Roller, Sibel. II. Jones, Sylvia A.

TP447.F37H36 1996

664′ .3--dc20 95-48346

CIP

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No claim to original U.S. Government worksInternational Standard Book Number 0-8493-2512-9

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Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

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Preface

The nutritional need for fat reduction in the Western diet has been recognized for over

a decade. However, a thorough understanding of the technical complexities involved infat reduction in foods has lagged behind. This has constrained work in product develop-ment and, in many cases, has led to the development of less than optimal products.Meanwhile, in response to the needs of the food industry, an extensive number of ingredients has been developed solely for the purpose of fat replacement, using a varietyof approaches and base materials. In addition, some of the well-established texture-modifying food ingredients have been found to be effective in fat replacement. Thus,over 200 ingredients are now commercially available, or are at different stages of devel-opment, that can be used to replace fat in foods. The sheer number of ingredients canbe seen as a measure of the difficulties experienced in matching the multifunctional

characteristics exhibited by fat in foods, and presents product development teams witha rather onerous task. Meanwhile, the issue of fat reduction remains a priority area fromthe perspective of both the consumer and the food industry.

The purpose of this handbook is to provide, in a single volume, as much informationas is practicable on the science and application of fat replacers in food products, includingthe multiplicity of technological, legislative, sensory, and marketing issues involved infat replacement. Due care has been given to provide an international perspective and amultidisciplinary approach. The book is intended not only for food scientists and foodtechnologists who wish to formulate new, low-fat food products based on an understand-ing of the ingredients available, but also for all food industry professionals, including

ingredient manufacturers/developers who seek information on latest developments in theindustry. Academic researchers and students of food science should also find the book of interest. In short, we hope the book will help fill an important gap in the food scienceand technology area.

Part I of the book, containing five chapters, is an overview of fundamental issuesimportant in the development of low-fat foods and ingredients used to replace fat. Thissection includes a historical perspective on developments in fat replacers and a criticalassessment of available technological strategies, as well as chapters on nutritional impli-cations, marketing considerations, the inter-relationships between physical and chemicalaspects of fat replacement and sensory quality, and legislative implications.

In Part II, commercially available fat replacers are reviewed individually and in detail.In a book of this size, it is impossible to cover all the commercial fat replacers availabletoday. We have, therefore, selected a limited number of fat replacers each of which isrepresentative of a group of compounds. The chapters are arranged principally according

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to chemical structure, namely, carbohydrate-based, protein-based, and lipid-based. Sincea large proportion of the commercial fat replacers have been derived from carbohydratematerials, there are several chapters within this group to represent the differentcategories — i.e., starches, various fibers, gums and bulking agents. There is also achapter on combination systems. Combination systems comprise blends of ingredients,the functionality of which develops in situ upon processing, and may be of an interactiveor non-interactive nature. Only combination systems based on interactive blends areconsidered here since systems of a non-interactive nature are merely a sum of thefunctionalities of the different ingredients used in the blend (possibly with some syner-gistic effects). Furthermore, synthetic fat substitutes, which have been developed but notso far permitted for use in foods, are discussed. Among the issues covered in each chapterare: history and use of the fat replacer; production process; chemical structure andfunctional properties; interactions with other food ingredients; nutritional, toxicological,and legal status; and selected examples of food product formulations.

The Appendix contains a comprehensive list of fat replacers classified according totheir basic compositional parameters, with details on chemical composition, names of

manufacturers, applications, etc. This list should allow the reader to look up a fat replacerby trade name, determine its principal composition, and then turn to a chapter in thehandbook which describes in detail the fat replacer or one belonging to the same class.For example, a reader wishing to find out more about a fat replacer called Paselli SA2,when referring to the Appendix, will find it among the starch-derived group of fatreplacers, and described as being a potato maltodextrin. The reader could then turn toChapters 6A and 6B for more detailed information on maltodextrins and their role as fatmimetics. It should be noted that the inclusion of a fat replacer in this list does notindicate endorsement of the product nor does absence from the list have any negativeimplications.

Finally, a word of explanation is required regarding terminology. Throughout thisbook, we have used the term “fat replacer” collectively to cover all fat mimetics and fatsubstitutes. In this context, the term “fat mimetic” is used to denote those ingredientswhich modify the aqueous phase of a food, and hence simulate some of the physicalproperties exhibited by fat. By contrast, the term “fat substitute” is used to denotesynthetic ingredients which are purposely designed to replace fat on a weight-by-weightbasis (mostly with a chemical structure resembling that of a triglyceride) but with aninherent low digestibility, which makes these ingredients non- or low-caloric, and at thesame time stable at high processing temperatures (e.g., in frying). Since fat substitutesso far are not permitted for use in foods*, and this book is intended to be a practical

sourcebook, fat mimetics are given most prominence.Last but not least, we would like to thank the authors of the individual chapters for

their contributions, without whom a book of this nature could not have been written.Their time and effort spent on the preparation of the chapters, and their endeavors toaccommodate our editorial requests, are much appreciated.**

Sibel Roller

Sylvia A. Jones

* Since completing this manuscript, the U.S. FDA announced on January 24, 1996 their approval for the

use of olestra in selected savory snacks.

** Views and opinions expressed by the authors of the various chapters are their own and do not

necessarily reflect those of the editors.

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The Editors

Sibel Roller, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Professor of Food Biotechnology at South Bank University

in London, U.K. Professor Roller obtained her B.A. degree in Biology in 1976 fromHunter College in New York and her M.Sc. degree in Environmental Health Sciences in1978 from the School of Hygiene and Public Health of the Johns Hopkins University inBaltimore. She then moved to England to obtain her Ph.D. degree in 1981 in FoodMicrobiology from Queen Elizabeth College (now King’s College) of the University of London. While remaining at the same university, Professor Roller worked for 3 years asa Postdoctoral Research Associate on microbial fuel cells as alternative sources of energy.In 1985, she joined the Leatherhead Food Research Association in Surrey, U.K., whereshe initiated, developed, and led the research group in the Biotechnology Unit. As Headof the Unit, she was responsible for directing numerous short- and long-term research

projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, the Depart-ment of Trade and Industry, the European Commission, and a range of national andmultinational food companies. In 1994, she was appointed to a Professorship in FoodBiotechnology at South Bank University.

Professor Roller is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.)and is an active member of the Institute’s Technical and Legislative Committee. She isa member of Sigma Xi, the Honorary Scientific Research Society, and is a ProfessionalMember of the Institute of Food Technologists (U.S.). She is also a member of the Societyof Applied Bacteriology and the Society of General Microbiology. Professor Rollercurrently serves on the Editorial Board of Food Biotechnology and has served on the

Public Awareness Working Party of the Bioindustry Association in the U.K.Professor Roller has published over 40 refereed papers and patents and is a frequent

invited speaker at international conferences. Her main research interests are in theapplication of biotechnology to food processing with special emphasis on developingnew and upgrading old food ingredients using enzymes and microorganisms. The enzy-mic modification of food polysaccharides to prepare novel fat replacers, gelling agents,and thickeners is an important focus of her research work.

Sylvia A. Jones, M.Sc., Ph.D., is Head of the Food Product Research and DevelopmentDepartment at the Leatherhead Food Research Association, U.K. Dr. Jones obtained her

B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees in Food Chemistry/Food Technology, including specializationin Human Nutrition, at the Agricultural University of Warsaw. She was awarded herPh.D. degree at Cranfield University, U.K., following research on extrusion cookingtechnology.

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From 1975 to 1981, Dr. Jones was Lecturer in Food Science and Industrial FoodTechnology at the Agricultural University of Warsaw, during which time she also actedas a consultant for several food companies in Poland. In 1981–1982, she was ResearchFellow in the Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences at Queen Elizabeth College(now King’s College), University of London, where she did research on the rheology of emulsion systems. In addition, between 1979 and 1983, she acted as technical consultantfor a number of international food ingredient companies. She joined the LeatherheadFood Research Association as Principal Scientist in 1983, and progressed through SectionManager to Head of Department.

Currently, she leads a multidisciplinary team of 26 scientists involved in research anddevelopment studies in a wide range of food product areas and novel processing methods.Her department comprises five sections, namely, Food Technology, Product Researchand Development, Sensory Analysis and Texture Studies, Nutrition, and Microscopy.Furthermore, during the last 12 years, she has been Research Manager for both theConfectionery Products Panel and the Fruit and Vegetable Products Panel, thus respon-sible for undertaking research on behalf of some 400 member companies worldwide,

and has directed a number of innovative research projects sponsored by the U.K. Ministryof Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, and by the European Union. In addition, over theyears, Dr. Jones has developed and considerably expanded research and developmentconsultancy activities at the Leatherhead Food Research Association; at present, a majorpart of her work is in the form of confidential and proprietary research undertaken forindividual member companies.

Dr. Jones is a Fellow of the Institute of Food Science and Technology (U.K.), and aProfessional Member of the Institute of Food Technology (U.S.). She has been a memberof technical committees of several food industry associations, including the U.K. Biscuit,Cake, Chocolate and Confectionery Alliance, the Food and Drink Federation, and the

Microwave Working Group led by the U.K. Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Fisheries.Her achievements in the field of food research were recognized early in her career whenshe received twice, in 1976 and 1979, respectively, the Rector’s Award at the AgriculturalUniversity of Warsaw, and, in 1978, she was presented with the Minister of Science,Higher Education and Technology Award.

The main research interests of Dr. Jones have continued to be in the fields of foodemulsions, fat reduction, food texture, food rheology, and overall structure/functionrelationships in foods. She has published and presented over 70 papers and patents, andhas been an invited speaker to numerous international meetings throughout Europe, inthe Middle East and in the United States. Her first paper on fat reduction in foods was

published in 1977. Since then, she has maintained her interest in technological approachesto fat reduction, and, for the last 7 years, her major preoccupation in research andconfidential work at the Leatherhead Food Research Association has been concernedwith fat replacement and fat replacers.

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Contributors

David A. Bell

Dow Food StabilizersThe Dow Chemical CompanyMidland, Michigan

Stuart M. Clegg

Food Product Research andDevelopment Department

Leatherhead Food Research AssociationLeatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

Eric Flack

Grindsted DivisionDanisco Ingredients (U.K.) Ltd.Suffolk, United Kingdom

Jaap Harkema

Business Unit Ingredients for Food andPharmacy

AVEBETer Apelkanaal, The Netherlands

William M. Humphreys

Food Ingredients DivisionFMC Europe NVBrussels, Belgium

Sylvia A. Jones

Food Product Research andDevelopment Department

Leatherhead Food Research AssociationLeatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

Pablo de Mariscal

Research and DevelopmentDow Europe, S.A.Horgen, Switzerland

Debra L. Miller

Biobehavioral Health and NutritionThe Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Helen L. Mitchell

Consultant Food TechnologistKent, United Kingdom

Guy Muyldermans

R & D Laboratory

Tessenderlo Chemie n.v.Tessenderlo, Belgium

Beinta Unni Nielsen

Copenhagen Pectin A/SHercules Inc.Lille Skensved, Denmark

Sibel Roller

Food Research Centre

South Bank UniversityLondon, United Kingdom

Barbara J. Rolls

Laboratory for the Study ofHuman Ingestive Behavior

The Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, Pennsylvania

Norman S. Singer

Ideas Workshop, Inc.Highland Park, Illinois

Jane Smith

Legislation DepartmentLeatherhead Food Research AssociationLeatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

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Barry G. Swanson

Department of Food Science andHuman Nutrition

Washington State UniversityPullman, Washington

John N. Young

Market Intelligence SectionLeatherhead Food Research

AssociationLeatherhead, Surrey, United Kingdom

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Contents

PART I: FUNDAMENTAL ISSUES

Chapter 1Issues in Fat Replacement

Sylvia A. Jones

Chapter 2Implications of Fat Reduction in the DietDebra L. Miller and Barbara J. Rolls

Chapter 3

Market Considerations in Fat Replacement

John N. Young

Chapter 4Physical, Chemical, and Sensory Aspects of Fat Replacement

Sylvia A. Jones

Chapter 5Legislative Implications of Fat Replacement

Jane Smith

PART II: FAT REPLACERS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Chapter 6AStarch-Derived Fat Mimetics: Maltodextrins

Sibel Roller

Chapter 6BStarch-Derived Fat Mimetics from Potato

Jaap Harkema

Chapter 7AFiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Microcrystalline Cellulose

William M. Humphreys

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Chapter 7BFiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Methylcellulose Gums

Pablo de Mariscal and David A. Bell

Chapter 7CFiber-Based Fat Mimetics: Pectin

Beinta Unni Nielsen

Chapter 8Microparticulated Proteins as Fat Mimetics

Norman S. Singer

Chapter 9The Use of Hydrocolloid Gums as Fat Mimetics

Stuart M. Clegg

Chapter 10The Role of Emulsifiers in Low-Fat Food Products

Eric Flack

Chapter 11The Role of the Bulking Agent Polydextrose in Fat Replacement

Helen L. Mitchell

Chapter 12

The Use of Blends as Fat Mimetics: Gelatin/Hydrocolloid Combinations

Guy Muyldermans

Chapter 13Low-Calorie Fats and Synthetic Fat Substitutes

Barry G. Swanson

AppendixClassified List of Fat Replacers and Their Applications

Sylvia A. Jones

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