Contents

Preface to the second edition xiii Perspectives on psychological development 17

ContributorsA biopsychosocialapproach 17

xiv Aspects of psychological development 18

1 Pediatric oral health care:Cognitive development 18

the perspectivesEmotional development 21

1 Developmental tasks 23Sven Poulsen and G6ran Koch Man is a social animal 24

How it began: the historical perspective 1 Attachment theory 24

Community responsibility: the populationSocial ecology 25

perspective 1 A holisticdescription of children of

From birth to adolescence: the oral health different ages 25

perspective 1 The preschoolyears (3-5 years) 25

UN Convention on the Rights of the Child: Theelementaryschoolyears(6-12 years) 26

the ethical perspective 2 Adolescence (13-18 years) 27

Pediatric dentistry: the clinical perspective 3 Developmental psychopathology 28

References 4 The biopsychosocialmodel 29

Resilienceand protective factors 29

2 Growth and pubertal development 5 Developmentallines 29

Anders Juul, Sven Kreiborg and Summary 30

Katharina M. Main References 30

Measurement of growth in different phases 4 Dental fear and behaviorof life 5 management problems

Prenatalgrowth32

5 Gunilla Klingberg, Magne Raadal andPostnatalgrowth 5 Kristina ArnrupInfancy 6Childhood 7 Definitions and prevalence of dental fear and

Puberty 7 anxiety 32

Growing pains 8 Etiology 33

Evaluation of growth charts 8 Personalfactors 34

Bone age determination 10 External factors 35

Final height prediction 10 Dental factors 36

Dental age determination 10 PrincipIes of management 37

Disorders of growth and puberty 11 Creatinga safeenvironmentfor the child 37

Intrauterine growth restriction 11 Behavior shaping 38

Postnatalgrowthfailure 11 Desensitization 39

Tall stature and growth acceleration 13 Behavioral techniques in combinationwith

Early puberty 15sedatives 41

Late puberty 15 Emergency situations 42

Disorderswith deviationsin dental maturity 15 Specialized pediatric dentists 42

Conclusion 15 References 43

References 165 Pain, pain control, and sedation 44

3 Child and adolescent psychological Magne Raadal, Stefan Lundeberg and

development 17Gro Haukali

Anders G. Broberg and Gunilla Klingberg Methods of pain control 46

vi Contents

Local analgesia and pain control 47 8 Radiographic examination andIntraoral topical analgesics 47 diagnosis 79Local analgesicsolutions 47 Hanne Hintze and Ivar EspelidMethodsof administration 47

Indications for radiographs in children andContraindications SI

Complications SIadolescents 79

PrincipIes for interpretation of radiographs 79Toxicity SI

Radiographic anomalies and pathologies inPreparation of thepatient 52children and adolescents 80

General analgesia 53Caries and its sequela 80Conscious sedation 53

Indications and contraindications 54 Intervals between bitewing examinations 81

Oral and rectal administration of Trauma to teeth and supporting tissue 82

benzodiazepines 54 Developmental and acquired dental anomalies 82

Routes and doses SS Systemic diseases and syndromes 83

Clinical considerations 56 Treatment planning prior to orthodontics 83

General anesthesia 58 Treatment planning prior to surgery 83

References 59 Intraoral radiographic techniques 83Periapical radiographs 83

6 Dental caries in children and Bitewing radiographs 84

adolescents 61 Three-dimensional object localization

Marit Slattelid Skeie, Lill-Kari Wendt radiographs 85

and Sven Poulsen Extraoral radiographic techniques 86Panoramicexamination 86

Childhood dental caries as a health Scanography 87problem 61 Computed tomography 87Epidemiology of dental caries in children Radiation protection 89and adolescents 62 Patient protection in general 89

Epidemiological data on dental caries 63 Imagereceptorsensitivity 89Dental cariesin theprimary dentition of Beam collimation 89preschool children 64 Lead protection 89Cariesin thepermanentdentition 66 Patient cooperation 90

Caries in children and adolescents in a References 90changing society 67References 68 9 Caries prevention 91

Góran Koch, Sven Poulsen and7 Case history and clinical examination 71 Svante Twetman

Sven Poulsen and Lars MatssonThe importance and concepts of caries

Case history 71 prevention 91Thefamily history 72 How does caries develop? 92General medical history 72 Evidence-based prevention 94Dental history 73 The randomized controlled trial 94

Clinical examination 73 Where to find the evidence 95General appearance 73 Basics of caries prevention 96Examination of theheadand neck 73 Diet 96Intraoral examination 74 Plaque control 98Examination of theoral mucosa 74 Fluoride 99Examinationofperiodontal tissues 75 Fissure sealing 102Examination of teeth 75 Preventive strategies 103Examinationfor temporomandibularjoint High-riskand population strategies 103problems 77 Evaluation of caries risk in individuals 105Examination of occlusion 77 Background data and clinical evaluation

Records 77 of caries risk 105References 78 Riskages 107

Contents vii

Preventive and operative care: a coordinated Indicesfor dental erosion 147approach 108 Follow-up of patients with erosions 147References 108 Preventive policies 148

General aspects 14810 Diagnosis and management of dental Elimination of etiologicalfactors 148

caries 110 Population-based prevention 149Ingegerd Mejare, Magne Raadal and Restorative treatment 150Ivar Espelid References 151

The concept of caries diagnosis 11012 Pedodontic endodontics 153

Detection and assessment of the caries lesionVI/a Schróder

(caries diagnosis) 110

Assessingandgrading lesionseverity 111 Diagnosis of pulp lesions in primary andAssessingand grading lesion activity 111 immature permanent teeth 153

Diagnostic tools 111 Should endodontic interventions be carriedVisual-tactileand radiographic out in the primary dentition? 154examination 111 Endodontictechniquesin primary teeth 154

Occlusalsurfaces (pit and fissures) 113 Stepwise excavation 155Free smooth surfaces 115 Direct pulp capping 156Approximal surfaces 115 Partial pulpotomy 156

Alternative/supplementary diagnostic tools 116 Pulpotomy 157The concept of caries treatment 116 Pulpectomyand root canal therapy 157

Nonoperativetreatment 116 Wound dressingsand tissue reactions 157Operative(restorative)treatment 117 Calciumhydroxideand MTA 157Indicationsfor operative(restorative) Formocresol 158treatmentofprimary teeth 118 Ferricsulfate 158Treatmentplanning 118 Complications (primary teeth) 159

Restorative procedures 120 Follow-up and long-term prognosisRestorative materials: basicprincipIes and (primary dentition) 159handling 120 Pulp therapy in immature permanent

Specific conditions for different age groups 121 teeth 159

0-3 years 121 Stepwise excavation 159

3-6 years(primary teeth) 124 Partial pulpotomy 1596-12 years 128 Pulpotomy 160

12-19 years 131 Pulpectomy 160References 137 Root canal treatment 160

Bleaching of nonvital discolored permanent11 Dental erosion 141 teeth 161

Ann-Katrin Johansson, Góran Koch and Handling the emergency child patient 163Sven Poulsen Pain at food intake 163

Epidemiology 141 Toothache at night 163

Etiology 142 Useof antibiotics 164

Gastroesophagealreflux (disease) 143References 165

Asthma 14313 Periodontal conditions 166

Eating disorders 143Bengt Sjódin and Lars MatssonOther factors associated with dental erosion 144

Drinking habits 144 Normal periodontal conditions 166Salivary factors 144 Primary dentition 166Oral hygienepractices 144 Permanentdentition 166

Lifestyle 144 Bacteria-induced inflammatory periodontalCase history and clinical examination 145 diseases 167

Case history 145 Gingivitis 167Clinical examination 146 Clinical picture 167

viii Contents

. Age-related differences 167 15 Eruption and shedding of teeth 197

Etiology 168 Goran Koch, Sven Kreiborg andTreatment 170 Jens O. Andreasen

Periodontitis 170Chronology of normal tooth eruption 197

Clinical picture 170Primary dentition 197

Classification and epidemiology 171Permanentdentition 197

Chronic periodontitis 172Mechanism and theories of tooth eruption 197

Aggressiveperiodontitis 172Mechanism of shedding of primary teeth 200

Etiology and risk factors 173Systemic disturbances affecting tooth

Screeningand treatment 177eruption and shedding 200

Prevention of bacteria-induced inflammatoryPremature tooth eruption 201

periodontal diseases 178Delayed tooth eruption 201

Mechanical plaque control 178Premature shedding ofprimary teeth 202

Chemical plaque control 179Local disturbances affecting tooth eruption

Gingival recession 179and shedding 203

Gingival enlargements 179Local aberrations in primary dentition 203

Drug-induced gingival overgrowth 179Natal and neo natal tooth eruption 203

Gingival fibromatosis 180Symptoms associated with "teething" 203

Necrotizing periodontal diseases 180Fibrotic mucosa and eruption cysts 204

Traumatic ulcerative gingivallesions 180Infraocclusion ofprimary molars 204

Streptococcal gingivitis 181Retention ofprimary teeth 206

References 181Local aberrations in permanent dentition 206

Ectopic eruption 20614 Tooth development and disturbances Ectopic malpositions 207

in number and shape of teeth 183Sequelae to trauma 208

Goran Koch,Irma Thesleffand Supernumerary teeth, mesiodentes, andSven Kreiborg odontomas 208

Mechanisms of normal and abnormal tooth Ankylosis 208

development 183 Developmental disturbances 210

PrincipIesof tooth development 183 Background literature 211

Molecules regulating tooth development 183 References 211

Disturbancesin toothdevelopment 186Occlusal development, preventive,Genetic causesofdisturbed tooth

16

development 186 and interceptive orthodontics 212

Hypodontia and abnormal tooth shape 187 Jüri Kurol and Bengt Mohlin

Hyperdontia 187 Occlusaldevelopmentof the primaryClinical aspects 187 dentition 213

Chronologyof dental development 187 Malocclusions in the primary dentition 214Dental age estimation 188 Etiology of malocclusionin theprimaryTerminologyand definitions 188 dentition 214Numerical variations in the primary Prevalence of malocclusions in the primarydentition 188 dentition 214Numerical variations in the permanent Space conditions 215dentition 189 Malocclusion in the verticalplane 215Syndromes involving congenitally missing Malocclusions in the sagittalplane 215teeth 189 Malocclusions in the transversalplane 217Treatment of childrenwith missing teeth Treatment need and cost-benefitforor hyperdontia 189 treatment ofposteriorcrossbites 218Morphologic abnormalities 190 Treatment ofposteriorcrossbites 218Odontomas 195 Occlusal development through the mixed to

Background literature 196 permanent dentition 219References 196 Front teeth 220

Contents ix

Lateral segment 220 Vitamin D-resistant rickets (familialMalocclusions in the rnixed (and perrnanent) hypophatasia) 252dentition 221 Celiacdisease 253

Etiology of malocclusions 221 Treatrnent 253The pediatric dentist's approach to Pluorosis 253orthodontic problerns 223 Tetracyclinedefects 254

Prevention of malocclusions 223 Molar-incisor hypomineralization 254

Interceptive orthodontics 226 Amelogenesisperfecta 256

Supervising occlusal developrnent in the Dentinogenesis imperfecta 258

prirnary and rnixed dentition 227 References 262

The primary dentition 227

Early mixed dentition (6-9 years) 227 18 Traumatic injuries: examination,Late mixed dentition (9-12 years) 229 diagnosis, and immediate care 264Young permanent dentition (12-15 years) 230 Ingeborg Jacobsen and Jens O. Andreasen

General decisions for orthodontic treatrnent 230Epiderniology 264

Dissatisfaction with appearance 230Etiology 264

Caries and periodontitis 2310Exarnination 264

Speech 231History 264

Chewing function 231Medical history 266

Temporomandibular disorders 231Extraoral examination 266

The selection of orthodontic patients 231Intraoral examination 266

References 231Radiographic examination 267

17 Developmental defects of the dentalDiagnosis 267

hard tissues and their treatment 233 Injuries to the hard dental tissuesand

Ivar Espelid, Dorte Haubek andthe pulp 267

Birgitta JijlevikInjuries to the hard dental tissues, the pulpand the alveolarprocess 267

Aspects related to tooth developrnent 233 Injuries to the periodontal tissues 268

Etiology of developmental dental defects 234 Injuries to gingiva or oral mucosa 268Collection of inforrnation and treatrnent Irnrnediate care: prirnary teeth 269

planning 235 Enamel and enamel-dentin fracture 269

Anamnestic information 235 Complicated crownfracture 269Extraoral examination 235 Crown-root fracture 269Clinical characteristicsof developmental Root fracture 269dental defects 235 Concussion, subluxation, and luxation

Diagnosis 236 InJunes 269

Classification 236 Irnrnediate care: perrnanent teeth 273General treatment principIes 237 Crown fractures 273

Treatment planning 237 Crown-root fracture 275

Environrnentally deterrnined dental defects 239 Root fracture 276

Localized defects of the dental hard Concussion 277tissues 239 Subluxation 278

Generalized defects of the dental hard Extrusive luxation 278tissues 240 Lateralluxation 278

Inherited defects of the enarnel 244 Intrusive luxation 278

Amelogenesis imperfecta 244 Avulsion 279Inherited defects of the dentin 246 Injuries to the alveolarprocess 281

Dentinogenesis imperfecta 246 Injuries to the gingiva and the oral mucosa 282

Disturbances in calciurn/phosphate Prevention of traurnatic injuries 282rnetabolisrn with relevance to rnineralization Useof mouth guards 282of teeth 251 Pace masks 283

Rickets 251 References 283

x Contents

19 Traumatic injuries: follow-up and Taking the history in children andlong-term prognosis 284 adolescents with suspected TMD 309

Jens O. Andreasen and Ingeborg Jacobsen Clinical functional examination of the

W ound healing events 284 masticatory system 310

Radiographic imaging of the TMJs 311Primary teeth: follow-up and prognosis 286

Treatment of TMD in children andPulpal and periodontal complications adolescents 311following trauma to primary teeth 286

Summary 314Injuries to developing permanent teeth 287

References 314Permanent teeth: follow-up and prognosis 287

Prognosisfollowing infraction and 22 Children with chronic health conditions:uncomplicated crown fracture 288

implications for oral health 315Prognosisfollowing a complicated fracture 289

G6ran Dahl/Of and Luc MartensPrognosisfollowing crown-root fracture 289

Prognosisfollowing root fracture 289 Definition of CHCs 315

Prognosisfollowing luxation injuries 290 Prevalence 315

Prognosisfollowing replantation 295 Increased risk for oral diseases in children

Treatment methods following loss of with CH Cs 316

permanent incisors 295 CHCs 316

Predictors for healing complications 296 Asthma 316

Development of an interactive Cardiovascular disorders 319

Internet-based dental trauma guide 296 Chronic renal failure 320

References 296 Renal transplant 320Diabetes mellitus 321

20 Oral mucous lesions and minor oral Gastroesophagealreflux 321

surgery 298 Eating disorders 321

G6ran Koch Malabsorption 322Celiac disease 323

Oral mucous lesions 298Cystic fibrosis 323

Herpetic gingivostomatitis 298Primar y and secondary immunodeficiency

Impetigo contagiosa 299 states 323Aphthous ulcers 299 ]uvenile chronic arthritis 325Oral candidiasis 300

Epidermolysis bullosa 325Traumatic lesions 300 Bleeding disorders 326Bohn's nodules 300 Malignant diseasein children 327Mucous retention cysts(mucocele) 300 Epilepsy 328Epulides 301 Preventive strategies in children with CHCs 329Hemangioma 301 References 329Lesions connected with common infectiousdiseasesin children 302 23 Dental care for the child and adolescent

Surgical procedures 303 with disabilities 331Extraction of teeth 303 June Nunn and Gunilla KlingbergTreatment of impacted teeth 303

ContextCysts 306 331

Frenuloplasty 306Prevalence 332

Background literature 307 Oral health and disability 333Consent 334

21 Temporomandibular disorders 308 N europsychiatric disorders 334

Tomas Magnusson and Martti Helkimo Autism spectrum disorders: autism,

Asperger syndrome 334Definitions 308 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 336

Epidemiology 308 Tourette syndrome 336Bruxism 309 Other disorders 337TMD and orthodontics 309 Learning disability/mental retardation 337

Contents xi

22qll deletion syndromeFragileX syndromeDown syndromeCerebralpalsySpina bifidaMuscular dystrophyCleft lip and palate

Preventive dental careDietFluorides

337338338339340342342343343343

Pit and fissure sealants

Oral hygiene aidsChlorhexidineDental visits

Behavior managementBody postureOral motor functionReferences

344344344345345346346347

Index 349