Content Analysis of Selected Experts’ Flute Pedagogy Texts ...

Content Analysis of Selected Experts’ Flute Pedagogy Texts and

Comparison with Common Flute Method Books for Beginners

by

Angela McBrearty

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the

Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Musical Arts

Supervised by

Professor Susan Wharton Conkling

Department of Music Education

Eastman School of Music

University of Rochester Rochester, New York

2010

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 2

Abstract

Lehmann and Davidson (2002) indicate that “experts already show those

cognitive and psychomotor adaptations that non-experts are still trying to acquire,

and therefore looking at experts might lead us to better understand where the

novice’s development is heading” (p. 544). For this study, I identified experts’

flute pedagogy texts and conducted a content analysis. The aim of the analysis

was to establish which skills of flute playing, if practiced deliberately, might lead

to expert performance. Principles of expert pedagogy were deduced.

In the second phase of the research, I considered that many children in the

United States have their initial exposure to the flute as a result of school music

programs. I wanted to determine the extent to which beginning flute method

books, which are common resources used by school music teachers, incorporated

principles of expert pedagogy.

Throughout the comparative analysis, I found that some principles of expert

performance were represented in the flute method books for beginners, yet no

method book comprehensively enveloped the principles. Therefore, this document

concludes with a supplement to beginning flute method books, based on the

principles of hand position, finger technique, embouchure, tone, and articulation

that were found in the content analysis of expert pedagogical literature.


Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 6 Expertise ..................................................................................................... 6 Research Aim and Procedures .................................................................... 8

Chapter 2: Content Analysis of Selected Pedagogical Texts ............................... 11 Findings..................................................................................................... 12

The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970) ....................................... 12

The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981). ............................... 15

Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988) .................................................................................. 18

The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002) .............................. 23

Summary ................................................................................................... 25

Chapter 3: Hand Position and Finger Technique .................................................. 33 Hand Position ............................................................................................ 33 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 35 Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 38 Finger Technique ...................................................................................... 40

Chapter 4: Air Stream and Embouchure Placement in the Production of Tone .............................................................. 43 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 46 Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 51

Chapter 5: Articulation ......................................................................................... 58 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 60


Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 60

Chapter 6: A Supplement for Teachers and Beginning Flute Students ............... 63 Hand Position Conducive to Efficient Finger Technique ......................... 63 Embouchure Conducive to Beautiful Tone Error! Bookmark not defined. Articulation ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

References ............................................................................................................. 88


List of Tables

Table 1. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Hand Position ... 26 Table 2. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Posture ............... 27 Table 3. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Embouchure ...... 28 Table 4. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Breathing ........... 29 Table 5. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Tone ................... 30 Table 6. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Articulation ........ 31 Table 7. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Beyond Beginner Technique .............................................................................................. 32


Chapter 1: Introduction

Expertise

What is an expert? In many domains it is easy to recognize an expert: an

Olympic athlete, a Pulitzer Prize winner, a chess grand master. In music,

expertise is often recognized in a concert artist who performs all over the world,

or a winner of a prestigious competition. In other words, performance is the

pinnacle of expertise (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993). Although the

general public often assumes expertise is linked with giftedness, researchers

suggest otherwise. According to research on expertise, two environmental factors

typically outweigh innate ability in the development of expertise. First, parental

support most often determines when a child’s training begins (Ericsson et al.,

1993). Second, deliberate practice is essential to achieve expertise in any domain

(Gruber & Lehmann, 2006).

Why should we examine expertise? Lehmann and Davidson (2002)

indicate that “experts already show those cognitive and psychomotor adaptations

that non-experts are still trying to acquire, and therefore looking at experts might

lead us to better understand where the novice’s development is heading” (p. 544).

The performance of experts provides a temporary pedagogical theory, a

temporary scaffolding from which novices may learn to become more expert

(Berliner, 1986, p. 6). Expert performers are, in some sense, expert teachers.

They instruct using modeling and detailed description that a non-expert cannot

provide (Berliner, 1986).


By studying models of expert performance and teaching, psychologists have

recognized three phases of expertise development. The pre-instruction phase

begins with an individual’s introduction to activities in a domain and ends with

the start of instruction and deliberate practice. The second phase consists of

guided instruction, and the third phase consists of full-time commitment to

improving performance. Whereas many individuals reach the second phase of

expertise development, few make the transition to the last phase (Lehmann &

Davidson, 2002).

Following the development of three groups of violinists, Ericsson, Krampe

and Tesch-Römer (1993) introduced a central concept of expertise: deliberate

practice leads to expert performance. Those who became professional performers

accumulated more practice hours over their life spans. In fact, even at younger

ages, this group of violinists practiced more than the amateur violinists. A similar

study by Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, and Moore (1996) examined the

achievements of five groups of music students, ranging from those who had

dropped out of music performance to those achieving at high levels. In this study,

too, musical achievement was significantly correlated with deliberate practice.

Furthermore, Ericsson et al. (1993) reported that deliberate practice requires

external resources, including parents, teachers, practice environments, and

materials such as music instruments and texts. During childhood, parental

support is a critical resource, because the cost in time and money for a child to

sustain activity in music is often extreme. Supervision during practice is also an

important resource for novices (Gruber & Lehmann, 2006, p. 461). Deliberate


practice improves the speed of operations, smoothness of operations, and reduces

the demands of cognition, but only with appropriate feedback and monitoring

(Feltovich, Prietula, & Ericsson, 2006). As a child matures, he or she becomes

more independent, and capable of monitoring his or her own practice. A third

important resource, at least in the first two phases of development, is an instructor

(Lehmann & Davidson, 2002). Lack of any of these resources severely curtails

development of expertise (Ericsson et al., 1993).

Research Aim and Procedures

Lehmann and Davidson (2002) claim that the research on expertise “opens

up an optimistic view for educators, because it does not focus on innate abilities”

(p. 557). Moreover, the authors indicate, “we can try to adapt insights from this

research [on expertise] to individual and group instruction” (p. 556). Therefore,

using research on expertise as a framework, the aim of the present study was to

investigate resources available for teaching a novice flutist. The first stage of the

research was identification and content analysis of pedagogical texts written by

experts to determine which skills, if practiced, might lead to expert flute

performance. Content analysis of these texts served, as Berliner (1986)

suggested, as temporary pedagogical theory or scaffolding upon which other

comparative analyses might take place.

To determine which texts by pedagogy experts should be analyzed, I

contacted five established professors of flute at conservatories and schools of

music the United States, and I asked each for a list of five recommended texts.

The most commonly cited texts included for use in this study were: The Simple


Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002), The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981), The

Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970), and Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to

the Practice Books (Wye, 1988).

In the second phase of the research, I considered that many children in the

United States have their initial exposure to the flute as a result of school music

programs. I wanted to determine the extent to which beginning flute method

books, which are common resources used by school music teachers, incorporated

principles of expert pedagogy.

Consequently, I asked 30 instrumental music teachers in New York and

Pennsylvania to name the flute method book utilized in beginning instruction at

their schools. The most commonly used method books were: Breeze Easy

(Anzalone, 1979), Essential Elements 2000: Comprehensive Band Method

(Lautzenheiser, Higgens, Menghini, Lavender, Rhodes, & Bershenk, 2002),

Accent on Achievement (O’Reilly & Williams, 1997), and Standard of Excellence

(Pearson, 1993).

Surprising to me, no elementary instrumental music teacher named a text

for beginners written by a flute specialist. Therefore, I supplemented the

teachers’ list of resources with four such texts: AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) is

a British method written by a flutist with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and

professor of flute in Cologne, Germany. A former flutist with the Chicago

Symphony Orchestra wrote the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941), which was

chosen as one of the oldest methods still published and used today. Practical

Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) was written by a former professor of


flute at the University of Idaho and clinician for the flute maker Gemeinhardt. It

was selected because it includes many illustrations as well as descriptions. Mark

Thomas Flute Method, Book I (Thomas, 1988), was developed by a well-known

soloist and retired professor of flute.

I then compared each of the flute method books to the content analysis of

expert texts. I organized this comparative analysis according to some of the basic

principles of expert performance deduced from the content analysis: (a) hand

position and finger technique; (b) air stream and embouchure placement in the

production of tone; and (c) articulation. Throughout the comparative analysis, I

found that some principles of expert performance were represented in the flute

method books for beginners, yet no method book comprehensively enveloped the

principles.

Finally, I created a chapter with photographs that demonstrate principles of

expert performance. This chapter could be used to supplement any method book

aimed at novice flutists. Flute students and flute teachers alike could view it as a

resource to assist in the first two phases of expertise development.


Chapter 2: Content Analysis of Selected Pedagogical Texts

In this chapter, I analyze the content of texts authored by expert flute

pedagogues. To determine which of the expert resources on flute pedagogy

should be reviewed and analyzed for purposes of this study, I surveyed five

established professors of flute at conservatories and schools of music in the

United States. I asked each of them to recommend five expert pedagogical texts.

The most commonly cited texts were: The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost,

2002), The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981), The Art of Flute Playing

(Putnik, 1970), and Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books

(Wye, 1988). Using these texts as a context for expert flute pedagogy, and guided

by the following questions, I set about analyzing the content of each text:

1. What are the fundamental aspects of flute performance? 2. What terms are used to describe aspects of flute performance?

Content analysis is a systematic reading of text and may be either

quantitative or qualitative in nature. Krippendorf (2004) contends, “ultimately, all

reading of texts is qualitative, even where certain characteristics of a text are later

converted into numbers” (p. 16). The author further posits that qualitative content

analysis requires a close reading of texts, even reinterpreting them into new

narratives.

This particular content analysis is text-driven (Krippendorf, p. 341),

motivated by the availability of the expert pedagogical texts. Categorization from

these texts was established inductively, in keeping with other narrative traditions

in the qualitative paradigm. I began with an assumption that the basic unit of


analysis would be the chapter; however, Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to

the Practice Books (Wye, 1988), is a small compendium, so the paragraph served

as a better unit of analysis. Additionally, The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost,

2002) is organized by topic, yet topics are linked in a “refer to” section that

appears at the end of each entry. This linking function provided the mechanism

that led to categorization and content analysis of the Debost text.

I began analysis with a close reading of The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik,

1970), because it had the earliest publication date. First, I categorized the content,

then counted pages and listed terms associated with a specific technical aspect of

flute playing. I also searched the text content for links between one technical

aspect of flute playing and another aspect. Then, I proceeded in a similar manner,

moving in chronological order by publication date through the remaining three

texts. Findings from the content analysis are detailed below and summarized in

Tables 1-7 at the end of the chapter.

Findings

The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970). Edwin Putnik performed with

the Chicago Symphony and the Lyric Opera of Chicago while teaching flute

students at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois. Later, he

taught flute students at Arizona State University, performed with the Gammage

Woodwind Quintet, and performed as principal flutist in the Phoenix Symphony.

The Art of Flute Playing, intended as a resource for both flute teacher and flute

student, was published shortly after Putnik’s retirement from Arizona State

University.


Divided into two sections, Part I covers basic principles for flute playing,

and Part II is dedicated to artist development. Putnik begins by describing flutes:

their kinds, materials, and shapes. There are five pages dedicated to this

discourse. After this preliminary information, the author describes technical

aspects of flute playing as if his readers were picking up the flute for the first

time.

To begin discussion of hand positions, Putnik first illustrates how to

assemble the flute. “Hand Position,” then, refers to the exact placement of hands,

arms and fingers on the flute. Terms and phrases used include hand positions,

finger position, natural positions, support the flute, the flute rests, left wrist and

arm, right wrist and arm, and thumb placement. Putnik discusses natural

placement and natural support, and he includes areas of caution. He believes that

problems incurred initially with hand position can create problems with tone and

technique later in a student’s development.

In the next chapter, Putnik focuses on basic embouchure, beginning with

three pages on embouchure placement. The author uses diagrams to help explain

the terms aperture, air column, stream of air, centered, coverage of lip plate, use

of jaw and intonation. After placement of the embouchure, more is written on

refining technique to produce a characteristic tone quality. Here, Putnik makes a

direct connection between embouchure and tone. Six pages are dedicated to

discussion of tone development using terms such as embouchure, blowing, stream

of air, air column, corners of the mouth, upper/lower lip, mouth formation,

aperture, centered, cover, angle, and jaw. Another eight pages of notated


exercises are added to aid in development of tone, along with several paragraphs

of clarification intended to help produce the second and third octaves.

“Basic Articulation” is the title of the next chapter. The author uses nine

pages of description to clarify the correct position of the tongue. The terms

tongue, attack, lips, and double and triple tonguing are used to describe the

development of this technique.

In the chapter entitled “Breath Control,” Putnik uses three pages to

describe how to breathe properly while playing. The terms employed include

diaphragm, abdominal muscles, steady pressure, support, chest muscles, lungs,

phrasing (in reference to a breath), and vibrato.

In the last chapter of Part I, titled “Beginning Instruction,” Putnik devotes

17 pages to other aspects of flute playing. The subtitles are “Sequence and

Technique,” “Correcting Common Problems,” and “Additional Precautions.”

“Sequence and Technique” refers to putting together hand positions, embouchure,

jaw movement, and fingering to create first tones. Terms used here are tones,

proper breathing, developing embouchure, jaw movement, long tones, octaves,

fingerings, lip formation, and breath control. “Correcting Common Problems” is

a distinctive feature of this text, mainly concerned with issues relating to the

embouchure. Lack of muscular control and physical characteristics that can affect

tone are addressed. Terms used in this section are: placement, physical

characteristics, upper lip and lower lip, off-center, blowing, tone, and air column,

fingering, relaxed fingers, finger action/dexterity, diaphragm, breathing, and

muscles. Finally, in “Additional Precautions,” Putnik mentions bad habits in


breathing, tonguing, and finger motion that might develop. The chapter ends with

a basic fingering chart.

Part II, which covers 52 pages, is devoted to development of artistic

performance, beyond the beginner level. The topic of tone quality is revisited, but

it is discussed in terms of brilliance and size. Articulation is also described again

in terms of legato, soft, and hard articulations and how to produce them. Notated

exercises are included to illustrate and clarify the description. A chapter entitled

“Technical Development” is dedicated to an overall concept of sound. Tone is

described to the performer using terms such as clarity, brilliance, size, capacity

for dynamics, evenness, sustained tones, and quality, tone is described to the

performer. Chapter ten is entitled “Pointers on Performance.” It includes terms

and topics such as rhythm and articulation (syncopation, rubato) phrasing and

interpretation, vibrato, intonation, and ornamentation, along with notated

examples. In the last chapter of this section, Putnik describes performance on

other flutes such as the E-flat flute, alto flute, bass flute, and piccolo.

The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981). Roger Mather was adjunct

professor of music at the University of Iowa from 1973-1996. He was active as

clinician, presenting workshops across the United States and as far away as

Chenyang China at the International Music Festival. Mather is credited with

dozens of articles on flutes and flute playing; in several articles, he was a

proponent of breath support (as opposed to breath capacity) for achieving superior

tone. He has made a number of presentations for the National Flute Association

annual conventions, and he serves on the editorial board of The Flutist Quarterly.


For this study, I analyzed Mather’s three volumes entitled The Art of Playing the

Flute, Volume I: Breath Control (1980), Volume II: Embouchure (1981), and

Volume III: Posture, Fingers, Resonances, Tonguing, Vibrato (1989).

Volume I: Breath Control (1980) is a 79-page volume that gives details

about breathing for playing the flute. The first two chapters are intended to

acquaint the student with the anatomy of the breathing apparatus and increasing

the understanding of air flow, pressure and speed. Terms include lungs,

exhale/inhale, abdominal wall, diaphragm, and control. The remainder of the

book describes goals of breath control and a basic method of breath control, along

with more detailed information such as breathing in long passages. Terms used

include breath supply, strength of sound, rib cage, mouth and nose, tonguing,

reserve air, resonance, tone color, changing pitches, large breaths, shading the

pitch, note endings, and developing muscle tone.

As its title suggests, The Art of Playing the Flute, Volume II: Embouchure

(1981) encompasses 104 pages on the topic of flute embouchure. Mather begins

by explaining why embouchure is difficult to develop and why some lip shapes

might not lend themselves to producing a good sound. The author describes how

the flute works so a reader can understand the function of embouchure. He then

describes a basic embouchure shape including lips, air reed, and air pressure.

Terms used in this section include: lip opening, tapered ends, width, resistance,

embouchure hole, breath control, tone color, raising and lowering the jaw, roll

down, and pucker. Mather continues with an explanation of embouchure in


relation to intonation and achieving the second and subsequent octaves. Chapter

Five includes a chart listing the embouchure changes for different octaves.

The subject of tone is directly connected to embouchure, and Mather

describes tone color and quality of sound. Throughout 101 paragraphs, Mather

specifically employs the following terms: pucker your lips, use various vowel

sounds (u,o,a,eh,e), rolling in and out, tongued and slurred intervals that need

embouchure change, dynamic problems with embouchure, excitement in tone,

floating sound, transparent sound, personal sound, depth of tone, flexibility,

solidity, and authority in performance.

In Volume III, entitled The Art of Playing the Flute: Posture, Fingers,

Resonances, Tonguing, Vibrato (1989), Mather employs the term “resonance” in

reference to tone development. The author intends for the flutist to become aware

of how the lungs are used to increase resonance. He believes that, with good lung

resonance, flute sound becomes stronger and purer. Mather includes such terms

as raising the breastbone, lung resonance, breastbone, yawning, humming,

enlarging the neck, silent singing, the rear and middle of the tongue, jaw opening,

cheeks, opening sinuses, lower Adam’s apple, silent singing, and soft palate.

In the same volume, the section “Posture” includes terms such as freeing

your neck, head, and shoulders, centering, balance, relax, elongating, expanding,

and anchor in ten pages. The next section, “Fingers,” begins with instruction on

how hands support and balance the flute and then describes in detail the ideal

formation of the hands on the flute. Key terms Mather employs are: finger hinges

(the knuckles and how they work), finger independence, finger action, efficient


movement, finger strength, efficient fingers and balance. In the following

chapter, the author includes a more complex description of the height of the

fingers in relation to the keys. The terms used include crisp finger movement,

glissando, key slaps, key travel, speed, slurs, and height.

In 20 pages on articulation, Mather explains the three basic tonguing

methods: behind the teeth, at the lips, and anchored tonguing. First, he describes

how the air is blocked and released by the tongue using terms such as attack,

release, exhale, air pressure, “t,” and airflow. The author suggests that the three

tonguing methods can then be combined for the most variety. Key terms include

tip of tongue, air pocket, response, cracking, anchor, note starts, lip, breath, and

note endings. Mather then describes double, triple, flutter, and Baroque tonguing

with terms such as “t-k,” response, hard palate, syllables, lip opening, puff of air,

and tongue tip.

The last two subtitles to this volume are short and directed toward more

experienced players. “Vibrato” is the first subtitle, covered in four pages with

terms such as pulling, abdominal wall, throat, pulse and expressive. “Projection”

is the next subtitle, and it is covered in five pages of text. The terms sound waves,

playing direction, and aim are used. The book closes with five pages devoted to

stage presence.

Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye,

1988). Flutist Trevor Wye has taught flute at the Guildhall School of Music and

the Royal Northern College of Music. Currently he teaches at his studio in Kent,

England and gives masterclasses and recitals all over the world. Wye’s most


noted publications are his Practice Books for the Flute, each a short volume

dedicated to a single aspect of flute playing, such as tone, articulation, or

breathing. The books include many exercises interspersed with Wye’s concise

explanations.

Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (1988) is

intended to add more detail and topics to the Practice Books. How to find a proper

teacher and how to become a proper pupil are two of the additional topics

included. The book is relatively small, so it is better analyzed by paragraph

instead of by page.

In the opening 15 paragraphs of the book, Wye describes what a student

must do to find a teacher. Flutists are described as junior, middle, and advanced,

and then characteristics of a suitable teacher are stated: the junior flutist should

find someone who is, most importantly, enthusiastic. Wye claims that a middle

level flutist needs more serious instruction. The teacher should be enthusiastic

and play the flute well. An advanced player needs a teacher who is enthusiastic

about playing as well as teaching.

The next four paragraphs are devoted to a description of flute schools.

Wye states that there are nationalistic characteristics of flute playing, but the

French school is the most widely known based on the influence of Marcel Moyse

and his teaching, books, methods, and playing. Although the author states that

schools of today strive for perfection of the flute, he does not describe other

nationalistic characteristics of flute playing.


Thirty-five paragraphs are devoted to the topic of practicing. The author

includes not only suggestions on how to practice, but he also describes when and

where to practice. According to Wye, practice time should be divided into four

parts: tone, technique, studies, and repertoire. In his descriptions of practicing

tone, Wye uses terms such as: close observation, examine, close scrutiny, long

tones, and observance of defects. He comments that technique takes a long time

to improve and employs the terms finger muscles, metronome, fingerings,

practice with different tempos and rhythms, and accuracy and control. Wye

suggests that studies should be practiced in every key, employ a variety of

articulations, and cause the student to notice technical problems or challenges.

Most importantly, Wye admonishes students to perform studies musically. The

author concludes this section of the book with a practice schedule.

Wye suggests that the highest level of flute playing requires correct

elements of technique. Among those elements is posture, and Wye believes that a

flutist should learn correct posture right away. The author uses such terms as

head-body-flute relationship, relaxation, play to the front of the body, bring flute

to your mouth, and face the music stand. Another important element of technique,

according to Wye, is hand position. He uses three paragraphs to discuss the right

hand, including the terms curved fingers, limp hands, turn wrist, and relaxed hand

position. He uses six paragraphs to discuss left hand position and includes the

terms raising the elbow, index finger, side pressure, curved fingers, slipping,

adequate support, and relaxed position. Wye devotes several passages to efficient

finger technique, which he labels “practice technique.” The seven paragraphs in


which he discusses practice technique employ the terms: difficult fingering,

tempo, finger independence, and correct fingerings.

Wye believes that tone is one of the most important aspects of flute

performance, so he dedicates eight pages and twenty-two paragraphs to tone

production. Embouchure is included at the beginning of this heading, which

might be an indication that Wye considers it the most important factor in

developing a beautiful tone. He begins his description of embouchure by

claiming that if a student is achieving beautiful tone, the embouchure must be

correct. In other words, a student and teacher should be guided by what sounds

beautiful and not merely by the appearance of an appropriate embouchure

formation. After this, Wye discusses the embouchure in more detail, using terms

such as direction of the air, size of the cavities in the mouth, nose and throat,

shape of the blow hole in the lips, covering or uncovering the lip plate, projection,

colors of sound, the second octave, raising the air stream, intonation, and playing

softly in the third octave. This lengthy section ends with a diagram of a face that

shows the muscles used in tone production.

Wye uses the term articulation where other authors use the term tonguing.

In five paragraphs, Wye explains the technique of how and where to place the

tongue, and the following terms are employed: tongue forward, lips still, clean

tonguing, and move as little as possible. The author also refers students to his

other books, especially his practice book entitled “Articulation,” for more

articulation practice.


The remainder of the book is devoted to musical ideas but not necessarily

to flute technique. In 15 paragraphs, Wye describes finding a teacher at three

different levels: junior, middle, and advanced. Wye covers practicing in 11

paragraphs, including paragraphs on practice technique that have been counted

already. The author also discusses studies or etudes in seven paragraphs, and in

an additional seven paragraphs he describes an ideal practice schedule. Forty-six

paragraphs are devoted to auditions. This topic covers all types of auditions such

as college, orchestral, and master classes as well as how to choose the repertoire

for the audition and general audition requirements. Shorter topics include the

baroque flute, which is described in four paragraphs, and extended techniques,

which is described in five paragraphs. Concerts, competitions, and recitalists are

described in 32 paragraphs.

Wye uses 72 paragraphs to cover the topic of musicality. Under this

heading, Wye includes expression, phrasing, tied and dotted notes, syncopation,

and styles in music through the centuries. Following the topic of musicality are

some smaller topics that are related to the flute, but not related to performance on

the flute. These topics include concerts and competitions described in 12

paragraphs, recitalists and competitors explained in 22 paragraphs, and the proper

pupil and proper teacher covered in 52 paragraphs. Next is the topic of common

problems in teaching, which is covered in 15 paragraphs. Finally, Wye ends his

volume with a repertoire list, which is a distinctive feature of this text. The list is

in alphabetical order by composer, and it includes titles, composers and publishers

of works for an advanced performer.


The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002). Michel Debost was

educated at the Conservatoire National Paris, and he performed as principal flutist

for the Orchestre de Paris and Orchestre de la Societe des Concerts du

Conservatoire. In his teaching career, Debost succeeded Jean-Pierre Rampal as

Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatoire, and he currently serves as Professor

of Flute at Oberlin Conservatory of Music. Une Simple Flute was published in

1996, subsequently translated into English, and released as The Simple Flute:

From A- Z.

Debost’s information on playing the flute is organized by topic in

alphabetical order. The author describes each topic, summarizes in a sentence or

two, and ends each topic entry with a “refer to” section, directing the reader to

related topics in the volume. Analysis of the “refer to” sections helps reveal the

broader categories of flute technique and musical interpretation around which this

book is organized.

The book includes many topics related to how the fingers are properly

placed on the flute, and desirable efficiency of finger technique. A total of 56

pages incorporate information pertaining to hand positions, hands, keys, “little

devils,” musical groups, fingers, stability, stepping stones, technique, trills,

fingering, finger antagonisms, practicing, and trills.

The next categories to emerge from a content analysis of this volume are

embouchure and tone. Thirteen pages are devoted to embouchure, including the

topics of head joint alignment, embouchure, jawboning, lips, airbrush, and

vibration. In the “refer to” section under each of these topics, the reader is


referred not only to other embouchure topics, but also to topics related to tone.

Twenty-six more pages are dedicated to tone, including the topics of focus,

intervals, muscles, tone, intonation, resonance, and flutes (how tone might be

improved with a different model of flute), tuning, and vibrato.

In turn, Debost’s “refer to” sections link the topic of tone to the topic of

breath. He covers topics related to physiology as well as air speed and direction in

28 pages. Debost also devotes space to explaining the topic of focus, which he

believes can be accomplished only through proper breathing. The size and

amount of breath are directly related to focus of tone. Terms used in regard to

breathing include air column, air speed, appoggio, breathing, center of gravity,

circular breathing, concentration/relaxation, diaphragm, muscles, isometrics, and

yawning.

A final category included in Debost’s book is articulation, which he covers

in 24 pages. The topic of tongue placement on the roof of the mouth includes

terms such as valve, movement from front to back, and French tonguing. Debost

also covers forte and piano attacks in high and low registers using the terms

venting, pulled back, travel, cloudy, air column and release. The topics of finger

phrasing, muscles, and scale games (or exercises) can also be included under the

broader heading of articulation.

Fifty-six pages of Debost’s book are devoted to musical interpretation.

Some of the pages are targeted specifically to stylistic interpretation of grace

notes, appoggiatura, and accents. Other topics are broader and more conceptual,

including hierarchy of beats, images, interpretation, rubato, silence, and style.


Additionally, there were a number of smaller topics that could not be categorized.

These included four pages on the Paris Conservatoire and four pages on rituals.

Rituals are personal habits or routines, and Debost suggests that flutists should be

mindful regarding their rituals. Seven pages are devoted to memory.

Summary

Analysis of expert texts revealed general agreement on essential aspects of

flute pedagogy. Categories covered in all texts include hand position,

embouchure, tonguing or articulation, and tone production. In three out of the

four texts, posture and breathing are established as important skills. Using a

framework of expertise explained in Chapter One, the assumption of the present

study is that these skills are fundamental; that is, if these skills are practiced

deliberately over a period of years, expert performance will develop. Each text

also covered other material, including advanced technique and repertoire, stylistic

concepts, and information on finding a teacher, but there was not general

agreement among the expert pedagogues in these areas. The texts, categories, key

terms, and “linked to” terms are listed completely in Tables 1-7.

In subsequent chapters, the skills listed in Tables 1-7 are connected to one

another, and general principles of expert performance are deduced. I then analyze

flute method books for beginners to determine the extent to which the general

principles of expert performance are described.


Table 1. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Hand Position

Putnik Mather Wye Debost

Category: Hand Position




Key Terms: Placement of hands/arms/ fingers Natural position Hand position Finger position Supporting the flute Left and right arm/wrist and thumb placement Flute rests Natural placement/support

Key Terms: Finger independence Finger strength Efficient fingers Support and balance Finger hinges Finger action Crisp movement Efficient movement Balance, Glissando Key slaps key travel slurs height

Key Terms: Curved fingers Limp hands Turn wrist Relax position Raise elbow Side pressure Index finger Support, slipping, relaxed position

Key Terms: Hand positions hands Keys Little devils Musical groups Eingers Stability Stepping stones, Technique Trills Fingering Finger antagonisms Practicing Trills

Linked to: Fingering Finger dexterity

Linked to: Finger technique

Linked to: Fingering efficiency Fingerings Practice technique

Linked to: Technique


Table 2. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Posture


Category: Posture

Category: Posture

Category: Posture

Category: Posture

Key Terms: Not Covered

Key Terms: Freeing Neck/head/ shoulder Centering Balance Relax Elongating Expanding Anchor

Key Terms: Head-body-flute Relaxation Play to the front Bring flute to the mouth Face the music stand

Key Terms: Shoulders aligned with elbow Head turned Activate support Instrument to lips Chin is resting place

Linked to:

Linked to: Hand positions Embouchure

Linked to: Embouchure

Linked to: Hand positions Support & embouchure


Table 3. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Embouchure


Category: Embouchure




Key Terms: Aperture, Air column Stream of air, centered Coverage of lip plate Use of jaw and intonation

Key Terms: Lip shape Air reed Air pressure Lip opening Tapered ends Width, resistance Tone color, breath control Embouchure hole Raise/lower jaw Roll down Pucker

Key Terms: Direction of air Size of mouth cavity Nose and throat Shape of blow hole Cover/Uncover lip plate Projection Colors of sound 2nd octave Raising the air stream Intonation Playing softly in 3rd octave

Key Terms: Head joint alignment Embouchure Jawboning Lips Air brush Vibration

Linked to: Breathing Tone Development

Linked to: Breath control Tone color Intonation Dynamics

Linked to: Tone Intonation

Linked to: Tone


Table 4. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Breathing


Category: Breathing

Category: Breathing

Category: Breathing

Category: Breathing

Key Terms: Diaphragm, Abdominal muscles Steady pressure Support Chest muscles Lungs Phrasing Vibrato

Key Terms: Anatomy Airflow Pressure, and speed Lungs Exhale/inhale Abdominal wall Diaphragm Control Breath supply Rib cage Strength of sound Mouth and nose Tonguing, reserve air Resonance, tone color Changing pitches Large breaths Shading the pitch Note endings Developing muscle tone

Key Terms:

Not covered

Key Terms: Air speed Direction Focus Physiology Size of breath Air column Appogio Center of gravity Circular breathing Concentration/ relaxation Diapghram Muscles Isometrics Yawning

Linked to: Technical development Tone quality

Linked to: Resonance Tone color Tone

Linked to: Resonance Tone color Tone


Table 5. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Tone


Category: Tone Development




Key Terms: Embouchure Stream of air Air column Blowing Upper/lower lip Mouth formation Cover, Centered Angle and jaw Corners of the mouth Aperture

Key Terms: Tone Color Vowel sounds Rolling in/out Tongue/slurred intervals Dynamics and embouchure change Tone Excitement, and depth Flexibility, Solidity Floating, transparent, and personal sounds Authority in performance Resonances Use of lungs, throat, sinuses and mouth Raise the breastbone Lung resonance Enlarge the neck Silent singing Tongue, cheek Lower Adams apple Throat, sinuses Yawning, humming Jaw opening Soft palate

Key Terms: Close scrutiny/ observation Examine Observation of defects Long tones Direction of air Mouth cavity Shape of blow hole Colors of sound Covering of lip plate Second octave Intonation

Key Terms: Air brush Split by tone hole Focus, intervals Muscles Intonation Resonance Tuning Vibrato Use of different flutes in tone

Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato

Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato Tone color




Table 6. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Articulation


Category: Tonguing/ Articulation




Key Terms: Correct position of the tongue Attack Lips Double and triple

Key Terms: Behind the teeth At the lips Anchored Block/release Attack, release Exhale Air pressure “t”, air flow Tip of the tongue Air pocket Response Cracking Anchor, lip, breath Note starts/endings

Key Terms: Tongue forward Lips still Clean tonguing Move little

Key Terms: Valve Movement Front to back Syllable French tonguing Venting Pulled back Travel, cloudy Air column Release Finger phrasing Muscles Scale games

Linked to: Articulation Double and Triple tongue

Linked to: Double and Triple tongue, flutter, Baroque tonguing

Linked to: Articulation Style

Linked to: Articulation High Register


Table 7. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Beyond Beginner

Technique


Category: Beyond Beginner Technique




Key Terms: Sequence and technique Additional precautions Musical exercises Correcting common problems Bad habits in: tone, breathing, tonguing, and finger dexterity Technical development

Key Terms: Vibrato Projection Stage presence

Key Terms: Finding a teacher Studies and Etudes Practice Schedule Auditions Flute schools Phrasing Syncopation Style Baroque style Extended technique Musicality 18th c music Classical period 19th c music Impressionists Concerts and competitions Recitalists and competitors Proper pupil Common problems Recommended study material

Key Terms: Musical interpretation Grace notes, Appoggiatura Accents Paris conservatory Memory Repertoire Tempo Stress “Little devils” Practicing


Chapter 3: Hand Position and Finger Technique

Efficient and facile finger technique arises from understanding of how to

balance the flute in the hands and maintain natural, relaxed hand positions.

Similarly, physical problems such as tendonitis may arise if natural hand positions

and balance are not realized. It cannot be said, however, that establishing proper

hand positions guarantees good finger technique. Therefore, although the content

analysis suggests that hand position and finger technique are related, the topics

will be treated separately in this chapter.

Hand Position

In the literature written by expert pedagogues, the primary point of

consensus is that the hands need to be relaxed and in their natural shapes to

enhance finger movement and agility. Mather (1981) and Putnik (1970) state that

the main consideration in holding the flute is to support it in the most natural and

comfortable position compatible with finger freedom, steady support, and

freedom to breathe properly (p. 7). Debost (2002) believes that one must be as

comfortable as possible without tightness (p. 103). Also, the flute must be

balanced between the hands in order to hold it properly without pain. Support is

provided by the base of the left forefinger, the thumb of the right hand and the

right little finger. The chin also adds support (Putnik, p. 7).

More specifically, the flute should rest on the first joint of the left

forefinger halfway between the embouchure plate and the left thumb (Debost,

2002, p. 101). The left wrist must be turned in enough to allow the fingers to

reach their keys comfortably (Putnik, 1970, p. 7) and the left elbow remains in a


relaxed position (Wye, 1988, p. 14). After the first three fingers are on their keys

and curved, the thumb should be brought up to its most natural position (Mather,

1989, p. 13). Wye states that the thumb should be high and straight (Wye, p. 14).

When the right hand is in its most natural position, away from the flute,

the fingers are curved, and the thumb is sideways-on to the index finger (Wye,

1988, p. 13). A similar position should be used with the flute in the hand The

thumb supports the flute from below; it’s place is underneath the first and second

fingers, with the flute resting in the middle of the first joint of the thumb (Putnik,

1970, p. 8). If the thumb protrudes excessively, the fingers will be cramped, if it

is too far back, proper support and balance for the instrument will be lacking. If

the thumb is too far to the left or the right, the fingers will lean accordingly, and

they will not be able to move freely (Putnik, p. 7).

Fundamental principles for hand positions can be summarized as follows:

1. Understand that flute is balanced at three points: the base of the left

forefinger, the thumb of the right hand, the little finger of the right

hand.

2. The chin adds support, but there must not be pressure of the flute

against the chin.

3. Keep the hands in relaxed, natural positions; mimic the position of the

hands at rest.

4. Keep a natural curve of the fingers on and over the keys.

5. The elbows should be relaxed, but lifted away from the body, to allow

for free breathing and finger movement.


Commonly Used Method Books

In Accent on Achievement (O’Reilly & Williams, 1997, p. 3) the authors

provide a large, clear photograph that enhances these minimal instructions:

1. The flute should be at a slight downward angle and pushed slightly forward with the elbows away from the body.

2. The edge of your right thumbnail is placed under the flute between the first and second fingers.

3. Fingers remain curved even when not pressing down the keys.

Included in the instruction is an admonition to keep fingers curved even when not

playing. However, this publication omits all information about the left hand. It is

important that the flute is placed on the side of the first finger knuckle of the left

hand. The proper position of the left hand thumb on the B key is equally

important. The flute needs to be balanced in the hands to ensure facile finger

technique and to avoid physical problems such as tendonitis.

In Breeze Easy (Anzalone, 1979), the only assistance offered to the

student regarding hand position comes in the form of photographs (p. 3). Fingers

of the right hand are curved and rest on the keys in these photographs; the right

hand thumb is placed correctly underneath the first and second fingers, which is

its natural position in relation to the hand. The left hand is also displayed in a

relaxed and proper hand position. The fingers of the left hand are clearly resting

above their keys with the wrist turned slightly out to show that the hand should

not rest on the key mechanisms. With these hand positions, the student’s flute

should be balanced properly. However, it would help both the student and teacher

to read even brief instructions about how the flute should be balanced in the


hands. The teacher would then be able to use the balance points as a checklist to

ascertain whether the student’s hands are properly positioned.

The instructions for hand positions in Essential Elements 2000:

Comprehensive Band Method are simple (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 3):

Left hand: Rest your left-hand thumb on the underside’s long straight key. Keep your wrist straight. Your fingers should arch naturally. Rest your fingertips on the center of the keys. Right Hand: Place the tip of your right thumb on the flute’s underside between your first and second fingers. Arch your fingers and rest them lightly on the keys. Put your little finger on the Eb key.

The authors state correctly, “fingers should arch naturally.” Instructions

regarding the left hand indicate “keep your wrist straight,” yet the photograph

shows a bent wrist, and this would be confusing for students. Additionally, the

authors offer no instruction about the balance point of the left hand first finger or

positioning of the right wrist.

A drawing of the basic hand positions in Standard of Excellence (Pearson,

1993, p. 3) shows placements that are generally correct. The written instructions,

however, are not clear in conveying what these hand positions should be:

Step 1 Sit up straight in your chair.


Step 2 Make a C with your left hand so that you form a shelf at the base of your thumb. Rest the flute on that shelf. Step 3 Place your left-hand thumb on the long straight key on the underside of the flute. Move your left hand to the right and rest the flute at the base of the index finger between the knuckle and first joint. Step 4 Place the tip of your right-hand thumb under the flute between the first and second fingers. Step 5 Curving your fingers on both hands, place your right little finger on the Eb key. Your elbows should be away from your body. The flute should be pointing slightly downward.

Puzzling is the direction to “make a C” with the left hand and then rest the flute at

the “base of the thumb.” If a student compares this statement to the second

statement to rest the flute “at the base of the index finger,” he or she might

become more confused and fail to understand how to balance the flute correctly.

This balance is very important to beginners because if the left hand is not

positioned correctly, on those pitches where few fingers are pressed down (such

as a C#), the flute will roll or fall down off the lip. Additionally, the statement

that “elbows should be away from your body” does not necessarily convey that

elbows should be relaxed. Improper positioning or tension in the elbows often

leads to pain in the hands.


Flute Books by Flute Specialists

AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) begins with a discussion on how the flute is

balanced. It is important that these balance points be utilized in order to prevent

physical problems or pain in the hands. The photographs in this volume are clear

and large and leave little to misunderstand. A full photograph of both hands

occurs on page 13 and a close up of the left hand is on page 15. Then the student

has to search for the close up of the right hand, which is not found until page 21,

and picture showing the position of the left wrist is not found until page 44. The

reasoning for this particular layout is unclear.

In the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941) the author presents a photograph

to depict hand positions (p. 4). The fingers look relaxed and gently curved on the

keys. Wrists are bent to allow for more relaxed fingers. Concerning the left hand,

it is unclear where the flute rests on the hand because the reader can only see the

back of the hand. The thumb is completely obscured in the photograph; thus,

correct hand placement is questionable. The right hand is easier to see in the

photograph, and leaves less to the imagination. One aspect that needs to be

clarified in this volume is the position of the right wrist and elbow. It is evident

that the elbow is supposed to be suspended, but it is not clear at what angle the

wrist is to the elbow. If the wrist is bent too much and the elbow lifted too high,

there will be tension in the hand and fingers. Conversely, if the wrist is not bent

and the elbow remains high the fingers will be lifted too high off the keys to form

the appropriate curve.


Photographs depict hand positions in the Mark Thomas Flute Method

(Thomas, 1988, p. 9). The hands are relaxed and the fingers curve naturally over

their proper keys. A photograph depicts both the front and the back of both

hands, and the wrists and elbows appear relaxed and correctly positioned. As

already mentioned, photographs cannot describe the balance points for the flute.

In Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000), Hahn gives a

thorough explanation of the proper playing positions for the hands, and a

photograph enhances the instructions.

Arms: Stand with arms straight above your head. While holding your breath, drop your arms down to your sides - the position your shoulders are now in is the proper position for playing the flute while either sitting or standing (p. 9). Arms are up and away from the body, the flute slightly tilted toward the floor and the head is perpendicular to the flute. The right forearm is approximately parallel to the floor and the wrist is straight and at the same level as the flute. The left arm is forward and away from the body. The right hand and arm are straight and are perpendicular to the flute. The right hand is pushing forward while the left hand is pulling inward. This action allows you to balance the flute in your hands, thus freeing the fingers to do their work (p. 10). Basic hand position: The tips of the (right) fingers are directly on the keys and the forearm wrist and hand are in a strait line - the thumb is under the index finger. The (left) thumb is strait so that the base of the thumbnail is parallel with the top of the keys. The (right) thumb is on the back of the flute, pushing forward. Tips of the (left) fingers are directly over the keys—note the way the index finger cradles the flute (p. 11).

In the photograph and description, the elbows are straight out, parallel to the floor,

and not relaxed, which could lead to pain in the student’s hands. The explanation

of balancing the flute is also questionable. Balance is described in this volume as


using force, using one hand to push forward and the other to pull back. The right

thumb is also described as “pushing forward.” In essence, a properly balanced

hand will have a subtle equilibrium that creates this pushing and pulling. By

being conscious of balance points, the student should not have to be conscious of

creating a push and pull effect.

Finger Technique

Debost (2002) explains that there is no credible interpretation of music

without reliable instrumental playing (p. 241). (Debost here refers to finger

technique as instrumental playing.) Fingers must be musical; sloppy phrasing

comes as much from fingers as from tone (p. 198). Putnik (1970) insists on

correct hand and finger positions and the use of only the basic fingerings to

develop the necessary facility and independence of the fingers (p. 45). For the

freest, fastest action, the fingers and left thumb must maintain their most natural

curve possible while they are lowered as directly as possible onto their keys

(Mather, 1989, p. 19). The ideal in finger action is minimum motion and effort to

close or open the keys (Putnik, p. 45). Fingers must move independently of one

another and be strong enough to raise and lower the keys crisply (Mather, p. 19).

Knuckles of the fingers act like hinges. Each finger’s large knuckle flexes

faster than its two smaller ones. For good dexterity, then, the finger should be

moved only at its large knuckle. The finger stays curved the same amount

regardless of whether it is up, down, or moving (Mather, 1989, p. 19). To achieve

this finger technique, one should try to move the right index finger up and down

away from the flute, flexing it only at its large knuckle, and concentrate on the


fingers’ relaxation, ease of movement, and preserving its natural shape (Mather,

1989, p. 20). An exception to this general rule is the movement of the left thumb.

The large knuckle for the thumb is at the wrist, and the thumb may be flexed at

this knuckle or the next one or both together, whichever offers the most speed

(Mather, 1989, pp. 19-20).

Noise never comes from fingers lifting off the keys but from their slapping

on their way down. A noisy technique, at any speed, is not a sophisticated one

(Debost, 2002, p. 81). Efficient finger movement means that no energy is wasted.

It requires the recognition that fingers need to relax and to reach their keys as

directly as possible. Relaxed fingers must be as close as possible to their natural

shape (Mather, 1989, p. 22).

In summary, for efficient and facile finger technique:

1. Maintain the most natural curve of fingers for free and fast action.

2. Move fingers from the large knuckle.

3. Set fingers on the keys lightly to minimize noise.

4. Fingers must be centered over their keys even when not in use so that

minimal effort is used to open and close keys.

Experts write extensively on finger technique. Although technique is linked to

hand position, it is also clearly distinguished from hand position. It is puzzling,

therefore, that only one beginner book includes any instruction on finger

technique.


Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) contains instruction for

the beginning flutist to keep fingers close to the keys for efficiency and relaxation.

The author also explains how to move the fingers from the first knuckle only to

keep movement unencumbered:

In order to play music of the complexity needed for the flute, you must be able to make the most efficient use of your fingers. The right wrist being level with the flute allows the fingers of the right hand to approach the flute from above rather than below the instrument. This allows the right hand fingers to do their work in the most natural position possible (p. 23). Place your right fingers on a table surface with your thumb placed over the edge, and with your wrist level with the top of the table, tap or drum your finger tips against the table top in a pattern. Try to accomplish the same thing with your wrist below the level of the table. You will notice that when your wrist is below the level of the table it is much harder to move your fingers in a quick pattern. Also you will find that your hand is much tenser in the second position. The tenseness caused by the awkward position of the fingers contributes to unneeded muscle fatigue, which, in turn, can cause you to make mistakes (p. 24). The reasons for the left thumb being positioned in such a way that the bottom of the thumbnail is equal to the top of the keys is to maintain a non-strained relationship between the thumb and the fingers. All fingers and the left thumb move from the first knuckle only (the joint nearest the hand). Fingers should always remain close to the keys. Remember to always press the keys as lightly as possible. Any extra pressure is hard on the instrument, tends to make your finger movement less efficient, and can cause uneven playing (p. 24).

This instruction is further enhanced by suggestions for exercises to be done

without the flute in the student’s hands. The exercises are intended to help the

student feel appropriate movement before the flute is put back into the hands.


Chapter 4: Air Stream and Embouchure Placement

in the Production of Tone

For beginning flutists, no topic tends toward the mysterious more than the

production of tone. Perhaps this is because, whereas the student’s embouchure

formation is observable to the teacher, the air stream that is the foundation of tone

quality remains invisible. As noted in the content analysis, breathing,

embouchure, and tone development are connected concepts. Embouchure

placement influences air stream speed, size, and direction, so it is necessary to

begin instruction with an appropriately sized aperture between the lips, and it is

likewise important that the lips rest easily on the lip plate, neither covering too

much nor too little of the tone hole.

Flute sound is created by the airbrush hitting the outside wall of the

embouchure hole, which then resonates according to the length of the tube

(Debost, 2002, p. 69). When the air strikes the outer edge of the tone hole, part of

the air enters the tube and the other part is dispersed outside. Air inside the flute

resonates and modulates the turbulence produced by the air stream hitting the

strike edge of the lip plate. All particles of air in contact with that sound vibrate,

including air particles inside the performer’s lungs and sinuses. Outside the flute,

air moves only at the strike edge. Some of it is dispersed in the process and

moves away. With good air placement, most of the air is transformed into

vibrations (Debost, p. 89). The embouchure hole presents some resistance to the

flow of air into and out of the flute tube. This resistance helps control the pitch

and gives the sound brilliance, which is necessary for projection and presence


(Mather, 1981, p. 16). Mather characterizes brilliance as a sound that is not too

“dull or spread” (p. 21), has presence, is more “focused and compact” and

“projects” (p. 22).

A student must know how to breathe properly to produce a good tone.

Breathing is a natural act, and breathing for the flute is like breathing for life.

Breath management is a skill to be learned, however, and it is central to flute

playing (Debost, 2002, p. 90). According to Debost, breath management means

controlling the air in reference to phrase length and dynamics (Debost, p. 4).

Putnik (1970) claims that there are two principal factors in proper breathing for

the flutist: sufficient quantity of air, and adequately controlled pressure of support

to ensure a steady air stream (p. 15).

Wye indicates that the degree to which the lip plate is covered most

directly affects the size of the sound and its projection (1988, p. 16). If the lower

lip covers too much of the embouchure hole, the result will be a smaller tone; if

too little of the embouchure hole is covered, the result will be a windy, unfocused

sound (p. 16). Putnik (1970) agrees by stating that if too much embouchure hole

is covered, the resulting tone tends to be small and thin in quality, and if too little

embouchure is covered, an empty or shallow quality will be created (p. 10). He

believes that, on average, one should cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the embouchure hole (p.

10). Debost uses different terminology to express much the same information.

He states that if the distance between the lip aperture and embouchure’s outer

edge is too great one produces a “turbo sound”: large airflow and a hollow sound.

Conversely, when the angle of attack is too closed and the lips too close to the


tone edge one gets the “gas leak” effect: shrill sound, brittle attacks and narrow

dynamic range (2002, p. 70).

Mather (1981) explains that one should know the ideal size and shape for

an embouchure to form the correct one. To do this, there are particular

requirements for the lip opening:

1. There should be flexibility in width, from 3-10 millimeters to be able to play different pitches and dynamic levels.

2. The corners of the lips should be tapered.

3. The height of the opening between the lips should be uniform.

4. The slit should be straight.

5. The slit should be horizontal, or slope down to the right

6. Even when puckered, lips should be able to direct the air downward at angles from 70-45 degrees…the exact angle depends on the pitch, dynamic level and color (pp. 28-29).

Putnik (1970) explains that to produce pitches in the lower register, the

jaw is pulled back, thus directing the air stream downward. The aperture becomes

larger and more elongated (teeth are apart) (p. 35). Wye (1988) believes that

space between the teeth or yawning will create a larger cavity, thus creating a

fuller tone in the lower register. Putnik (1970) also encourages students to

practice using an “ah” vowel sound, which means that teeth are apart.

To shift into the upper registers, Putnik suggests that the jaw should come

forward, thus raising the angle of the air stream. Because of this action, the lips

come forward, and the lower lip covers more embouchure hole. The aperture

between the lips becomes smaller and rounder (p. 35). Debost refers to this

movement of the jaw as “jawboning,” and he asks “Why is it necessary to use


these facial movements to go from the high note to the low or vice versa?” (2002,

p. 144). He contends that jawboning is unnecessary because most intervals in the

flute repertoire are “within the octave” (p. 144). Debost suggests that

involvement of the whole body helps the flutist shift between registers, and he

advises the flutist to: a) “support as low as possible;” b) employ “smooth phrasing

with the fingers;” and c) maintain the “stability of the lip plate on the chin” (p.

144).

In the expert literature, we can find general agreement about how

embouchure placement and air stream interact to produce tone. That expert

agreement can be synthesized as follows:

1. Maintain a steady air stream through breath management and support.

2. Cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the lip plate.

3. Part lips to create an embouchure opening of 3-10 mm, depending on

pitch and dynamic level.

4. Create an “ah” feeling inside the mouth, with teeth apart, for the low

register.

There remains controversy over the best way for a beginning student to shift from

the lower to the upper register. Whereas there is general agreement among experts

that the aperture between the lips becomes smaller and the air moves faster, there

is disagreement about whether the jaw should be involved in the shift.


In Accent on Achievement (O’Reilly & Williams, 1997, p. 4), authors

suggest rolling the lip plate down so that the lower edge of the embouchure hole


is on the edge of the lower lip. This is a good, succinct description of how to

achieve placement. Likewise, looking in a mirror to see that only half of the

embouchure hole is covered is a useful technique for beginning students.

1. Stick your lower lip out slightly as if you are pouting.

2. Remove the head joint and with the open end pointing to the right, place the lower edge of the embouchure hole on the lower edge of your lower lip.

3. Without changing the placement on your lip, roll the head joint

away so that you are blowing directly across the embouchure hole.

4. Firm the corners of your mouth, allowing the very center of your lips to feel as if you are saying “who.”

5. If you look in a mirror, you will see only half of the embouchure

hole.

6. Practice taking a full breath, filling the bottom of your lungs so that your stomach expands. Then fill the top of your lungs without raising your shoulders. Always using a full breath while playing helps to produce long, full tones.

7. Using only the head joint, form an embouchure and start blowing

a focused stream of air by whispering “doo,” feeling as if you are holding back some of your breath. After you’ve made a tone, try placing your right hand over the open end of the head joint to produce a lower pitch.

8. Next produce several notes on one breath by whispering “doo-

doo-doo,” being sure that your tongue is behind your teeth.

9. Produce as many notes as possible on one breath, always feeling you are holding back some breath. As you practice, you will learn to focus the air more efficiently to produce longer tones.

In contrast, the statement that the student should “stick your lower lip out as if

pouting” is not helpful in that there is no further explanation of why this should be

done or what to do with the “pout” once it is achieved. Firming the corners of the

mouth is both explained in the text and presented in the photograph; however, the


corners of the lips in the photograph look very tight, as opposed to firm, which if

imitated, would lead to unnecessary muscle tension and rough, inflexible tone

quality.

Although the instruction to blow “directly across the embouchure hole” is

a good initial introduction to flute tone production, a better explanation of how

much air is blown across and how much air is blown into the flute would be more

appropriate. Even a beginning student needs a basic understanding that the

various registers of the flute require the air to be directed differently across the

embouchure hole.

Breathing methods are controversial and generally left up to individual

instructors, yet these author addresses breathing in a simple manner. A

characteristic tone is focused, which is explained here as “always feeling you are

holding back some breath,” and “focus the air more efficiently to produce longer

tones.” Perhaps a longer explanation of breathing and how to hold back air would

be effective. Finally, lip and teeth spacing are not addressed.

Breeze Easy (Anzalone, 1979) has no written explanation of embouchure

formation or of tone production, but it does include a photograph that shows a

proper embouchure (p. 3). In that photograph, one can see that the head joint of

the flute is placed on the bottom part of the lip, and the head is straight, not

looking down or tilted to the side. This correctly demonstrates the relationship of

the performer’s head to the head joint of the flute. A photograph can be a great

help when describing proper flute playing technique, but without the clarification

that text provides, a student might be misled in developing appropriate


embouchure formation. Here, it is unclear how much of the lip plate is covered

because one cannot see any part of the lip plate in the photograph. Additionally,

in this photograph, the head joint looks slightly tilted in toward the lips. This

should not be encouraged with a beginning student. Lip and jaw spacing, and air

flow across and into the embouchure hole are not included in this text.

The authors of Essential Elements 2000 (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 2)

introduce embouchure placement correctly, because a good embouchure is

centered on the lips.

1. Hold the end of the head joint in your left hand. Cover the open end with the palm of your right hand.

2. Rest the embouchure plate on your bottom lip. Center the embouchure hole in the center of your lips. Check by touching the embouchure hole with the tip of your tongue.

3. Gently roll the head joint forward so that approximately one

quarter of the embouchure hole is covered by the lower lip.

4. Keep the upper and lower teeth spaced slightly apart.

5. Draw the corners of your mouth straight back and relax your lower lip.

6. Make a small opening in the center of your lips. Blow air partly into and partly across the embouchure hole.

7. Practice regularly in front of a mirror. Roll the head joint in or out

to find the embouchure position that produces your best clear and full tone.

The authors include instructions for covering the lip plate, keeping teeth slightly

apart and blowing partly across and partly into the flute. There are elements

missing from this explanation, however. When a student rolls the lip plate down

after centering the embouchure hole on the lips, the lip plate will be too high and


will need to be adjusted slightly lower. Further, when forming the embouchure,

“drawing the corners of the mouth straight back” generally produces a tight and

sharp tone, and this should be avoided.

Standard of Excellence (Pearson, 1993, p. 3) begins with the embouchure

correctly positioned on the flute:

Step 1 Remove the head joint and place your right hand over the open end. Shape your mouth as if saying “whee-too.” Step 2 Place the head joint on your chin and position it so that the edge of the embouchure hole is at the bottom of the lower lip. The corners of the lower lip should rest against the embouchure plate. Step 3 Cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the embouchure hole with your lower lip. Take a full breath of air and blow over the hole using the syllable “doo” to play a long steady tone. Step 4 Assemble the head joint to the body. Position your flute to the right of your body, with the flute pointing slightly downward. Step 5 Take a full breath of air and play a long steady tone.

The author accurately explains that when the student forms the embouchure and is

ready to play, the student should blow gently across the tone hole. While not

stated directly here, playing “a long steady tone” may assist the student in

developing breath control, thus positively affecting tone quality. The photograph

in this volume generally enhances the written instruction.


A confusing aspect of this text occurs at the outset with the statement

“shape your mouth as if saying ‘whee-too.” It is unclear how this is beneficial,

since the two syllables require different lip formations. Additionally, the

statement to “rest the corners of the lips against the embouchure plate” implies

that the student should pucker the lips forward and down, which is a confusing

direction for a beginner. Again, teeth and lip spacing are not addressed in this

volume.


The written instructions in AMA 2000 (Winn, 2000) are clear and concise.

These instructions allow the teacher to help the students make individualized and

appropriate adjustments:

• Hold the head joint without covering the end.

• Place the center of the hole in the middle of your bottom lip.

• Breathe in after you have placed the mouth piece on your lip. (p. 6)

• Cover 1/3 of the hole with your lower lip.

• Shape your lips as you would for “u” as in tuba

• Blow gently against the opposite edge of the mouthpiece.

• Your teacher will help you find the best position (p. 7).

• The embouchure for a low note should look like this (The

picture shows approximately 1/3 of the hole is covered.) (p. 10).


Higher Tones:

The trick to the 2nd 8va is to change the embouchure very little. As soon as you have a good sound, don’t change the embouchure - just go from note to note, remember how the embouchure feels and that will help the sound (p. 40).

• Higher tone - push the bottom jaw a little forward (p. 10).

• Make the hole between the lips a little bit smaller as you bring the lips forward.

• You may have to blow a little harder - to make the air stream

quicker.

• Don’t let the mouthpiece roll inwards.

• Be careful that the corners of the mouth are relaxed—particularly when you play a high note (p. 11).

The instruction “blow gently against the opposite edge of the mouthpiece,”

correctly implies the split air stream necessary for good tone production. A

photograph (p. 7) shows clearly how a low tone is produced; the lips blow the air

in a downward direction without covering too much of the lip plate hole. The

explanation of the mechanics of tone production in the upper register is accurate,

and the explanation is enhanced by a clear photograph (p. 10). Although this

method book has much to recommend it, it still omits any explanation of lip and

jaw opening. It might also be helpful to include a general discussion of tone

quality along with upper register instruction.

In the forward material of the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941, p. 2), the

author states that the method of presentation has been left to the instructor who,

through his frequent contact with the pupil, is best qualified to determine the most

efficient procedure. Instruction on embouchure formation is as follows:


Put head joint in your two hands, the end nearest the embouchure, in the palm of your left hand the other side in the right. Close the two lips lightly and spread them a little as you would when smiling. Place the embouchure at your lower lip so that you feel the rim of it at a point on the red of the lip just above the white. The center of the rim should be about at the center of the lip. This is not a fast rule. Some experimenting as to position is necessary. Take a good breath and close your lips so as to stop the air from getting out. At the same moment place the tip of the tongue at the edge of the upper teeth. Now withdraw the tongue slightly. Unless willfully held back, the air will flow out through an automatically made opening of the two lips. The opening should be rather small in order to make the air last as long as possible. Direct the air against the outer edge of the embouchure. The splitting of the air-stream when directed against the outer edge of the embouchure produces the sound. It will take some experimenting. Try to get a better sound by turning the embouchure in or out; covering a little more of the hole or a little less. After the air-stream is all spent, repeat the operation. Don’t take too deep a breath and don’t press the headpiece hard against your jaw. Only the lips are slightly drawn. Always play with a relaxed position. That applies to hands, wrists, arms, throat and other facial muscles; only the lips are slightly drawn (p. 3).

One of the best aspects of this instruction is the admonition, “don’t press the head

piece hard against the jaw.” This guards against one of the most common

problems of beginning flutists. Another beneficial instruction is to “relax the

muscles, including facial muscles.” This implies relaxing not just the

embouchure, but also the neck, hands and arms.

A photograph in this volume shows a very small lip opening, and

accompanying text explains, “the opening should be rather small.” An aperture as

small as the one in the photograph, however, would inhibit any student’s tone

quality. Further, the photograph shows an embouchure that is slightly off center.

While this can occur with some students because of a particular lip shape, it

should not be depicted as the norm for all students. Perhaps several different


embouchures could be shown to remind students that not all faces are alike. Eck

offers a comprehensive explanation for how to produce a “beautiful” tone. The

author also writes that a student should keep the embouchure relaxed and make

the air stream last as long as possible. The explanation would be enhanced by

instruction on lip opening, teeth spacing and air direction.

The text and photograph in the Mark Thomas Flute Method (Thomas,

1988) present correct embouchure formation:

The most important part of flute playing is correct embouchure. The embouchure should be relaxed though controlled with the upper lip muscles not the corners of the lips directing the airflow over the lip plate. Never smile while playing for smiling causes needless fatigue of the facial muscles. Keep teeth as far apart as possible while playing, just as a fine singer does- to provide a more open cavity for better resonance. Gently place the lip plate of the flute on the natural indentation directly under your bottom lip allowing the lip to cover approximately half of the opening. Do not press too hard. Draw the corners slightly down (do not smile). A good note to begin on is A4. Try to keep as much of the lower lip in contact with the lip plate as possible as you blow and feel the upper lip stretch slightly in the center across the upper teeth, causing the air stream to be at a slightly downward angle (p. 9). For middle register notes, move your jaw forward while using less upper lip pressure. This adjustment will allow the air angle to flow at a slightly higher (more across) angle than previously used for the low register. If you closed your teeth while playing in the middle register (don’t do it) they would be aligned evenly (p. 9). The third octave or upper register is undoubtedly the most difficult. Continue to move your jaw forward and more open as if singing “ah” and firm the upper lip as you did in the low register. The air stream once again will be directed downward, as in the low register, but will be more forward and down. (Think of yawning.) Keep as relaxed as possible (p. 10).


Thomas explains the relaxed but controlled embouchure and jaw opening that

promote resonance in tone production. Within this explanation, however, is the

controversial idea of moving the jaw for the different registers. For example, the

instruction for the third register states that the jaw should move forward and the

lips should be firm while at the same time the air stream should be directed

downward. Those two statements appear to contradict each other, and the

technique would be difficult for a beginner to understand.

Concerning embouchure formation and tone production, Practical Hints

on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) is perhaps the most comprehensive of all the

method books reviewed.

Sound is produced on your flute when an air stream is directed across the embouchure hole in a manner that causes 50% of the air to go into the flute while the other 50% continues across (p. 11). Different lip shapes will produce different angles of air stream but as long as the air stream is directed in such a way that 50% of the air stream goes into the flute equally resonant sounds will be produced (p. 12). The easiest way to achieve this feeling you will have when playing the flute is to place your forefinger across your chin and make a pouting motion with your mouth - pushing your lower lip out against your finger. Now taking the head joint of the flute in both hands but with the open end of the flute covered place it in a position that allows your lower lip to touch the flute just as it touched your finger. Begin the position with your lips closed then allow your lips to be pushed slightly open by blowing through them (syllable poo). If you have trouble producing a tone this way try turning the head joint until you find the point where the air stream is at the correct angle. If you still cannot produce a sound try raising or lowering the head joint until a sound is produced (p. 12). In order to become an accomplished flutist you must work on refining your sound into a beautiful tone. It must be free from excessive amounts of air and must be consistent throughout all registers. To accomplish this you must practice extremely carefully, listening to each note you produce (p. 14).


The shape and size of the hole formed by your lips directly influence the quality of your sound. When playing the note, stand in front of a mirror and try changing the shape of your embouchure hole. Listen to the changes in the sounds being produced. Once you are satisfied that you are playing the note as beautifully as possible try slurring one half step lower. You will discover that in order to do this you must slightly change your embouchure. As you become accomplished in the production of tone, check yourself in the mirror. You should be able to see the following things:

a. There is a slight change of embouchure for each note of the flute.

b. High notes require a more forward placement of the lips.

c. The lowest notes require that the lips be “pulled back.”

d. The rounder the hole the more hollow the sound.

e. The thinner the hole the more edgy the sound.

f. The hole size decreased by approximately ¼ for each octave change.

g. The surface of the lower lip forms a straight line against the embouchure plate (p. 15).

The most important change that must occur in order for you to play up an octave is that the hole formed by your lips must move closer to the front edge of the embouchure hole. Your lips must extend forward which occurs by increasing the pout already in your lower lip, which helps bring the corners of your mouth forward. At the same time the hole made by the shape of your lips becomes smaller. If you make the correct change in your embouchure no more air will be required for the upper registers than for the lower. Be sure to use the motion of your lips to make the embouchure change and not simply blowing harder for the upper notes (p. 13). Once you have learned the motion of the lips required to produce the octave you will be ready to exaggerate the motion yet further, which will enable you to produce, with no change in fingering, a 5th above the octave (the harmonic) (p. 13). One of the purposes of the octave-fifth exercise is to force the embouchure into the correct position for performing notes of the high register. If your embouchure is in the correct position for the


harmonic note, when you change for the correct fingering for the note you will produce a note of the third register that is both under control and in tune (p. 14).

This detailed explanation of embouchure and tone might be a great help for the

teacher, but it could be too much explanation for the student. The author correctly

explains how much air should go into the flute and how much should be blown

across it, and that this split airflow is the basis for a “resonant sound.” The

instruction to “keep the lips closed then allow your lips to be pushed slightly open

by blowing through them” describes a relaxed embouchure. The checklist for

tone is a good reminder, and the instructions on producing tone in the upper

register are likewise beneficial.

The photograph that accompanies this instruction shows a student pulling

the corners of the lips back tightly, however. In this case, the photos appear to

contradict the written instruction. The author includes an exercise for building

tone with the harmonic series; however, this exercise could be enhanced with

another checklist.


Chapter 5: Articulation

Refined flute playing relies on ability to articulate superbly. The nuances

of articulation go far beyond simple staccato or legato. There is an almost

unlimited degree of shading between the two that greatly enhances the expression

of the musical phrase by an experienced performer. As demonstrated in the

content analysis, experts agree that articulation works in this manner: a tone is

started by establishing requisite air pressure in the mouth cavity, then releasing

this air by means of the tongue (Putnik, 1970, p. 12). The tongue works as a

valve that stops the air until it is pulled back (Debost, 2002, p. 249). It also works

to form an inaudible tah, encouraging a more open throat in the attack. The

tongue is used to start notes not stop them. Simply interrupting the air stream

should stop the note (Putnik, p. 12).

Experts differ on where the tongue should be placed inside the mouth

cavity for clean and efficient articulation. Wye (1988) states that a student should

place the tongue against or between the teeth. He suggests that moving the

tongue further back in the mouth delays the tone (p. 22). Putnik (1970) gives a

more specific explanation by stating that the tongue should touch the gum just

above and behind the upper front teeth. Only the tip of the tongue is used in this

basic attack (p. 12). If the presumption is as Putnik describes then the tongue

form is from front to back, not as a hammer from the back to the front (Debost,

2002). Debost gets around the controversies of articulation by saying that it is of

little consequence where the tongue is placed. There is not one fixed position (p.

167).


Expert literature is more consistent on the relationship between

articulation and tone production: the aim is to let the air pressure build up behind

the tongue until the release (Mather, 1981, p. 54). In so doing, one must set the

embouchure completely for the note well before the air is released (p. 62). When

releasing the air for the initial pitch in a phrase, attention must be transferred from

the tongue action to making the air flow through the lip opening at full speed (p.

63). The lips should be still (Wye, 1988, p. 22). If a tone is attacked with too

much vigor, it may so overload the flute with air that the musical sound cannot

start until the pressure has dropped to normal for the body of the note (Mather, p.

55). For each pitch later in the phrase, the tongue simultaneously stops and

releases the air while the player exhales continuously (p. 54). For fast tonguing,

the action must be only at the tip of the tongue: if the base of the tongue moves

unduly, it will interfere with the air stream causing untidiness and ugly

articulation (Wye, p. 22).

In summary, experts agree on these basic articulation procedures:

1. Place the tip of the tongue above and behind the upper front teeth.

2. Use the tongue as a valve that releases the air.

3. Let air pressure build up behind the tongue until the release.

4. Move the tongue as quickly and neatly as possible.

5. Keep the air speed up after the release of the air.

6. For more rapid tonguing, concentrate the action at the tip and top of

the tongue.



In Accent on Achievement, authors mention articulation briefly (O’Reilly

& Williams, 1997, p. 4):

Start blowing a focused stream of air by whispering “doo”. Produce

several notes on one breath by whispering “doo-doo-doo” being sure

that your tongue is behind your teeth.

This method begins articulation without the encumbrance of the instrument,

which aids both student and instructor in listening for a correct articulation.

However, this instruction fails to bring the articulation exercise back to the flute.

Essential Elements 2000 (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 2) also provides

only minimal instruction on articulation:

Slowly whisper “too” as you gradually exhale air into your palm.

Your tongue is like a faucet or valve that releases the airstream.

The analogy comparing the tongue to a valve or faucet is apt for beginning

flutists. The syllable “too” is adequate for beginners, although it may make the

tongue curve unnecessarily in the mouth. Like other method books, this

instruction begins articulation without the instrument.


AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) includes succinct explanation and helpful

photographs of tongue placement:

Begin each note with the tongue. You must move the tongue in exactly the same way as you would say Ta or the French word Tu (p. 15). You must move the tongue backward from behind the upper teeth (p. 19).


It is puzzling, however, that the photograph and explanation of tongue placement

occur four pages after the initial explanation of articulation. Additionally, the

statement to “move the tongue backward from behind the upper teeth” might

imply inefficient movement at the base of the tongue, which should be avoided.

The only statement in the Eck Method for flute (Eck, 1941) regarding

articulation is an accurate one:

Every note not slurred should be started with a definite attack, not by just blowing into the instrument (p. 4). Thomas advocates using only the head joint to practice articulation in his

Flute Method (1988, p.11). This frees the student from worrying about finger

placement and allows him or her to think about embouchure and articulation:

Attack each note by using the syllable “du”. Practice without the flute first, by blowing a small stream of air while saying the syllable.

Using the syllable “du” is not incorrect, but beginning with “ta” or “tu” moves the

tongue forward and creates a sharp, clear attack.

In Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 1983), there is a

comprehensive explanation of articulation:

Start each note with your tongue using the syllable tu or du. Two basic tongue motions that can accomplish the enunciation of the syllable, tip-tonguing or anchor tonguing. In tip-tonguing you speak the syllable du with the tip of your tongue touching the hard palate just behind your upper front teeth. In anchor-tonguing the tip of the tongue anchors behind the lower teeth at the front of your mouth. In order to produce the syllable du in this manner the tongue is arched up so that the middle part of your tongue touches the hard palate in the same place that the tip of your tongue touches in tip-tonguing. Use whichever technique works for you (pp. 20-21). The tongue functions as a release valve for your air. The tongue should get out of the way in order to let the air flow through. The movement of the tongue should be as slight as possible (p. 21).


Anchor tonguing, however, seems impractical for beginning students. Anchoring

the tongue behind the lower teeth in the mouth and then using the middle of the

tongue to articulate would be too complicated and difficult for the beginner. It is

an acceptable method for advanced flutists who would use it for a particular kind

of expression. Additionally, there is a problem with Hahn’s terminology, because

in tip-tonguing, the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, rather than the hard palate.


Chapter 6: A Supplement for Teachers and

Beginning Flute Students

As can be seen throughout the previous chapters, many facets of flute

method books for beginning players are accurate and useful. Nevertheless, no

method book for beginning flute players completely envelops all principles of

expert playing. Therefore, this document concludes with a supplement to

beginning flute method books, based on the principles of hand position, finger

technique, embouchure, tone, and articulation that were found in the content

analysis of expert pedagogical literature.

Hand Position Conducive to Efficient Finger Technique

Experts agree that hands should remain in natural positions. Generally,

right hand position should be learned first. Then, the right hand can keep its

position and the flute head joint can rest on the left shoulder while learning the

left hand position.

Right hand 1. Shake out the right hand down by your side to relax it.

2. Now let your hand set naturally on a flat surface. 3. Notice that the fingers have a natural curve and the thumb falls naturally

underneath the first and second fingers. This is how it should look on the

flute—fingers with a gentle curve and the thumb naturally positioned

underneath the first and second fingers.

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Articulation

Articulation can be difficult to teach to a beginning flute student because

the teacher cannot see inside the student’s mouth to examine where the tongue

strikes the roof of the mouth. As can be seen in the literature written by expert

pedagogues, there are several articulations that are equally appropriate for a

beginning flute student.

1. Run your tongue back and forth along your hard palate. See how far forward

you can move the tip of your tongue without touching your front teeth.

2. Say “tah,” and be sure that the tip of your tongue does not touch your front

teeth.

3. Take a breath and place your tongue in the correct spot to say “tah.” Let your

tongue act as a valve to release the air when you say “tah.”

4. The action of your tongue should always be light, never explosive or heavy.

5. Your teacher should listen carefully to be sure you are not making extra

“thunk” noises with your tongue, caused by placing the tongue too far back in

the mouth.

6. Say ““tah” in this spot.

Content Anallysis Flute Peddagogy p. 87


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Debost, M. (2002). The simple flute: From A-Z. New York, NY: Oxford

University Press.

Eck, E. (1941). Eck method for flute. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate

practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological

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Lehmann, A.C., & Gruber, H. (2006) Music. In K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, R.R.

Hoffman, & P.J. Feltovich (Eds.). The Cambridge handbook of expertise

and expert performance (pp. 457-470). New York, NY: Cambridge

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Mather, R. (1981-1989). The art of playing the flute (Vols. 1-3). Iowa City, IA:

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O’Reilly, J., & Williams, M. (1997). Accent on achievement. New York, NY:

Alfred Music Company.

Pearson, B. (1993). Standard of excellence. San Diego, CA: Neil Kjos Music

Company.

Putnik, E. (1970). The art of flute playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard Music. Sloboda, J.A., Davidson, J.W., Howe, M.J.A., & Moore, D. (1996). The role of

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Journal of Psychology, 87, 287-309.

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Music Company.

Winn, R. (1998). AMA flute 2000. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Wye, T. (1988). Proper flute playing. London: Novello.

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